Untitled - Ministerio del Medio Ambiente

Chapter 1
Air
Pollution
1] Background
49
2] Diagnosis: Air Quality
52
3] Causes: Air Pollutant Emissions
60
4] Actions: Air Pollution Control
67
chapter 1 air pollution
Air Quality
PM2.5
Management
Tools
Hospital
Admissions
Heart attacks
Dysrhythmia
Ischemic heart disease
Chronic bronchitis
Pneumonia
Asthma attacks
}
Maximum Permissible of PM 2.5:
20 µg/m3 annual average
Prevention and Decontamination Plans
Emission standards
Consumer information
Voluntary agreements
}
50
In Chile, at least
10 million
people
are exposed to an annual average
concentration of PM2.5 higher than
20 micrograms per cubic meter.
49
Introduction
Abstract
Air quality is one of the environmental issues that most directly affect the population. Despite the efforts and different
tools used, the country does not yet comply with the limits
established in the current primary and secondary standards.
In this context, and given the complexity of the issue, in 2010
the Ministry of the Environment began the preparation and
implementation of the Clean Air Program, which seeks to improve air quality in the main urban areas of the country, thus
incorporating a national approach to manage this issue.
Background 1
Several national and international studies have shown a link between the
concentration level of pollutants such as particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3),
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (No2) and the incidence of premature
deaths and several cardiorespiratory diseases, in both children and adults.
There is also evidence of environmental effects, such as visibility impairment,
damage to materials and impacts on flora and fauna (table 1).
Particulate matter (PM) is the pollutant that has been more significantly associated to mortality and morbidity events in the population (Pope and Dockery,
2006). This pollutant is classified according to its diameter, the characteristic
that determines the intensity of its impacts. Two metrics are generally used
to classify particulate matter, particles smaller than 10 microns known as PM10
and particles smaller than 2.5 microns, known as PM2.5. Thus, two fractions
can be distinguished for PM10: The coarse fraction, that is, between 2.5 and
10 microns, and the fine fraction, smaller than 2.5 microns.
air chapter 1
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chapter 1 air pollution
Table 1
Impacts Generated by PM, O3, SO2 and No2
Effect
Description
Damage to Human Health
Particles and compounds emitted into the air in
certain concentrations can produce harmful effects.
on people’s health, for instance, reduced pulmonary
function, increased susceptibility to respiratory infections, premature deaths and cancer, among others.
Visibility Impairment
The presence of particles in the air reduces visibility,
causing reduced well-being and quality of life.
Damage to Materials
The excess of air pollution may cause damages in
building materials, altering their physical and chemical properties.
Damage to Aquatic
Ecosystems
High concentrations of No2 and SO2 can produce acid
deposition in the water, modifying its composition and
making the survival of aquatic species difficult.
Damage to Plants and
Forests
Acid deposition in soils can modify the growth of
plants and trees. Also, ozone and other particles may
enter through the stomata of plants and damage their
structure.
Source: Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2011a.
It is worth noting that the fine fraction, PM2.5, is composed of particles that
are small enough to penetrate through airways until they reach the lungs and
alveoli, which increases the risk of premature mortality due to cardiopulmonary
effects, in both short- and long-term exposures (CONAMA, 2010).
Regarding the coarse fraction, PM10, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), even though there is an apparent relation between
short-term exposure and respiratory and cardiovascular effects, there is not
enough evidence to verify potential effects for long-term exposure (EPA, 2009).
51
air chapter 1
In PM10 two fractions can be distinguished, the coarse fraction, that
is, between 2.5 and 10 microns, and the fine fraction, smaller than 2.5
microns. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is the most aggresive pollutant
to human health.
PM2,5
Human Hair
50-70 µm diameter
Combustible particles, organic
components, metals, etc.
<2.5 µm diameter
PM10
Dust, pollen, mold, etc.
<10 µm diameter
PM10
PM2.5
Fine beach sand
90 µm diameter
fig.
1
Diferences between PM2,5 and PM10
Source: Elaboration based on an image from
the EPA website.
}
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chapter 1 air pollution
2 Diagnosis: Air Quality
1] Decree N° 144 of the Ministry of
Health (1961) and Resolution N° 1215
of the Ministry of Health (1978).
2] “Standard that establishes
concentration limits and maximum
and minimum permissible periods of
elements, compounds, substances,
chemical or biological by-products,
energies, radiations, vibrations,
noise or a combination of them,
whose presence or absence in the
environment may represent a risk to
human life or health”. Article 2, letter
n, Law N° 19.300.
In Chile, although the concern for air pollution dates back to the beginning
of the 20th century, the first emission and quality standards were dictated in
1961 and 1978, respectively1. Since then, new studies and legislative review
processes have been carried out resulting in Chile having more primary environmental quality standards2 at the national level, which regulate the concentration
in the air of six types of pollutants, identified as the main and most harmful
ones for human health. These standards regulate maximum concentrations of
particulate matter, both PM10 and PM2.5, as well as sulfur dioxide (So2), nitrogen
dioxide (No2), tropospheric ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO) and lead (Pb).
The following table presents a description of some of the current primary air
quality standards in µg/m3.
Table 2
Current primary standards of quality
Pollutant
Level
Metric
Exceedance
O3
120
8 hour running mean
99th Percentile
50
Triennial arithmetic mean
Not allowed
150
Daily arithmetic mean
98th Percentile
20
Annual arithmetic mean
Not allowed
50
Daily arithmetic mean
98th Percentile
80
Annual arithmetic mean
Not allowed
250
Daily arithmetic mean
99th Percentile
100
Annual arithmetic mean
Not allowed
400
Hourly arithmetic mean
99th Percentile
PM10
PM2.5
So2
No2
Source: Own elaboration.
53
The assessment of the state of air quality, according to the limits established
in the primary standards, is based on the analysis of the data collected by
the monitoring stations with population representation (EMRP, by its acronym in Spanish)3 . In the country there are also private monitoring stations,
most of which have been installed under the framework of the requirements
established in the environmental qualification resolutions, as a follow-up
mechanism of the impact of projects or decontamination plans, as is the case
of the monitoring network of copper foundries.
Most of the air quality monitoring carried out throughout Chile has been
oriented preferrably to particulate matter PM10. However, with the entry into
force of the PM2.5 standard, the monitoring coverage of this pollutant is expected to increase in the following years, which will allow a better indicator
of the state of air quality.
Although there are still no measurements of fine particulate matter in all
the country, the PM10 measurements allow for estimates to be made with
regards to the concentration of its finer fraction. Thus, in order to have a
broader vision of the national situation, annual PM2.5 concentrations have
been estimated for communes with no available information4.
According these estimates, it is possible to see that the cities located in
central and southern areas of our country present high concentration levels
of this pollutant, exceeding the 20 micrograms per cubic meter established
as the maximum limit in the current annual regulation. On the other hand,
cities in the northern area do not register such elevated annual levels of
PM2.5, because the main emission sources of particulate matter in that area
are derived from processes of the mining industry, which registers a higher contribution of coarse particulate matter (Kavouras, Koutrakis et al.,
2001). Nonetheless, some cities with a greater presence of activities such as
thermoelectric generation or copper foundries show higher levels in comparison to other cities in the north that do not have such types of activities.
According to this background, it is possible to estimate that, in Chile,
at least 10 million people5 are exposed to an annual PM2.5 average concentration higher than 20 micrograms per cubic meter. In addition, and
following the methodology proposed by MoE (2011a), it is estimated that
more than 4,000 people die prematurely each year due to cardiopulmonary
diseases associated to chronic PM2.5 exposure. This figure represents more
than double the number of deaths in car accidents (CONASET, 2010). Table 3
air chapter 1
3] The conditions that these stations must
comply with are established in Decree N°
59/1998, Decree N° 112/2002, Decree N°
113/2002. Decree N° 114/2002 and Decree
N° 115/2002, all of MINSEGPRES.
4] Based on the methodology proposed
by DICTUC (2009), which considers the
compensation of particulate matter and
the type of emission sources in different
areas of the country, it is assumed that,
on average, 14% of PM10 corresponds to
PM2.5 in the northern area, 50% of PM10
corresponds to PM2.5 in the central area,
and 70% of PM10 corresponds to PM2.5
in the southern area of the country. In
large urban areas, such as the city of
Concepcion, it is assumed that 50% of
PM10 corresponds to PM2,5.
5] The PM2,5 concentration measured in
some communes of the Santiago Province
represents, on average, the concentration
to which the entire population of the
province is exposed.
54
chapter 1 air pollution
0
Source: National System and
Information on Air Quality.
See years of measurements in
Appendix Table 4.
fig.
2
Antofagasta
Norte
Annual PM2.5
Concentration [µg/m3] at a
National Level
Tarapacá
Atacama
Coquimbo
Centro
Valparaíso
Metropolitana
de Santiago
Libertador
General Bernardo
OHiggins
Maule
“The maps published in this report that refer to or
are related to limits or boundaries of Chile do not
commit the State of Chile in any way, according to
Article 2, letter g of the Decree with Force of Law
N° 83 of 1979 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The
Cartographic information is based on Datum WGS84
and it is mearly referential”.
Sur
Biobío
Araucanía
Los Ríos
Los Lagos
Aysén del Gral. Carlos
Ibáñez del Campo
* Pica
* Pozo Almonte
* Antofagasta
* Mejillones
* Calama
* Tocopilla
* Diego de Almagro
* Copiapó
* Tierra Amarilla
* Huasco
* Los Vilos
* Salamanca
* Andacollo
* Cabildo
* La Calera
* La Cruz
* Quillota
Concón
* Puchuncaví
* Quilpué
* Quintero
Viña Del Mar
Los Andes
Puente Alto
Cerrillos
Cerro Navia
El Bosque
Independencia
La Florida
Las Condes
Pudahuel
Quilicura
Santiago
Talagante
* Machalí
* Mostazal
Rancagua
* Rengo
* San Fernando
Curicó
* Talca
Los Angeles
* Chiguayante
* Coronel
* Hualpén
* Talcahuano
* Tomé
Chillán
* Padre De Las Casas
Temuco
Valdivia
Osorno
* Coyhaique
55
10
20
air chapter 1
30
40 µg/m3
annual PM2.5
average
N0 of inhabitants, 2011
(Estimated Population INE)
105,000 - 380,000
380,000 - 1,020,000
1,020,000 - 2,050,000
2,050,000 - 7,000,000
*
Estimated data
It is estimated that more than 4,000
people die prematurely each year due to
cardiopulmonary diseases associated to
chronic PM2.5 exposure.
The information used (MINSAL monitoring network
and private monitoring stations) is for reference
only, due to the presence of gaps in information
and due to the fact that validation processes
have not ended yet. The validated information
is going to be presented on the 2012 report of
the state of the environment of Chile. The years
considered can be viewed in Appendix Table 4.
56
Table 3
chapter 1 air pollution
Mortality and Morbidity Associated to PM2.5 exposure*
Type of event
Premature Mortality
Hospital Admissions
Activity Restriction
Event
Age Group
Cases
Cardiopulmonary
All
4,200
Heart Attacks
65+
2,500
Dysrhythmia
65+
1,200
Ischemic Heart Disease
65+
900
Chronic Bronchitis
18-64
700
65+
1,200
Pneumonia 65+
6,800
Missed Workdays
All
1,570,000
Days with Restricted Activity
All
7,670,000
Days with Minor Restricted Activity
All
28,900,000
* 10,000,000 people at 25 ug/m3 annual of PM2.5
Source: Own elaboration based on Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2011a.
To perform a more detailed analysis of the concentrations of regulated pollutants, box-and-whisker diagrams have been used to simultaneously show
different descriptive measures, thus facilitating their comparison. In this case,
these measures also allow an association of the values to the respective regulatory compliance. Figures 3 and 4 show charts of the information available at a
national level for PM2.5 and PM10, respectively. At the same time, charts for O3,
SO2 and NO2 are shown in the Appendix.
Maximum
98th or 99th percentile,
depending on the standard.
Annual average
75th percentile
50th or median
25th percentile
1st or 2nd percentile,
depending on the standard
Minimum
200
190
Daily PM2.5 [µg/m ]
fig.
Source: National System and
Information on Air Quality. See years of
measurements in Appendix Table 4.
3
3
180
170
16 of the monitored communes exceed the annual and
daily average allowed by the standard.
In the northern area of the country, there are still no
monitoring stations with population representativity to
allow an adequate diagnosis to be performed.
160
Maximum
98th* or 99th Percentile
150
75th percentile
25th percentile
Annual average
1st or 2nd Percentile
140
The information used (MINSAL monitoring network and private
monitoring stations) is for reference only, due to the presence of
gaps in information and due to the fact that validation processes
have not ended yet. The validated information is going to be
presented on the 2012 report of the state of the environment of
Chile. The years considered can be viewed in Appendix Table 4.
Minimum
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5th Region
Metropolitan Region
CENTER
Curicó
Talca
Chillán
Temuco
Osorno
Valdivia
Santiago
Quilicura
Pudahuel
Las Condes
La Florida
El Bosque
Cerro Navia
Independencia
Santiago
Rancagua
Cordillera
Cerrillos
Puente Alto
Viña del Mar
Valparaíso
Talagante
Los Andes
Concón
Los Andes
0
Talagante
Cachapoal
Curicó
Talca
Ñuble
Cautín
Osorno
Valdivia
6 th Region
7 th Region
8 th Region
9 th Region 10th Region 14th Region
SOUTH
Annual PM10 Concentration
[µg/m3] at a National Level
Source: National System and
Information on Air Quality.
See years of measurements in
Appendix Table 4.
fig.
4
26 communes exceed the annual
average allowed.
In the southern area, even though the annual
averages are lower than the required limit,
there are several cases in which the daily
limit (98th percentile) established by the
standard is exceeded.
Maximum
98th* or 99th Percentile
75th percentile
50th percentile or median
25th percentile
Annual average
1st or 2nd Percentile
Minimum
The information used (MINSAL monitoring network and private
monitoring stations) is for reference only, due to the presence of
gaps in information and due to the fact that validation processes
have not ended yet. The validated information is going to be
presented on the 2012 report of the state of the environment of
Chile. The years considered can be viewed in Appendix Table 4.
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
Tarapacá Region
Antofagasta Region
NORTH
Chañaral
Copiapó
Huasco
Atacama Region
Choapa
Coquimbo Region
Quillota
San Felipe
de Aconcagua
Valparaíso
Independencia
El Bosque
Cerro Navia
Cerrillos
Puente Alto
Viña del Mar
Quintero
Quilpué
Puchuncaví
Concón
Catemu
Quillota
Petorca
La Cruz
Elqui
Calera
Salamanca
Los Vilos
Huasco
Tierra Amarilla
Copiapó
Diego de
Almagro
Tocopilla
Tocopilla
Cabildo
El Loa
María Elena
Calama
Mejillones
Antofagasta
Andacollo
del Tamarugal
Antofagasta
Pozo Almonte
Pica
0
Cordillera
Valparaíso Region
CENTER
Maule Region
Concepción
Ñuble
Biobío Region
Cautín
Araucanía Region
SOUTH
Valdivia
Máfil
Temuco
Padre las Casas
Chillán
Portezuelo
Tomé
Talcahuano
Biobío
Hualpén
Talca
Coronel
Los Angeles
Curicó
Chiguayante
Talca
Colchagua
Valdivia
Los Ríos Region
Coyhaique
Libertador Gral. Bernardo O’Higgins Region
Curicó
Cachapoal
San Fernando
Rengo
Rancagua
Olivar
Mostazal
Machalí
Codegua
Santiago
Talagante
Talagante
Osorno
Metropolitan Region
Quilicura
Pudahuel
La Florida
Las Condes
Santiago
Osorno
Coyhaique
Los Lagos
Region
Aysén
Region
3
q
Causes:
Air Pollution Emissions
The concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10, So2 and No2 are mainly produced by direct
emissions of these pollutants into the atmosphere, either from anthropogenic
or natural sources. In turn, O3 is formed by the action of solar radiation, through
chemical reactions between volatile organic compounds (VOCs), NOx and other
chemical compounds in the atmosphere (Jorquera, 2007).
The particulate matter PM2.5 can also be formed by chemical reactions between gaseous precursor pollutants of particulate matter, such as Sox and Nox
and other atmospheric compounds. This type of PM2.5 is known as secondary
particulate matter.
Secondary particulate matter is formed both by the condensation of gases
cooled after their emission, which are added to already existing particles and
combine themselves to form larger conglomerates, as well as forming cloud or
fog droplets, to which the condensed gases serve as nucleus.
Secondary PM2.5 Formation
Source: http://prokinetik.
wordpress.com/2010/03/
fig.
5
evaporation
condensation
diffusion
nucleation
coagulation
water
uptake
oxidation
precursor
emissions
resuspension
activation
primary emissions
dry deposition
61
Main emission sources of pollutants can be classified, according to their
characteristics, as stationary, mobile and fugitive sources. Stationary sources
are considered to be emissions generated by fuel burning in industrial and
residential activities, to generate either energy, heat or steam, and other
industrial processes, such as copper smelting. They also include emissions
generated by burning other fuels such as biomass, associated to residential
heating.
Mobile sources correspond to emissions that come from exhaust gases,
brakes and tire wear, from different means of transportation, such as cars,
trucks, buses and motorcycles.
Fugitive sources are emissions that are not channeled through pipelines,
chimneys, or other systems towards the exterior, such as emissions that come
from paved and unpaved roads, as well as from construction, and demolition, among others. The particulate matter associated to this type of source
corresponds mainly to coarse particles, of which almost 90 percent are larger
than 2.5 micrometers (μm) (Chow and Watson, 1998). Fugitive emissions also
have a natural origin, due to dust or rock erosion suspensions by wind. Their
emission rates strongly depend on meteorological parameters such as wind
speed, environmental humidity and precipitations.
Table 4 shows a classification of sources, that corresponds to what is generally used in the preparation of emission inventories in Chile.
Table 4
Type
Stationary
Sources
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STATIONARY
SOURCES
FUGITIVE SOURCES
MOBILE SOURCES
Classification of Emission Sources
Pollutants
PM10, PM2.5, Sox
and Nox
Fugitive
Sources
PM10, PM2.5
Mobile
sources
PM10, PM2.5,
Nox, Cov, Sox
Subtype
Examples of Activities
Area
Residential heating, agriculture burns and
forest fires.
Specific (Industry)
Electric generation, industrial processes such
as combustion in steam-generating boilers
and industrial furnaces, as well as other
industrial processes such as copper smelting.
Resuspended Dust
Construction of buildings
Unpaved roads
Wind Erosion
En-route
Buses, trucks, private and commercial
vehicles, taxis, and motorcycles
Off-route
Construction or agriculture machinery, airport
or port operations.
Source: Own elaboration based on Jorquera, 2007.
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62
To analyze pollutant emissions at a regional level, it is necessary to have
accurate information about the location and emitted pollutants by different
sources. Few cities in our country have a thoroughly detailed emission inventory and, in general, they are cities with a significant number of inhabitants
or areas with mega industrial sources. However, it is possible to perform a
general diagnosis based on the information collected by the Pollutant Release
and Transfer Register (PRTR).
The 2011 PRTR Report was considered in order to characterize and analyze
PM10, PM2.5, Nox y Sox emissions, which includes declared information up to
2009. At the same time, it includes other sectors not yet included in the PRTR,
such as emissions from firewood burning for residential heating and diffuse
emissions from copper smelting, provided by the MoE (Ministerio del Medio
Ambiente, 2011b). Based on this information, the following compounds have
been measured: Approximately 213,559 tons per year of PM2.5, 708,782 tons per
year of Sox and 247,099 tons per year of NOx. The main emission sources at
a national level are firewood burning for residential heating for PM2.5, copper
foundries for SOx and thermoelectric power plants for NOx. It is worth noting the
significant contribution of area sources, such as agriculture burns, to the direct
PM2.5 emissions at a national level.
fig.
6
Distribution by Type of Source, 2009
Source: Own elaboration based on Ministerio
del Medio Ambiente, 2011b and Ministerio del
Medio Ambiente, 2011c.
PM2,5
NOx
SOx
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Areal
Firewood
Boilers
Other Industrial Processes
Foundries
Thermoelectric Power Plants
Mobile sources
Other
80%
90%
100%
63
fig.
7
air chapter 1
Emissions Map for SOx per Province
Emissions Chart for SOx per Region and Sector
Source: Own elaboration based on RETC, 2011
and Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2011b.
Arica and Parinacota
Tarapacá
Antofagasta
Atacama
Coquimbo
Valparaíso
Metropolitana
Libertador Gral.
Bernardo O’Higgins
Maule
Biobío
Araucanía
De los Ríos
Los Lagos
Aysén del Gral.
Carlos Ibáñez del
Campo
Magallanes
and Chilean
Antarctica
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
Areal
Boilers
Foundries
Mobile sources
Firewood
Thermoelectric
Power Plants
Other Industrial Processes
Other
Emissions of SOx
(tons/year)
0 - 9,500
9,500 - 27,000
27,000 - 61,500
61,500 - 167,500
250,000
Tons/Year
“The maps published in this report that refer to
or are related to limits or boundaries of Chile
do not commit the State of Chile in any way,
according to Article 2, letter g of the Decree
with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic information
is based on Datum WGS84 and it is mearly
referential”.
chapter 1 air pollution
64
fig.
8
Emissions Map of NOx per Province
Emissions Chart of NOx per Region and Sector
Source: Own elaboration based on RETC, 2011 and
Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2011b.
Arica and Parinacota
Tarapacá
Antofagasta
Atacama
Coquimbo
Valparaíso
Metropolitana
Libertador Gral.
Bernardo O’Higgins
Maule
Biobío
Araucanía
De los Ríos
Los Lagos
Aysén del Gral.
Carlos Ibáñez del
Campo
Magallanes
and Chilean
Antarctica
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
Areal
Boilers
Foundries
Mobile Sources
Firewood
Thermoelectric
Power Plants
Other Industrial Processes
Other
Emissions of NOx
(tons/year)
0 - 800
800 - 2,800
2,800 - 7,100
7,100 - 35,600
250,000
Tons/Year
“The maps published in this report that refer to
or are related to limits or boundaries of Chile
do not commit the State of Chile in any way,
according to Article 2, letter g of the Decree
with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic information
is based on Datum WGS84 and it is mearly
referential”.
65
fig.
9
air chapter 1
Emissions of PM2.5 per Region and Sector
Source: Own elaboration based on RETC, 2011
and Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2011b.
Arica and Parinacota
Tarapacá
Antofagasta
Atacama
Coquimbo
Valparaíso
Metropolitana
Libertador Gral.
Bernardo O’Higgins
Maule
Biobío
Araucanía
De los Ríos
Los Lagos
Aysén del Gral.
Carlos Ibáñez del
Campo
Magallanes
and Chilean
Antarctica
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
Areal
Boilers
Foundries
Mobile Sources
Firewood
Thermoelectric
Power Plants
Other Industrial Processes
Other
Emissions of MP2.5
(tons/year)
0 - 1,700
1,700 - 5,500
5,500 - 12,500
12,500 - 21,500
250,000
Tons/Year
“The maps published in this report that refer to
or are related to limits or boundaries of Chile
do not commit the State of Chile in any way,
according to Article 2, letter g of the Decree
with Force of Law N° 83 of 1979 of the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs. The Cartographic information
is based on Datum WGS84 and it is mearly
referential”.
67
Actions:
Air Pollution Control
In Chile, air quality management began fifty years ago, mainly with command and control measures, such as Decree 144 of the Ministry of Health,
issued in 1961. This Decree established “standards to avoid emissions or air
pollutants of any nature”; however, it did not set concentration limits, leaving
this at the discretion of the Ministry of Health. Later on, in 1978, through
Resolution N° 1.215 of the Ministry of Health, maximum concentration limits
for some pollutants were defined, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
tropospheric ozone, and suspended particulates, thus creating the first air
quality standard in the country.
In this context, it became clear that the Metropolitan Region, the place
with the highest concentration of Chilean population, presented one of the
largest air pollution problems. This led to the creation of the Special Commission for the Decontamination of the Metropolitan Region (CEDRM by its
acronym in Spanish) in 1990, as the agency responsible for the first control
measures implemented in the city of Santiago. Later on, after the enactment
of the Environmental Framework Law N° 19.300, efforts to manage air pollution
and quality were intensified by establishing different management tools for
this purpose, which -besides emission standards- included prevention and
decontamination plans, among others.
As a result of this management, today the country has emission standards6
for stationary and mobile sources, described in Table 5.
air chapter 1
4
6] According to Law N° 19.300,
emission standards are those that
“set the maximum amount allowed
for a pollutant measured in the
effluent of the emission source”.
68
Mobile sources
Stationary Sources
Source
Table 5
chapter 1 air pollution
Current Emission Standards, by Sources
Activity
Pollutants
Scope
Supreme Decree
Stationary Sources Emitting
Arsenic
As
National
SD 165/1999 MINSEGPRES updated by
Decree 75/2008 MINSEGPRES
Sulfate-pulp Production
H2S
National
SD 167/1999 MINSEGPRES
Incineration and
Co-incineration
PM, So2, Nox, TOC,
CO, heavy
metals, HCI, HF,
benzene, dioxins
and furans.
National
SD 45/2007 MINSEGPRES
Thermoelectric Power Plants
PM, So2, Nox, Hg
National
SD 13/2011MoE
Industrial and Commercial
Sector
PM, CO, So2, Nox
MR
SD 66/2010 MINSEGPRES
Stationary Sources, Specific
and Group Sources*
PM
MR
SD 4/1992 MINSAL
Medium Vehicles
CO, HC, Nox,
PM, HCNM
National
SD 54/1994 MTT
Heavy Vehicles
CO, HC, Nox, PM,
HCNM
National
SD55/1994 MTT
Motorcycles
CO, THC, NOx
National
SD 04/2000 MTT
Public Transportation Buses
CO, THC, NMHC, CH4,
Nox and PM
MR
SD130/2001 MTT
Light Vehicles
HC, CO, Nox, PM,
HCNM
National
SD 211/1991 MTT
Emission Control in
Technical Inspection Stations
for Light and Medium Vehicles
by spark ignition
NO, HC and CO
MR, V, VI, VIII
and IX
SD 149/2006MTT
MR: Metropolitan Region/ MTT: Ministry of Transportations and Telecommunications/MoE: Ministry of the Environment/MINSEGPRES:
Ministry of the General Secretariat of the Presidency.
*Stationary Source: Any source designed to operate in a fixed location, whose emissions are discharged through a duct or chimney. Those
mounted on vehicles to facilitate their transportation are included.
Specific Stationary Source: Any stationary source whose volumetric flow emissions are higher or equal to a thousand cubic meters per
hour (1,000 m3/hr) under standard conditions, measured at full load.
Group Stationary Source: Any stationary source whose volumetric flow emissions are lower than a thousand cubic meters per hour (1,000
m3/hr) under standard conditions, measured at full load.
Source: Own elaboration
air chapter 1
69
Emission standards, along with quality standards, are tools aimed at preventing and controlling the concentration of pollutants in the air. In cases in
which they exceed the quality standards, the law establishes other tools such
as the prevention and decontamination plans7, whose preparation begins once
the decree declaring the area as latent or saturated has been enacted. Just like
the standards, prevention and decontamination plans have been fundamental
for the environmental management of the air in Chile8.
According to the Environmental Framework Law N° 19.300, the actions to
be implemented under the Prevention and Decontamination Plans framework
may include emission standards, tradable emission permits, emission taxes
or fees to users, and other encouragement tools for actions to improve and
repair the environment (Art. 47). Table 6 shows current national plans.
Likewise, some locations have been declared as saturated or latent areas,
the preliminary step to prepare a prevention or decontamination plan. Table
7 shows areas with this milestone.
Table 6
Location
SO2
PM 10
Annual
24 Hrs
María Elena and Pedro de Valdivia
S
Chuquicamata
L
Tocopilla
Atacama
8] The conditions for the use and
preparation of these tools are established
in Law N° 19.300.
Current Prevention and Decontamination Plans
Region
Antofagasta
7] The prevention plan is a tool aimed to
avoid surpassing one or more primary
or secondary environmental quality
standards in an area, while the aim of
decontamination plans is to recover the
levels indicated in those standards for
areas declared as saturated.
Annual
24 Hrs
S
S
SD 164/1999/MINSEGPRES
S
Potrerillos
Puchuncaví (Ventanas)
Metropolitan*
All communes
S
S
S
S
S
S
SD 179/1999/MINSEGPRES
S
SD 180/1995/MINSEGPRES
S
SD 252/1992/MIN MINERIA
S
Libertador General
Caletones
Bernardo O’Higgins
S
Araucanía
S
Temuco and Padre Las Casas
SD 206/2001/MINSEGPRES
SD 70/2010/MINSEGPRES
Paipote
Valparaíso
Decree establishing
the Plan
SD 66/2009/MINSEGPRES
S
SD 81/1998/MINSEGPRES
SD 78/2009/MINSEGPRES
(S) Saturated area
(L) Latent area
* Supreme Decree N° 131 (1996) of the MINSEGPRES declared the Metropolitan Region as an area saturated with
ozone, breathable particulate matter, suspended particulates and carbon monoxide, and as a latent area due to
the amount of nitrogen dioxide.
Source: Own elaboration.
70
chapter 1 air pollution
Table 7
Table 7
Locations with Decrees Declaring them Latent or Saturated Areas
Region
Location
Annual
Calama
Decree Declaring
the Area
PM 10
24 Hrs
S
SD 57/2009/MINSEGPRES
Antofagasta
Tocopilla
S
SD 74/2008/MINSEGPRES
Coquimbo
Andacollo
S
S
SD 8/2009/MINSEGPRES
Libertador General Bernardo O’Higgins
Central Valley
S
S
SD 7/2009/MINSEGPRES
DMaule
Talca / Maule
S
S
SD 12/2010/MINSEGPRES
Biobío
Concepción
L
SD 41/2006/MINSEGPRES
(L) Latent area
The Case of Santiago
(S) Saturated area
Source: Own elaboration.
The Metropolitan Region was declared an
area saturated with ozone, breathable particulate material, total suspended particulates and
carbon monoxide, as well as a latent area due
to nitrogen dioxide, through Supreme Decree
(SD) N° 131/1996 dated June 12th, 1996 of the
Ministry General Secretariat of the Presidency. In
1998, SD 16/1998, created the first Air Prevention
and Decontamination Plan for the Metropolitan
Region (APDP), an environmental management
tool whose objective is to achieve compliance
with the primary air quality standards, in order
to protect the health of the Region’s inhabitants.
This Plan, updated by SD 66/2009 of the Ministry
General Secretariat of the Presidency, includes
air quality goals and measures, that seek to
control emissions from the main sources of
pollution identified in the area.
Although most of the pollution in this Region
is essentially explained by human activities,
it is important to take into account that its
geographical conditions and the high levels of
atmospheric stability observed between the
air chapter 1
71
months of April and August prevent an adequate ventilation of the basin, favoring the
transformation and accumulation of pollutants.
The measures considered in the APDP have
helped to reduce, gradually and systematically,
the high pollution levels during the last decade,
allowing a diminishment of the intensity and
duration of critical events in time. Thus, in
1997, 37 pre-emergency days and four days
of environmental emergency were recorded,
whereas in 2011 only four pre-emergency days
were registered, which were also of a significantly lower magnitude. However, the annual
reduction rate of PM10and PM2.5 concentrations has been maimed over the years and
the concentrations have stabilized, without yet
complying with the PM10, O3 and CO standards.
Control of agriculture burns
fig.
Withdrawal of 3,000 busses
10
Catalytic vehicles / Industry Standards/ 1st Call for Bids for UPT
Prohibition to burn firewood in open fireplaces
APDP Progress
Source: Ministerio
del Medio Ambiente,
2011
Reducing sulfur in diesel fuel from 5,000 to 3,000 ppm
(µg/m3)
Natural gas / Reduction of S from 3,000 to 1,500 ppm / 2nd Call for Bids for UPT
100
Reduction of S from 1,500 to 1,000 ppm
90
80
70
60
50
Elimination of lead / Reduction of S from 1,000 to 300 ppm
69
61
55 56
52
Withdrawal of 500 busses without certification
47
42 43
40
39
Withdrawal of 2,200 busses/ Reduction of S to 50 ppm
38 36 35 35
34 34
30
33 31
29 30 31
28 27
Revision of freight vehicles in TIP
20
10
Annual Limit MP2,5 = 20 (µg/m3)
0
Launch of Transantiago
8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 0
9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
198 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 199 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 201
*The current goal for particulate matter in the APDP is the
one for PM10.
Although the declaration of the Metropolitan Region as a saturated area
corresponds to PM10, historically, APDP measures have focused on
reducing PM2.5
Buses with filter
Gasoline 15 ppm S
Kerosene 500 ∆ 300 ppm
NOx Goal for Industry 50%
72
chapter 1 air pollution
High and low visibility days, & San Joaquín Metro Station, 2006
73
The measures considered in the APDP have helped to reduce,
gradually and systematically, high pollution levels during
the last decade
air chapter 1
74
chapter 1 air pollution
Despite the environmental efforts and different tools used, the country still
does not comply with the limits set in the current primary and secondary quality
standards. In this context, and given the complexity of the problem, in 2010
the Ministry of the Environment began the preparation and implementation of
the Clean Air Program, through which it seeks to improve the air quality in the
main urban areas of the country, thus incorporating a national approach to the
management of this issue. This program is aimed at controlling PM2.5, as well
as its precursor pollutants, mainly SO2 and NOx, in order to contribute to the
compliance with national quality standards.
The main objective of the Clean Air Program is to improve the air quality at
the national level, through a preventive approach, emphasizing on the protection of human health. In this context, the priority was to publish the air quality
standard for PM2.5, which entered into force in January 2012. This standard, which
constitutes a fundamental support to carry out a more focused and efficient air
quality management, demands standards equivalent to those of the European
regulations, imposing an important challenge for the Metropolitan Region as
well as for other cities across the country.
As a strategy, this program prioritizes actions to address the main sectors
identified as responsible for pollution, such as the industrial, transportation,
and residential sectors. At the same time, the program recognizes that the
decontamination plans have not been sufficient to solve air quality problems
in the country and the lack of emission standards at a national level, for both
industrial activities identified as causing the most pollution, as well as for
mobile sources and firewood heaters. All of this has prevented an efficient
response to the increase of these emission sources in other cities, outside the
Metropolitan Region.
The Clean Air Program also covers the need to make progress in the strengthening of capacities to monitor air quality at a national level, increasing the
PM2.5 measurement coverage and also improving public access to information
on air quality.
The different measures included for each of the prioritized sectors are described below.
Industrial Sector
Industrial areas have been identified throughout the country with existing
air quality problems. The main economic activities include extractive mining,
copper foundries, power generation plants, iron and steel industries and cement plants. To achieve a significant reduction in emissions within reasonable
deadlines, an emission standard-setting process at the national level has been
75
air chapter 1
proposed, in those sectors with the greatest contribution of PM2.5 emissions
and its precursors.
Lines of action were defined associated to command and control regulations
for specific activities such as thermoelectric power plants, copper foundries,
and for industrial and combustion processes. In this context, and as part of
this prioritization, in June 2011 the emission standard for thermoelectric power
plants was published, while the emission standard for copper foundries is still
being developed, as well as the one for combustion processes.
One of the essential topics included in the emission standards for these
types of sources is the continuous and online monitoring of their emissions,
a measure that will facilitate inspection of the compliance with regulations.
Also, for their adequate implementation, criteria will be defined regarding
the size of the sources that require these types of systems, as well as the
protocols for monitoring, follow-up, and information dissemination that will
ensure the quality of the information reported.
Through a joint action of the emission standards, continuous monitoring
systems for emissions and a greater inspection led by the Superintendence
of the Environment, it is expected to achieve a significant emission reduction
in these sectors.
Table 8
Actions by Sectors and Prioritized Activities
Sources
Thermoelectric
Power Plants
Copper Foundries
Measure
Emission standard in new
and existing power plants.
Emission standard for new
and existing copper foundries.
Administrative Act
Deadline
Contaminants
2011
PM, So2, Nox
and Hg
SD 13/2011 Ministry of the
Environment
2012
PM, So2, As
and Hg
Exempt Resolution N° 300,
dated March, 2011 began
the process.
Steam-generating
Boilers and Other
Combustion
Processes
Emission standard for
steam-generating boilers
and other combustion processes .
2013
PM, So2, Nox
Exempt Resolution N° 285,
dated March 24th, 2010
approves 2007-2009
prioritized program.
Continuous
Monitoring
Thermoelectric power
plants, copper foundries
and combustion processes.
2013
PM, So2, Nox,
As and Hg
Requirement included in
emission standards.
Sources: Own elaboration.
chapter 1 air pollution
76
The use of economic tools such as tradable emission permits is still pending.
This requires the presentation of a draft bill, in accordance to Law N° 19.300. It
is estimated that an emissions market with tradable emission permits would
provide greater flexibility to regulated sources in order to comply with the
required standards and, at the same time, it would offer greater incentives to
find and carry out measures to allow them to control their emissions at a minimum cost. (Tietenberg, 1998). The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), under the framework of its Environmental Performance
Review of Chile from 2005, recommends reviewing the scope for introducing
new economic instruments in the national legal framework, such as air emission
charges or the creation of emission markets (OCDE and CEPAL, 2005).
The Ministry of the Environment is currently collecting information to assess
the feasibility of implementing this measure in the country.
π Thermoelectric Power Plants
In Chile, the thermoelectric sector has significantly grown during the last 20
years, essentially driven by projects based on the use of coal, which means that
this fuel has been the main input of the sector, representing around 44 percent
of the total thermoelectric power of the country in 2009.
fig.
11
Power Generation by Technology (Gwh)
Source: INE, 2000-2009 and preliminary figures for 2010.
Gwh/year
70,000
Wind
Thermal - Natural Gas (CC)
Hydro-electric
Thermal - Coal
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
77
The main pollutants emitted during the combustion process of thermoelectric
power plants correspond to particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
sulfur dioxide (SO2), and heavy metals like mercury (Hg). The emissions of
these pollutants vary depending on the fuel used and the control equipment
of the power plants. According to this, pollutant emissions per Gwh generated
are significantly lower in combined-cycle power plants using natural gas.
Although there has been an increase of thermal generation, before 2011
there were no specific regulations for this sector, other than the Environmental
Impact Assessment System (SEIA by its acronym in Spanish) and local decontamination plans. Therefore, it is difficult to observe important reductions in
the emissions of thermoelectric power plants, except for SO2, whose reduction
has been a consequence of the greater requirements for control in new power
plants established in the environmental qualification resolutions issued by
the SEIA (Figure 12).
Kg / GWh
10,000
PM2,5
SOx
NOx
9,472
9,472
9,000
8,000
7,000
5,637
6,000
5,967
5,960
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,468
2,451
350
2005
2,264
2,283
2,185
463
303
284
305
2006
2007
2008
2009
2,000
1,000
0
fig.
12
Emissions by Thermoelectric Power Plants per Unit of Energy Generated in Time – Central
Interconnected System (SIC by its acronym in Spanish) and the Large North Interconnected
System (SING by its acronym in Spanish)
Source: Own elaboration based on Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2011c and INE, 2005-2009.
air chapter 1
chapter 1 air pollution
78
In this context, the emission standard for thermoelectric power plants was
prepared, published in June 2011, with the aim of controlling the release of
particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and mercury
(Hg) into the air.
The standard sets differentiated limits, therefore existing emission sources
must comply with the allowed PM emission values within a 2.5 year period, that
is, by December 2012. The remaining parameters must be executed in a maximum period of four years (June 2015) in areas declared as latent or saturated
with PM, So2 or Nox, while a period of 5 years and 6 months (December 2016)
will be granted for the rest of the country. Meanwhile, new emission sources
must comply with the requirements of the standard since its entry into force,
that is, from June 23rd, 2011.
On the other hand, decontamination plans, such as the one implemented in
the thermal power complex of Las Ventanas, also present important benefits,
as shown in Figure 13.
fig.
13
Emissions from Thermoelectric Power Plants per Unit of
Energy Generated in Time – Ventanas
Source: SAG and MINSAL, 2010.
Kg PM2,5 / GWh
25,000
21,001
20,000
15,000
12,026
10,000
5,000
4,175
941
227
0
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
air chapter 1
79
π Copper Foundries
Chile is recognized worldwide as a country with great mineral wealth, being
the largest copper producer in the world. At the national level, this activity
has great impact on economic growth. Thus, in 2010, the exports of this metal
represented 6.4 percent of the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Central
Bank, 2011). Despite the important benefits of this activity for the country, it
also causes considerable environmental externalities, especially because for
a long time there was no adequate impact verification.
One of the stages with greater environmental impact is copper smelting.
This process is carried out in high temperature furnaces, thus separating the
copper from other minerals. The main pollutants released in this process are
PM2.5, Sox, Nox and arsenic (As).
In this context, since the nineties, decontamination plans were established
for foundries in order to reduce their PM, As and SOx emissions. The records
obtained in that period reveal the improvement in environmental quality since
the implementation of these measures.
Likewise, as shown in Figure 14, the national production of sulfuric acid has
increased exponentially, as a direct consequence of the processes associated
with the reduction of pollutants. Sulfuric acid can be reused in the copper
leaching process and other production activities, thus acquiring a market
Kilotons/year
6,000
Fine Cu
SO2 Emission
Sulfuric Acid
5,000
fig.
14
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
SO2 Emission Reduction,
in Relation to Fine Copper
Production
Source: Own elaboration
based on COCHILCO, 2003
and data provided by Sara
Pimentel, Carlos Salvo
(Chagres Foundry), Carmen
Orge (Altonorte Foundry),
Alejandro Diez (Hernán
Videla Lira Foundry).
chapter 1 air pollution
80
value. This proves that it is possible, through the proper use of technology, to
separate mining growth from adverse effects, from an environmental perspective.
Copper smelting in Chile is shared by two private companies and five Stateowned companies (CODELCO), with a total of seven foundries. Although all of
the companies have made considerable efforts to increase their environmental
efficiency, the Chagres private foundry stands out in a positive manner for its
performance, as shown in Figure 15.
Despite the progress made, this activity continues being a relevant
emission source at a national level. That is why the Ministry of the Environment is currently working on the creation of a draft bill for an emission
standard for copper foundries, which is expected to be published in 2012.
Another current measure is the voluntary program Clean Production Agreement: Puchuncaví-Quintero Industrial Area, Valparaíso Region, signed on December 1st, 2011, through which 10 companies from different productive sectors, including the Ventanas foundry, seek to “incorporate measures and
technologies for clean production, in order to reduce pollution and increase
productive efficiency” (APL, 2011). This agreement sets 80 goals, which imply an
investment of USD $100 million and must be achieved by a 24-month deadline.
SO2 Emissions per Ton of Fine
Copper Produced
Source: Own elaboration
based on COCHILCO, 2003
and data provided by Sara
Pimentel, Carlos Salvo
(Chagres Foundry), Carmen
Orge (Altonorte Foundry),
Alejandro Diez (Hernán Videla
Lira Foundry).
fig.
15
Tons of SO2 /
Tons of fine Cu
2,500
Chagres
Altonorte
Chuquicamata
Ventanas
Hernán Videla Lira
Caletones
Potrerillos
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
air chapter 1
81
Copper Smelting and Leaching
Two of the main processes associated with
copper exploitation are smelting and leaching,
both of which are used to purify copper concentrate. Smelting allows the separation of
copper from other minerals, while leaching
allows the removal of copper from the minerals
that contain it.
The smelting process generates sulfur dioxide (SO2), arsenic (As) and particulate matter
(PM). The gases generated (monoxides and
dioxides) in this process are used to produce
sulfuric acid (H2SO4), from which SxEw cathodes are obtained and therefore has a market value
in mining for the leaching process. According to the Chilean Copper Commission (COCHILCO),
Chile is the world leader in the production of SxEw cathodes, with a share of 69.1 percent in
this segment during 2009, 10 percent higher than the one recorded in 2000. The countries that
follow are the United States and Peru with 15.7 percent and 5.3 percent, respectively.
2
3
1
Crushing
Extraction
2
3
Grinding and
Flotation
Smelting
Leaching
Emissions
So2, Arsenic
(As) and PM
Sulfuric Acid
4
Electrowinning
4
Electrorefining
82
chapter 1 air pollution
π Steam-Generating Boilers and Other Combustion Processes
Combustion processes are present in various sectors, with very different
characteristics, both in terms of their combustion technology and the power
they use. In the case of industrial activity, fuel consumption has grown 63
percent since 1990.
The main pollutants emitted during the combustion process are: particulate
matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Although there
are primary and secondary emission control measures available, the previously
mentioned characteristics make it challenging to design regulatory instruments
to help achieve effective and efficient reductions. In spite of this, the emission
standard for steam-generating boilers is part of the 2007-2009 strategic program of
standards and, therefore, it is a relevant issue for the management of air quality.
fig.
16
Increase in the Consumption of Fuel throughout Time
for Industrial Processes
Source: CNE (1991 -2008)
Teracalories
250,000
Crude Oil
Natural Gas
Coal
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
83
Transportation Sector
Mobile sources generate emissions of air pollutants that directly impact
inhabitants of high-density urban areas, located in the central and southern
areas of the country. In an economic development scenario, this sector has a
vast margin for growth, as observed during 2010, a period in which the sale
of new vehicles reached a historical record, with over 300 thousand units.
The growth potential of this sector is also related to the current motorization
rate, of 0.16 vehicles per inhabitant, which can be considered low in comparison
to other countries with a similar development level, but which nonetheless
results in a vehicle fleet of over 2.5 million units. If Chile reached, for instance,
a motorization rate similar to that of countries such as Portugal (0.5 vehicles
per inhabitant), the size of the vehicle fleet could increase up to 8 million
vehicles. At the same time, a relevant factor in the increase of emissions by
the vehicle fleet is the damage to their emission control systems, such as the
catalytic converter and an inadequate vehicle maintenance.
air chapter 1
84
9] In the current regulation, input
standards coexist, according to
European regulation and to the one
driven by the U.S.A Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA).
Vehicle Emissions by
Manufacturing Year
Source: Ministerio del Medio
Ambiente, 2011a.
fig.
17
chapter 1 air pollution
The growth of the vehicle fleet has brought about an increase in emissions
of NOx, a precursor of PM2.5. At the same time, the deterioration of the emission
control systems, such as the catalytic converter, has also contributed to a rise
in emissions.
In terms of transportation, Chile requires a strategy so that the development
of the vehicle market does not result in higher pollution. The emission standards for vehicles9, mainly within the framework of the Decontamination Plan
for the Metropolitan Region, have allowed a reduction in unitary emissions of
the vehicle fleet throughout time.
However, given the projected growth for the vehicle fleet, stricter standards
are required to decouple the increase the emissions by the sector.
In order to approach the complex problem of transportation and to diminish
pollutant emissions by this sector, a series of actions have been defined, based
on the different management tools mentioned above.
Emissions
NOx (Kg/year)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Type/Year
1993
1994
1995
Passenger
Commercial
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Euro I
Euro I
E
air chapter 1
85
fig.
18
Increase in the Vehicle Fleet and
Emissions by the Transportation
Sector
Source: INE, 2010 and Ministerio
del Medio Ambiente, 2011c.
Motorcycles and similar
Pickup trucks
Minibus
Van
Jeep
Automobile/ Station Wagons
N° of Vehicles
3,500,000
3,000,000
Tons / Year
NOX
60,000
2,500,000
50,000
2,.000,000
40,000
1,500,000
30,000
1,000,000
20,000
500,000
10,000
0
1998
1999
2000 2001
2002 2003
2004
2005 2006
2007 2008 2009
Automobile
Pickup Truck
Jeep
Basic Taxi
Shared Taxi
2001
Euro II
2002
70,000
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Euro III
Euro III
2009
2010
2011
2010
0
86
Table 9
Tools
Command and
Control
chapter 1 air pollution
Measures to Reduce Emissions by the Transportation Sector
Segment
Motorcycles
Light and Medium Vehicles
Measure
2013
SD 104/MTT (under revision)
More demanding entry standards.
2013
SD 54/1994 MTT and SD
211/1991 MTT
(both under revision)
Adaptation of regulations to new low and
zero emission technologies. Vehicles can
be standardized voluntarily under more
demanding standards.
2013
SD 54/1994 MTT and SD
211/1991 MTT
(both under revision)
More demanding entry standards.
Increase of the requirements for Technical Inspection Stations to better identify
damaged catalytic converters (Metropolitan
Region, Valparaíso, L. Bernardo O’Higgins
and Biobío).
2012-2014
SD 149/2006 MTT
(under revision)
More demanding entry standards.
2012
SD 130/2001 MTT
Criteria to renew (national) vehicle fleet.
2013
More demanding entry standards.
2012
SD 55/1994 MTT
(under revision)
Low-emission area for trucks in the
Metropolitan Region (2012).
2014
SD 18/ 2001 MTT
Fuel
Improvement
Sulfur contents in diesel and gasoline of 15
ppm (2013).
2012
SD 319 Ministry of
Energy
Light and Medium Vehicles
Economic incentives for low and zero emission vehicles.
2013
Compilation of
information
Removal of entry barriers for low and zero
emission technologies (e.g., freight infrastructure for electric vehicles) for the development of low mobility and zero emissions.
2012-2014
Buses
Trucks
Economic
Instruments
Consumer
Information
Decree
Deadline
Light and Medium Vehicles
Design and implementation of a labelling
system for new vehicles including: Efficiency, local pollutant emissions and CO2
(joint task of the Energy, Environment and
Transportation Ministries).
2012
-
SD 61/2012 Ministry of
Energy
87
air chapter 1
Residential Sector
In Chile, firewood represented 20 percent of the total primary energy
consumption in 2009, coming in second place after crude oil (CNE, 2008).
At the same time, it is the main fuel used in homes with 58 percent of
the power expenditure of the residential sector (CNE, 2008). Despite the
importance of firewood in the national energy matrix, this fuel and other
wood-derived products, are not considered as such in Chilean legislation.
AREA
Center
Santiago
1.10
Valparaíso
1.10
Rancagua
2.50
Concepción
2.50
Lota
Chillán
South
fig.
19
Distribution of Firewood Consumption in the Country
Source: CNE, 2006.
3.10
4.50
Temuco
6.0
Araucanía
6.0
Los Lagos
7.50
Valdivia
8.0
La Unión
9.0
Osorno
9.0
Villarrica
9.10
Río Negro
10.0
Puerto Montt
10.50
Quellón
11.50
Castro
11.50
Ancud
11.50
Puerto Chacabuco
16.0
Coyhaique
17.0
Aysén
0
21.90
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
m3s/home
25.0
88
chapter 1 air pollution
The use of firewood per home is higher at greater latitudes, since the daily
average temperatures diminish and the cold hours increase, as do home heating
hours. For example, in Coyhaique the annual firewood consumption per home
is 22 times higher than in a home located in Santiago.
The combustion of firewood and wood derivatives currently represents one of
the main sources of air pollution in all of the cities in the central and southern
areas of the country (Rancagua, Talca, Curicó, Linares, Chillán, Los Ángeles,
Concepción, Temuco, Osorno, Valdivia, Coyhaique, among others). The scenario
is even more unfavorable when taking into account that most of the particles
from biomass combustion correspond to a fraction smaller than 2.5 micrometers
(PM2.5) (CONAMA, 2002).
The bad quality of the fuel, due to the high content of humidity in firewood,
represents most of the PM emissions in this sector, followed by the low efficiency
of existing heaters, also associated to their bad operation (MoE 2011b). The use
of firewood stoves also represents an important source of pollutant emissions.
The preference for firewood as heating fuel is explained to a large extent
by its low price in relation to other substitutes. On the other hand, informal
firewood trade makes its price even cheaper. It is estimated that tax evasion in
this market would achieve over USD $15 million a year.
Table 10
Heating Cost per Fuel
Oil
Liquefied
Gas
Electricity
Firewood
Unit
(liter)
(kilogram)
(kw-hr)
(m3 s/home)
Superior Calorific Power
(kcal/unit)
9,156
12,100
860
1,641,920
90
92
100
65
623
956
106
24,000
8,240
11,132
860
1,067,248
Energy Source
Energy Conversion Efficiency (%)
Unit Cost ($)
Usable Calorific Energy (kcal/unit)
Units per net Gigacalorie
121
90
1,163
0.9
Cost per net Gigacalorie ($)
75,603
85,839
123,256
22,488
Cost in Relation to Firewood
3.4
3.8
5.5
1.0
Source: Kausel and Vergara, 2003, CCTP.
As shown above, firewood consumption is the main cause for pollution of cities in southern
89
Chile. Climate, cultural, and socioeconomic conditions associated to this
consumption, make it chanllenging to solve this problem. In this context, a
series of measures have been selected in order to reduce the negative impact
on the health of the population, including the following scopes of action:
π
π
π
π
π
More efficient and less pollutant heaters
Availability of dry firewood
Housing with lower energy demands
Modern alternative heating systems (district heating)
Community awareness and education
It is worth noting that, besides the impact on air quality, there are other
co-benefits when implementing these measures, such as the protection of
native forests, due to the reduction in the demand for firewood; the potential
decrease in the number of fires caused by damaged heaters; the increase in
tax collection, as a result of the formalization of this market; better-quality
housing; savings in fuel consumption and better jobs, associated to the chain
of production and commercialization of biomass fuels.
At the same time, work is being done to promote new technologies and
heating systems, supporting SMEs, for both technological innovation and development of new products. In this context, the Ministry of the Environment,
together with the Ministry of Energy, is carrying out a line of research for
the design and proposals of medium and long term measures aimed at the
introduction of efficient and environmentally-friendly thermal electric systems,
with the aim of reducing the emission of local and global pollutants. The
main expected outcomes are: Analysis of district heating technologies and a
proposal for a pilot project.
air chapter 1
90
chapter 1 air pollution
Level of Energy
Efficiency
95%
pellet
Heater
50% - 60%
Firewood
Heater
50%
Savings in
heating
resources
10] This decrease is explained by the
preference in the use of gas for cooking
and by the size of new housing in
urban areas, where the installation
and use of firewood stoves would be
impossible, mostly for low and medium
socieconomic strata
Replacement of Heaters 2011
Storage Center
Regarding firewood stoves, according to the data obtained from the 1992
and 2002 censuses, the number of stoves and their hours in use would be
progressively decreasing10, proving that homes using this appliance went from
19 percent to 13 percent during this period. Despite that, it is a problem that
is still not addressed due to the inexistence of cost-effective alternatives. Even
though the emission standard for residential-use appliances will allow measuring their emissions, these are not required to comply with established limits.
Pellet Heaters
A pellet heater simultaneously solves fuel technology, bad functioning and quality. It reaches an efficiency of 95 percent in fuel burning against the 50-60 percent of the traditional firewood heaters.
A pellet heater emits less than 10 percent of what a traditional
firewood heater does, depending on the operation conditions.
This type of equipment in housing, with proper insulation, could
save up to 30 percent in heating expenses. From this perspective,
replacing a firewood heater for a pellet one could be environmentally
and socially cost-efficient.
91
Table 11
Measures to Reduce Emissions from the Use of Firewood
Instruments
Deadlines
Decree/
Standard
Heaters
Emission standard for residential appliances using firewood
or other biomass fuels for
combustion.
2012
SD 39/2011 Ministry of
the Environment.
Firewood
Technical quality standards for
firewood and wood derivatives.
In force
Field
Actions
Inspection of the quality of
firewood, through
municipal ordinance.
Command and
Control
Housing
Economic
Instruments
air chapter 1
Heaters
Regulation on thermal
insulation.
Heater replacement program
NCH 2907-2005
NCH 3246-2011
2012-2014
_
2007
Decree N° 192 that
modifies Decree N° 47
(1992), General
Ordinance of
Urbanism and
Construction.
2010: Replacement of 1,000
heaters in the Metropolitan
area of the city of
Concepción.
2011: Pilot program in Temuco
and Padre las Casas (519) and
in Coyhaique (300).
2012: It is expected to achieve
the replacement of over 1,700
heaters in Coyhaique, 3,000
in Temuco; and 500 in Osorno,
Chillán and Valdivia.
The implementation of a pilot
program to replace heaters
to pellet heaters is planned
along with the Center of
Renewable Energies.
_
Continue on next page
92
Instruments
Field
Actions
Firewood
Encouragement for SMEs to create firewood storage and drying
centers (through a SERCOTEC
call for projects).
Housing
Subsidies for thermal enhancement of housings, Family
Heritage Protection Program. It
allows improvement of thermal
insulation of social housing or
housing whose appraisal does
not exceed 650 UF, owned by
families with a maximum of
13,484 points in their Social
Protection Card.
Heaters
Labelling of efficiency and emissions on heaters.
Firewood
Voluntary certification
system for firewood.
Economic
Instruments
Population
Education
and
Awareness
Voluntary
agreements
chapter 1 air pollution
Firewood
Deadlines
2011: 186 million Chilean pesos in the Maule, Araucanía,
Biobío, Los Lagos, and Aysén
regions, for subsidies from 2
to 16 million Chilean pesos
each.
2012: There is a total of 140
million Chilean pesos
available.
2007
2013 (as required in the
emission standard)
Decree/
Standard
_
SD 255/2006
Ministry of Housing
and Urbanism
SD 39/2011 Ministry of
the Environment
2009 (private sector
initiative)
_
2013
_
Training campaign regarding the
use of heaters, dry firewood
consumption and insulation.
2011-2014
_
Clean Production Agreement
between firewood merchants of
the main consumption centers
in southern Chile.
2010
_
Lines of the Environmental
Protection Fund for education
on pollution problems from
firewood burning.
93
Air Quality Monitoring
The Clean Air Program also considers the need of implementing a wider
coverage of PM2.5 monitoring at a national level, in accordance with the entry
into force of the primary quality standard for this pollutant (2012).
As shown in the following chart, quality standards are the basis for emission
control policies. However, in both the assessments for diagnosis aimed at
verifying air quality levels in relation to standards, as in those for following
up on the impacts of the control measures on air quality, it is necessary to
have air quality monitoring systems.
Air Quality
Standards
Diagnosis
Emission Control
Air Quality
Monitoring
Diagnosis
In Chile, there are currently three public air quality monitoring networks:
The MACAM network of the Metropolitan Region, with 11 automatic stations;
the SIVICA network, aimed at monitoring 15 cities across the country; and the
monitoring network of Greater Concepción, which has eight stations. These
networks are mainly focused on measuring PM10.
Since 2012, monitoring stations are operated by the Ministry of the Environment. Due to the relevance of the issue, it has been deemed necessary
to improve and increase the amount of air quality monitoring equipment,
mainly for PM2.5, in cities with more than 100 thousand inhabitants in order to
strengthen this system, according to the country’s needs. At the same time,
one of the priority objectives of this work is allowing public online access to
the recorded information.
Along with the measurement of fine particulate matter, it is necessary to
make progress in the description of its components. The main components
of PM2.5 are organic carbon, elemental carbon, sulfates, nitrates, ammoniums,
sodium chloride or salt, materials of geologic origin as surface dust, metals
and other trace elements. Through the description of these components, it
air chapter 1
chapter 1 air pollution
94
11] For example, organic and
elemental carbon can be associated
with combustion processes, while
sulfates and nitrates are directly
linked to the conversion of Sox
and Nox emissions into secondary
particulate matter. At the same time,
compounds such as sodium chloride
are present in particulate matter,
mainly in locations close to the sea,
and are of natural origin.
is possible to identify more accurately the emission sources responsible for
their formation11, thus determining the most adequate control measures to be
incorporated into air decontamination plans. Figure 25 shows the results of
measurement campaigns performed with an ACSM (Aerosol Chemical Speciation
Monitor), installed at the USACH station, which allows a continuous description
of the components that make up PM2.5.
This station had an approximate cost of one hundred thousand dollars,
financed by a collaborative project between the Santiago de Chile University,
the Ministry of the Environment, the Finnish Meterological Institute, and the
Marion Molina Nobel Prize Center.
Concentration
(µg/m3)
Measuremements
Carried out with an
ACSM Monitor
fig.
20
120
80
40
0
Organic Components
Nitrate
30
20
10
0
Sulphate
12
8
4
0
Ammonia
30
20
10
0
Hydrochloric
40
30
20
10
0
Sep.1st.2011
Oct.1st.2011
Date
Nov.1st.2011
95
References
Acuerdo de Producción Limpia (APL), 2011. Zona Industrial
Puchuncaví-Quintero. Valparaíso.
Banco Central de Chile, 2011. Cuentas Nacionales 2003-2010. Santiago de Chile: Banco Central de Chile.
Chile Ambiente Corporación, 2009. Informe final análisis del potencial estratégico de la leña en la matriz energética chilena. Santiago:
Comisión Nacional de Energía.
Chow, J. C. Y Watson, J. G., 1998. Guideline on specified particulate
monitoring prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. San
Francisco, C.A.: Desert Research Institute, Reno N.V.
Comisión Chilena del Cobre (COCHILCO), 2003. Mercado del cobre
y desarrollo sustentable en la minería, Capítulo 2: Análisis de inversiones
y costos ambientales. Santiago: Cochilco.
Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente (CONAMA), 2002. Priorización de medidas de reducción de emisiones por uso residencial de
leña para la gestión de la calidad del aire en Temuco y Padre Las Casas.
SANTIAGO: Universidad de Concepción.
Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente (CONAMA), 2009a.
Antecedentes para el análisis general de impacto económico y social del
anteproyecto de la Norma de Calidad Primaria para MP2,5 (AGIES). Carried
out by DICTUC Santiago, Chile.
Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente (CONAMA), 2009b.
Informe final: Análisis general del impacto económico y social de una
norma de emisión para termoeléctricas. Prepared by GEO Aire and KAS
Ingeniería. Santiago: Conama.
Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente (CONAMA), 2010.
Informe final relación de la norma de calidad primaria MP2,5 con la
norma de calidad primaria de MP10. Prepared by Luis Cifuentes. Santiago:
Conama.
Comisión Nacional de Energía (CNE), 1991-2008. Balance Nacional de Energía (informes anuales). Available at: www.cne.cl, accesed in
November 2011.
Comisión Nacional de Energía (CNE), 2006. Informe Final Diagnóstico del mercado de la leña en Chile. Santiago: CNE.
Comisión Nacional de Seguridad de Tránsito (CONASET), 2010.
Evolución de siniestros de tránsito 1972-2010. Available at: http://www.
conaset.cl/conaset_web/contenido.php?id=73, accessed in December
2011.
air chapter 1
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chapter 1 air pollution
Dirección de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (DICTUC), 2011a. Valores recomendados a utilizar en la realización de un AGIES que incorpore un análisis
costo beneficio - salud. Santiago: Ministerio del Medio Ambiente.
Dirección de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (DICTUC), 2011b. Elaboración
de una matriz fuente receptor a nivel nacional que aporte como insumo a la
valoración económica dela reducción del riesgo en salud asociado a la contaminación del aire. Santiago: Ministerio del Medio Ambiente.
Dirección Meteorología de Chile, 2010. Available at http://www.meteochile.cl/nino_nina/nino_nina_descripcion_niN°html
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2009. Integrated science assessment for particulate matter: Final report. Research Triangle Park, NC, US
Government.
Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas (INE), 2001-2010. Anuario, Parque
de vehículos en circulación. Santiago: INE.
Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas (INE), 1999 al 2009. Informes anuales de generación eléctrica y cifras provisionales para el 2010. Available
at: www.ine.cl, accessed during November 2011
Jorquera, H., 2007. Apuntes de contaminación atmosférica. Santiago: UC.
Kausel y Vergara, 2003. El uso de la leña como combustible en la IX
Región: aspectos económicos. Capítulo 2. In: BURSCHEL, H., HERNÁNDEZ A. and
LOBOS,M. (eds.). Leña: una fuente energética renovable para Chile. Santiago:
Editorial Universitaria, p. 41-54.
Kavouras, I. G., Koutrakis, P., Cereceda-Balic, F. y Oyola,P. 2001.
Source apportionment of PM10 and PM2,5 in five chilean cities using factor
analysis. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 51: 451-464.
Ministerio del Medio Ambiente (MMA), 2011a. Análisis general de impacto económico y social del anteproyecto de revisión de la norma de emisión de NO, HC y CO para el control del Nox en vehículos en uso, de encendido
por chispa (AGIES). Santiago: Ministerio del Medio Ambiente.
Ministerio del Medio Ambiente (MMA), 2011b. Elaboración de una
matriz fuente receptor a nivel nacional, que aporte como insumo a la valoración económica de la reducción del riesgo en salud asociado a la contaminación del aire. Santiago: Ministerio del Medio Ambiente.
Ministerio del Medio Ambiente (MMA), 2011c. Base de datos del
Registro de Emisiones y Transferencias de Contaminantes (RETC). Available at
http://www.retc.cl
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Organización de Cooperación y Desarrollo Económico y Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (OCDE and CEPAL), 2005. Evaluación sobre el Desempeño Ambiental. Santiago: OCDE.
Pope, C. A., 3Rd y Dockery,D. W., 2006. Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 56(6): 709-742.
Servicio Agrícola Ganadero y Ministerio de Salud (SAG and
MINSAL), 2010. Evaluación de cumplimiento de Plan de Descontaminación Complejo Industrial Ventanas. Santiago.
Sterner, Thomas, 2002. Instrumentos de política económica para el
manejo del ambiente y los recursos naturales. Turrialba, Costa Rica: Centro
Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza.
Tietenberg, T., 1998. Disclosure strategies for pollution control. Environmental and Resource Economics, 11, 587-602.
air chapter 1
98
chapter 1 air pollution
Appendix
Table 1
Air Quality Primary Standards
Pollutant
Supreme
Decree
Level
Unit
O3
112/2002
120
µg/m3
8-hour mobile average
99th Percentile
PM10
59/1998
50
µg/m3
Triannual arithmetic mean
Not allowed
150
µg/m3
Daily arithmetic mean
98th Percentile
20
µg/m3
Annual arithmetic mean
Not allowed
50
µg/m
Daily arithmetic mean
98th Percentile
80
µg/m3
Annual arithmetic mean
Not allowed
250
µg/m3
Daily arithmetic mean
99th Percentile
100
µg/m3
Anual arithmetic mean
Not allowed
400
µg/m3
Hourly arithmetic mean
99th Percentile
10,000
µg/m3
8-hour mobile arithmetic average
99th Percentile
30,000
µg/m
8-hour mobile arithmetic average
99th Percentile
PM10
PM2,5
12/2011
PM2,5
SO2
113/2002
SO2
NO2
114/2002
NO2
CO
115/2002
CO
Pb
3
SO2
Exceedance
136/2000
Air Quality Secondary Standards
Table 2
Pollutant
Supreme Decree
SEDIMENTABLE PM
3
Metrics
Level
4/1992
Huasco
River basin
185/1991
……..
Unit
Metrics
Exceedance
99
Table 3
Type of
Effect
Premature
Mortality
Medical
Actions
Health Effects of Selected Pollutants
Effect
Premature
Mortality
Hospital
Admissions
Exposure
Pollutant
Cause
Acute
PM2,5, PM10
All
O3
Chronic
PM2,5
Acute
All
All
Bell et al. (2005)
Cardiopulmonary
>30
Pope et al. (2004)
PM2,5
Heart Attacks
65+
Ito (2003)
PM2,5
Dysrhythmia
65+
Ito (2003)
PM2,5
Ischemic Heart
Disease
65+
Ito (2003)
PM2,5
Chronic Lung
Disease
18-64
PM2,5
Chronic Lung
Disease
65+
Ito (2003)
PM2,5
Pneumonia
65+
Ito (2003)
PM2,5
Heart Illnesses
Medical
Actions
Loss of
Productivity
Hospital
Admissions
Acute
Acute
Moolgavkar (2000)
18-64
Moolgavkar (2000)
65+
Moolgavkar (2003)
Asthma
0-64
Sheppard (2003)
Respiratory
Diseases
65+
Schwartz (1995)
PM2,5
Asthma
0-17
Norris et al. (1999)
O3
Asthma
Todos
Peel et al. (2005)
O3
Missed School Days
0-17
Gilliland et al.
(2001)
PM2,5
Missed
workdays
18-64
Ostro (1987)
PM2,5
Restricted
Activity Days
18-64
Ostro (1987)
PM2,5
Low Restricted
Activity Days
18-64
Ostro and
Rothschild (1989)
O3
Low Restricted Activity Days
18-64
So2
Respiratory
Diseases
O3
Acute
Source
Cifuentes et al.
(2000)
PM2,5
Emergency
Room Visits
Age
Group
All
PM2,5
Activity
Restriction
air chapter 1
65+
Ostro and
Rothschild (1989)
Schwartz et al.
(2003)
Continue on next page
100
Type of
Effect
Effect
chapter 1 air pollution
Exposure
Emergency
Room Visits
Pollutant
Acute
Loss of
Productivity
Cause
Age
Group
Source
No2
Respiratory
Diseases
65+
Fung et al. (2006)
So2
Asthma
0-14
Wilson et al.
(2007)
So2
Asthma
65+
Wilson et al.
(2007)
No2
Asthma
75+
Villeneuve et al.
(2007)
No2
Cough
7-14
Schwartz et al.
(1994)
No2
Missed School Days
4-12
O’Connor et al.
(2008)
Source: DICTUC, 2011.
Table 4
Commune
Year of Air Quality Measurement Used as Reference in the State Chapter
PM2.5
PM10
NO2
SO2
O3
Andacollo
-
2009
-
-
-
Antofagasta
-
2009
-
2007
2009
Cabildo
-
2009
-
-
-
Calama
-
2008
-
2008
-
Calera
-
2009
2009
2008
2008
Catemu
-
2003
-
-
-
Cerrillos
2010
2009
2010
2009
2010
Cerro Navia
2010
2009
2010
2009
2010
Chiguayante
-
2009
-
-
-
2010
2010
Codegua
-
2008
2010
2007
2007
Concón
2008
2009
2009
2009
2009
Chillán
Continue on next page
101
Commune
PM2.5
PM10
NO2
SO2
O3
Copiapó
-
2009
-
2009
-
Coronel
-
2009
2010
-
2010
Coyhaique
-
2009
-
-
-
2008
2009
-
-
-
Diego de
Almagro
-
2009
-
-
-
El Bosque
2010
2009
-
2010
2010
Freirina
-
-
-
2009
-
Hualpén
-
2010
2009
2010
-
Huasco
-
2009
-
2009
-
2010
2009
2010
2010
2010
Iquique
-
-
-
2009
2009
La Cruz
-
2009
-
2008
2008
La Florida
2010
2009
2010
2010
2010
Las Condes
2010
2009
2010
2009
2010
-
-
2010
-
2008
2009
-
-
-
-
Los Angeles
-
2009
-
-
-
Los Vilos
-
2009
-
-
-
Machalí
-
2008
-
2008
-
Máfil
-
2009
2009
2009
2009
María Elena
-
2009
-
-
-
Mejillones
-
2009
2008
2008
-
Mostazal
-
2008
2009
2007
2007
Olivar
-
2009
-
-
-
Curicó
Independencia
Llayllay
Los Andes
Continue on next page
air chapter 1
102
Commune
chapter 1 air pollution
PM2.5
PM10
NO2
SO2
O3
2010
2010
-
-
-
Padre las Casas
-
2009
-
-
-
Pica
-
2009
-
-
-
Portezuelo
-
2009
-
-
-
Pozo Almonte
-
2009
-
-
-
Puchuncaví
-
2009
2010
2010
2010
Pudahuel
2010
2009
2010
2009
2010
Puente Alto
2010
2009
2010
2010
2010
Quilicura
2010
2009
2010*
2010
2010
Quillota
-
2009
2009
2008
2008
Quilpué
-
2009
-
-
-
Quintero
-
2009
2010
2009
-
Rancagua
2008
2010
2008
2009
2009
Rengo
-
2009
-
-
2009
Requinoa
-
-
2007
-
-
Salamanca
-
2009
-
-
-
San Fernando
-
2009
2010
-
2009
Santiago
2010
2009
2007
2010
2010
Talagante
2010
2009
2007
2010
2010
Talca
2008
2009
-
-
-
Talcahuano
-
2010
2009
2010
-
Taltal
-
-
2009*
-
2009
2010
2010
2009
-
-
Teno
-
-
-
2009
-
Tierra Amarilla
-
2009
-
2009
-
Tocopilla
-
2009
2008
2009
-
Osorno
Temuco
Continue on next page
103
Commune
PM2.5
PM10
NO2
SO2
O3
-
2009
-
-
-
Valdivia
2010
2009
-
-
-
Viña del Mar
2009
2009
2010
2009
2009
Tomé
Source: National System and Air Quality Information, 2011.
* The maximum value was given to the 0.995 percentile, due to possible atypical measurements.
air chapter 1
104
9
1
34
0
Total
2
Thermoelectric
Power Plants
Firewood
11
Other
Industrial
Processes
Other
Mobile Sources
Foundries
Boilers
Emissions per Region and Type of Source (Tons/year)
Area
Table 5
chapter 1 air pollution
336
2
995
Sox
Arica and
Parinacota
645
Tarapacá
Antofagasta
1,390
10
3,208
164,543
4
54,893
Coquimbo
24
1,033
Valparaíso
240
2,752
Metropolitan of
Santiago
303
2,388
Libertador General
Bernardo O’Higgins
106
3,611
Maule
32
Bíobío
Atacama
Araucanía
732
605
22,963
24,968
4,022
73,117
245,667
45,705
104,236
6
2
3,627
26
13
2,255
56
39
3,835
3,488
29,967
69,691
147
12
8,008
2,578
71
13,507
16
73
184
1,429
91
167,815
4,690
23
106
168
905
30
5,953
2,290
22,554
110
336
5,410
15,010
45,709
115
3,611
14
257
228
24
4,249
Los Ríos
29,316
162,305
0
3,351
1,989
5
127
499
19
2,640
Los Lagos
36
5,421
27
450
12,330
351
18,616
Aysén del General
Carlos Ibáñez del
Campo
78
103
3
32
208
14
438
Magallanes and
Chilean Antarctic
3
95
8
42
800
0
948
Total
708,782
Continue on next page
Other
Thermoelectric
Power Plants
Total
1,317
11
204
42
1,759
Tarapacá
531
2,083
6
10,968
5,270
18,858
7,394
24,783
39,046
10,028
9,231
20,001
Foundries
185
Boilers
Arica and
Parinacota
Area
Firewood
air chapter 1
Mobile Sources
105
Other
Industrial
Processes
Nox
Antofagasta
8
Atacama
Coquimbo
Valparaíso
1,877
303
2,496
3
2
75
650
14
156
2,036
93
5,923
274
1,156
7,352
7,706
25,547
31,345
85
4,090
6,389
2,008
50,058
1,470
557
264
2,588
708
10,037
2,405
743
38
3,810
106
9,049
9,999
8,171
2,355
2,718
5,781
29,023
2,049
1,540
1,801
761
38
6,609
2
2,940
Metropolitan of
Santiago
1,792
4,350
Libertador General
Bernardo O’Higgins
3,031
1,315
241
1,842
419
Maule
Bíobío
Araucanía
2,183
195
105
6,945
0
9,230
Los Ríos
349
517
889
3,128
4
4,887
Los Lagos
694
2,109
3,152
9,011
1,494
16,460
49
254
223
3,884
258
5,139
362
639
292
99
6
1,397
Aysén del General
Carlos Ibáñez del
Campo
Magallanes and
Chilean Antarctic
Total
471
247,099
Continue on next page
Other
Thermoelectric
Power Plants
Total
117.83
117.25
50.73
2.95
321
Tarapacá
34.40
77.12
59.81
539.86
379.05
1,090
2,271.82
1,222.69
17,888
952.26
621.80
4,244
Foundries
32.36
Boilers
Arica and
Parinacota
Area
Firewood
chapter 1 air pollution
Mobile Sources
106
Other
Industrial
Processes
PM2,5
Antofagasta
116.05
Atacama
82.29
9,420.33
232.66
30.38
0.05
2,476.81
38.74
154.64
Coquimbo
269.45
34.00
Valparaíso
2,227.62
374.74
Metropolitan of
Santiago
1,468.00
185.89
Libertador General
Bernardo O’Higgins
9,830.35
195.24
Maule
2,718.51
Biobío
Araucanía
4,512.15
186.83
994.76
317.57
2,935.69
29.74
1,401.65
565.01
8,289
1,932.05
673.56
541.26
445.71
16.22
5,016
136.46
1,837.40
975.93
1,146.21
338.21
15,897
1,115.22
221.80
7,963.79
1.59
363.55
74.74
12,449
21,768.38
3,116.16
552.75
25,229.74
358.62
4,997.94
56,024
10,785.30
744.01
162.08
19,293.17
111.26
11.67
31,107
Los Ríos
528.27
126.11
42.64
9,525.64
66.99
2.40
10,292
Los Lagos
437.37
1,437.30
25.67
1,511
778.41
320.53
323.45
33,769.59
273.99
19.56
35,486
Aysén del General
Carlos Ibáñez del
Campo
7,440.72
39.07
44.92
2,386.09
37.17
2.18
9,950
Magallanes and
Chilean Antarctic
23.14
260.24
106.40
3,123.41
481.01
0.13
3,994
Total
Source: Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2011c.
213,559
Maximum
98th* or 99th Percentile
The commune with the highest
concentrations of O3 is Las Condes,
followed by La Florida and Santiago.
120
1st or 2nd Percentile
Minimum
1
100
80
60
40
20
Iquique Antofagasta
15th
Region
Quillota
2nd Region
NORTH
San
Felipe
de Aconcagua
Valparaíso
5th Region
Cordillera
(2010)
(2010)
Talagante
Santiago
(2007)
(2007)
(2009)
(2009)
Cachapoal
6th Region
Metropolitan Region
CENTER
Máfil
(2010)
Coronel
(2010)
San Fernando
(2010)
Rengo
(2010)
Rancagua
(2010)
Mostazal
(2010)
Codegua
(2010)
Talagante
(2010)
Santiago
El Bosque
(2010)
Quilicura
Cerro Navia
(2009)
Pudahuel
Cerrillos
(2010)
Las Condes
Puente Alto
(2009)
La Florida
Viña del Mar
(2008)
Independencia
Puchuncaví
(2008)
Concón
(2008)
Llayllay
(2008)
Quillota
(2009)
La Cruz
(2009)
Calera
0
Taltal
Source: National System and
Information on Air Quality.
See years of measurements
in Appendix Table 4.
fig.
Iquique
O3 - 8-hour
Mobile Average
[ppb]
75th percentile
50th percentile or median
25th percentile
Annual average
The information used (MINSAL monitoring network and private
monitoring stations) is for reference only , due to the presence of
gaps in information and due to the fact that validation processes
have not ended yet. The validated information is going to be
presented on the 2012 report of the state of the environment of
Chile. The years considered can be viewed in Appendix Table 4.
(2009) (2010)
(2009)
Colcha- Biobío
gua
Valdivia
8th
Region
14th
Region
The concentration of SO2 is below the
established limits for the daily and annual
standards.
The information used (MINSAL monitoring network and private
monitoring stations) is for reference only , due to the presence of
gaps in information and due to the fact that validation processes
have not ended yet. The validated information is going to be
presented on the 2012 report of the state of the environment of
Chile. The years considered can be viewed in Appendix Table 4.
Daily SO2
[µg/m3]
fig.
2
Source: National System and
Information on Air Quality.
See years of measurements
in Appendix Table 4.
250
200
150
100
50
Copiapó
Huasco
Atacama Region
NORTH
Quillota
Valparaíso
Valparaíso Region
Cordillera
Santiago
Metropolitan Region
CENTER
Talagante
Cachapoal
L. General Bernardo O’Higgins Region
Máfil
Talcahuano
Hualpén
Teno
Rancagua
Mostazal
Machalí
Codegua
Talagante
Santiago
Quilicura
Pudahuel
Las Condes
La Florida
Independencia
El Bosque
Cerro Navia
Cerrillos
Puente Alto
Viña del Mar
Quintero
Puchuncaví
Concón
Quillota
La Cruz
Calera
Huasco
Freirina
Tocopilla
Tierra Amarilla
El Loa
Antofagasta Region
Copiapó
Tocopilla
Mejillones
Antofagasta
Calama
Iquique
Tarapaca
Region
Antofagasta
Iquique
0
Curicó
Concepción
Valdivia
Maule
Region
Biobío Region
Los Ríos
Region
SOUTH
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
Huasco
Copiapó
Atacama Region
Antofagasta Region
NORTH
La Cruz
Calera
Huasco
Freirina
Tocopilla
Tierra Amarilla
El Loa
Copiapó
Tocopilla
Mejillones
Antofagasta
Calama
Iquique
Tarapaca
Region
Antofagasta
Iquique
0
Quillota
Valparaíso
Valparaíso Region
CENTER
fig.
3
Hourly SO2 [µg/m3]
Source: National System and Information on Air Quality. See
years of measurements in Appendix Table 4.
Talagante
Cachapoal
Libertador General Bernardo O’Higgins Region
Curicó
Concepción
Maule Region
Biobío Region
SOUTH
Máfil
Talcahuano
Hualpén
Teno
Rancagua
Mostazal
Machalí
Codegua
Talagante
Santiago
Quilicura
Pudahuel
Las Condes
La Florida
Minimum
Independencia
El Bosque
1st or 2nd Percentile
Metropolitan Region
However, there are records highly exceeding
the hourly limit established in the European
regulation, of a maximum of 350 micrograms
per cubic meter of SO2.
75th percentile
50th percentile or median
25th percentile
Annual average
Santiago
Cordillera
Maximum
98th* or 99th Percentile
Cerro Navia
Cerrillos
Puente Alto
Viña del Mar
Quintero
Puchuncaví
Concón
Quillota
The information used (MINSAL monitoring network and private
monitoring stations) is for reference only , due to the presence of
gaps in information and due to the fact that validation processes
have not ended yet. The validated information is going to be
presented on the 2012 report of the state of the environment of
Chile. The years considered can be viewed in Appendix Table 4.
Valdivia
Los Ríos
Region
400
350
1st or 2nd Percentile
Minimum
300
250
200
150
100
50
Calera
Quillota
Llayllay
Concón
Puchuncaví
Quintero
Viña del Mar
Puente Alto
Cerrillos
Cerro Navia
Independencia
La Florida
Las Condes
Pudahuel
Quilicura
Santiago
0
Tocopilla
4
75th percentile
50th percentile or median
25th percentile
Annual average
Taltal
Source: National System and
Information on Air Quality.
See years of measurements in
Appendix Table 4.
fig.
The information used (MINSAL monitoring network and priva
monitoring stations) is for reference only , due to the presence
gaps in information and due to the fact that validation process
have not ended yet. The validated information is going to
presented on the 2012 report of the state of the environment
Chile. The years considered can be viewed in Appendix Table
Maximum
98th* or 99th Percentile
Mejillones
NO2 per Hour
[µg/m3]
The concentration of NO2 is noteworthy in the
Santiago Province and can be associated to
emissions by the transportation sector in the
area.
However, recorded levels are below the limits
established in the standard.
(2009)
(2009)
(2008)
(2008)
(2008)
(2009)
San Felipe
de Aconcagua
(2009)
(2010)
(2009)
(2008)
(2010)
(2010)
(2010)
(2010)
(2010)
(2010)
(2010)
(2010)
(2010)
Antofagasta
Antofagasta Region
NORTH
Tocopilla
Quillota
Valparaíso
Valparaíso Region
Cordillera
Santiago
Metropolitan Region
CENTER
T
Talagante
Codegua
Mostazal
Rancagua
Requinoa
San Fernando
Coronel
Hualpén
Talcahuano
Temuco
Máfil
ate
e of
ses
be
of
4.
(2010)
(2007)
(2007)
(2010)
(2009)
(2008)
(2007)
(2010)
(2010)
(2009)
(2009)
Talagante
Cachapoal
Libertador Gral. Bernardo O’Higgins Region
Colchagua
Concepción
Cautín
Araucanía
Region
Biobío Region
SOUTH
Valdivia
Los Ríos Region