Fatty acid profile, quality lipid index and bioactive

Cien. Inv. Agr. 41(2):225-234. 2014
www.rcia.uc.cl
value products from organic residues
DOI: 10.4067/S0718-16202014000200009
research paper
Fatty acid profile, quality lipid index and bioactive compounds of flour
from grape residues
Leilane D. Lopes1, Bruna R. Böger1, Kelen F. Cavalli1, José F. dos S.
Silveira-Júnior1, Daniel V. C. L. Osório1, Débora F. de Oliveira2, Luciano
Luchetta1, and Ivane B. Tonial1
Departamento de Tecnologia de Alimentos, Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná/UTFPR, Linha
Santa Bárbara s/n, 85601-970, Francisco Beltrão, PR, Brazil.
2
Departamento de Engenharia de Alimentos, Universidade Federal de Rondônia/UNIR, Avenida Tancredo
Neves 3450, Setor Institucional, 76872-862, Ariquemes, RO, Brazil.
1
Abstract
L.D. Lopes, B.R. Böger, K.F. Cavalli, J.F. dos S. Silveira-Júnior, D.V.C.L. Osório, D.F.
de Oliveira, L. Luchetta, and I.B. Tonial. 2014. Fatty acid profile, quality lipid index
and bioactive compounds of flour from grape residues. Cien. Inv. Agr. 41(2): 225-234.
The present study evaluated the proximate composition, the nutrition indexes of lipids and
the presence of biologically active compounds in the flour of bagasse from grapes cultivated
by conventional (CC) and organic (OC) methods. CC flour had high percentages of proteins,
lipids, calories and saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids. On the other hand, OC flour had
higher percentages of polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids,
ash and carbohydrates. The results demonstrated good nutritional potential for flour from grape
bagasse and justified technological applications of the byproduct as a functional ingredient in
the formulation of food products.
Key words: Bioactive compound, byproduct, grape bagasse, lipid quality.
Introduction
Grapes (Vitis spp), the fruit of the grape vine, are
among the most ancient foods known to mankind
with more than 10,000 varieties worldwide. Brazil
currently produces approximately 1.2 million tons
of grapes per year, of which 45% is transformed
into wine and juices and jellies, and 20% is waste
byproduct. Grape bagasse, a solid waste retrieved
from grape processing, comprises the solid parts
of the grapes as well as the must, which is rich
Received January 29, 2014. Accepted July 14, 2014.
Corresponding author: ivane@utfpr.edu.br
in sugars, proteins and unsaturated fatty acids
(Perestrelo et al., 2012).
The transformation of grape bagasse into flour
may be a viable alternative for the reutilization of
the byproduct (Sáyago-Ayerdi et al., 2009), which
may be used in the production of hamburgers and
sausages (Özvural and Vural, 2011) and inserted
into yogurts (Coda et al., 2012) and salad dressings (Tseng and Zhao, 2013). Grape bagasse flour
contains high amounts of flavonoids, which are
excellent antioxidants that reduce free radicals and
prevent degenerative diseases.
226
ciencia e investigación agraria
A study by Perestrelo et al. (2012) has described
the phenolic profile of different grape varieties as
being characterized by 40 phenolic compounds.
That study contributed towards the valorization
of the fruit as a source of bioactive substances.
The authors revealed that natural and processed
grapes are an important source of biologically
active compounds and are highly beneficial to
health. Additionally, not only do these grapes
have antioxidant potential but they also have antiallergenic, antiarteriogenic, anti-inflammatory,
antimicrobial and antithrombosis pharmacological traits as well as heart-protecting properties.
Although Vitis labrusca, one of the cultivars
produced in Brazil, is known for its hardiness and
resistance to fungal diseases, agrochemicals have
been applied to the vine due to climate oscillations
and to its vulnerability to biological onslaughts.
Continuous application of agrochemicals may
affect consumers´ health and well-being through
the accumulation of products manufactured from
copper (Bordeaux mixture) and of synthetic and
organic fungicides in the soil (Perestrelo et al.,
2012).
Material and methods
Samples
Vitis labrusca cv. ‘Concord’ grapes produced
in two vineyards, each 10 years old using either
conventional or organic systems, were used for
the production of grape bagasse flour. The flour
was from the 2011-2012 harvest in the Verê PR
Brazil municipality. The vineyards were located
in the same region. The conventional production
vineyard had a 564 m altitude with a latitude
of 25°54’01’’ S and longitude of 52º53’51’’ W,
and the organic vineyard had an altitude of 492
m, a latitude of 25°51’21’’ S and a longitude of
52º55’06’’ W. The properties are within 5.3 km
of each other and are therefore under similar
climatic conditions.
The residue used in the production of grape flour
was collected in a juice facility located in the same
region as the vineyards. For the study, we used
approximately 50 kg of grape residue (skins and
seeds), which included 25 kg from the organic
system and 25 kg from the conventional system.
On the other hand, cultivation with organic
manure has been recommended by Coda et al.
(2012) as a sustainable alternative for the possible production of grapes without any chemical
residues. Therefore, health risks to the consumer
are largely decreased. Although no conclusive
studies exist that prove the nutritional gains
from organic food, consumers already associate
consumption of organic foods with low exposure
to agrochemicals and with better health.
The grape wastes were dried in an air muffle at
60 ºC for 7 days. After cooling, the dry waste
was ground in a food processor and sieved in
20 – 50 mesh sieves at room temperature in the
dark. Approximately 7.0 kg of flour from each
mode of cultivation was vacuum packed and
stored until analysis.
The current study analyzes the nutritional and
lipid quality of grape bagasse flour obtained
by drying and retrieved from conventional and
organic production. This study evaluates proximal composition, fatty acid profile, nutritional
quality indexes of lipids and the presence of
biologically active compounds in the two different flour types.
The extracts were obtained by cold hydroalcoholic
extraction. From each sample, 60 g of the extracts
were homogenized in 60 mL of 80% ethanol
(Merck, Darmstadt/Germany) in a mixer for 10
min. After wards, the samples were centrifuged
at 3500 rpm for 20 min. An additional 60 mL of
80% ethanol was added to the precipitate to obtain
a new extract. The new extract was mixed for 10
Preparation of extracts
VOLUME 41 Nº2 MAY – AUGUST 2014
min and subsequently centrifuged for 20 min.
The same procedure was repeated once more.
All supernatants were pooled to create a single
hydroalcoholic extract per sample. The extracts
were kept at -18 °C until analysis.
Physical and chemical analyses
Percentage of moisture, ash, proteins, total lipids,
carbohydrates and caloric. Moisture, ash and
protein percentages were determined by methodologies following the AOAC (2008). Total lipids
were calculated by gravimeter following Bligh
and Dyer (1959). The carbohydrate percentage was
obtained by calculating the difference between
100% and the sum of protein, lipid, moisture and
ash percentages (Instituto Adolpho Lutz, 2008),
whereas calories were the sum of carbohydrate
and protein percentages multiplied by four and
the lipid percentages multiplied by nine according to coefficients from Atwater (Tagle, 1981).
Lipid transesterification and determination of
fatty acids. Total lipid transesterification was
performed following method 5509 of the International Organization for Standardization (1978).
Fatty acids were determined by analyzing esters
with a gas chromatograph 431-GC (Varian, Inc.
Walnut Creek/USA) equipped with a 210-MS
mass detector of the same trademark and a VF-5
ms fused-silica capillary column (30 m, 0.25 mm,
0.25 mm). Column temperature was programmed
at 8 °C min-1 from 100 °C to 250 °C. Gas flow
(He) was kept at 1.0 mL min-1, and the split ratio
was 1/50. Fatty acids were identified by comparing the fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) peaks´
relative retention times from each sample with
methyl ester standards of fatty acids (Supelco/
Sigma-Aldrich, São Paulo/Brazil).
Indexes of lipid nutritional quality (INQ). The
nutritional quality of the lipid fraction of samples of
grape bagasse flour was determined by examining
the fatty acid profile and taking into consideration
three indexes: atherogenicity (AI), thrombogenicity
227
(TI) and the ratio between hypocholesterolemic
and hypercholesterolemic fatty acids (HH). The
following calculations were employed:
a) Atherogenicity Index
(AI) = [(C12:0 + 4×C14:0+C16:0)]/(ΣAGMI+
Σn-6+Σn-3)
b) Thrombogenicity Index
( T I ) = (C14: 0 + C16: 0 + C18: 0) /
[(0,5×ΣAGMI)+(0,5×Σn-6)+(3×Σn-3)+( Σn-3/n-6)]
c) Ratio of hypocholesterolemic and hypercholesterolemic fatty acids
(HH)=(C18:1n-9+C18:2n-6+C20:4n-6+C18:3n-3+C20:5n-3+C22:5n-3+C22:6n-3)/(C14:0+C16:0)
Antioxidant activity. Antioxidant activity was
determined by the DPPH method (2,2-diphenyl1-picryl-hidrazila). An aliquot of 0.1 mL of the
samples was transferred to test tubes with 3.9
mL of DPPH and 0.1 mL of the control solution
of methyl alcohol (Merck, Darmstadt/Germany),
acetone (Merck, Darmstadt/Germany) and water.
Then, homogenization was performed in shaker
tubes. Readings of absorbance in a spectrophotometer (spectrophotometer UV-VIS, Femto
model 800X, São Paulo/Brazil) at 515 nm were
carried out after 30 min of reaction time. The
reaction time was established through previous
tests ranging from 30 min to 24 h. Quantification was based on establishing a standard curve
in concentrations of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60
mM, from an initial DPPH solution (60 mM).
The results were expressed as EC50 (g flour g-1
DPPH). The obtained values correspond to the
amount of sample required to reduce by 50% the
initial concentration of DPPH. Additionally, we
determined the free radical scavenging activity
from a standard curve of Trolox (6- hydroxy
-2,5,7,8- tetramethylchromane 2- carboxylic
acid) (Fluka/Sigma-Aldrich, WGK/Germany).
Different solutions (0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 mM)
228
ciencia e investigación agraria
were prepared from an initial Trolox solution (20
mM). Each concentration was transferred to 20,
100, 200, 300 and 600 mL test tubes, and 4 mL
of the DPPH solution was added. The test tubes
were shaken and read in a spectrophotometer at
515 nm after 30 min of reaction time. The results
were expressed as Trolox equivalent antioxidant
activity (TEAC, μmol of trolox g-1 flour).
where:
A = (A520 nm- A700 nm) pH 1 – (A520 nm- A700
nm) pH 4.5;
MW = 449.2 g mol-1 by cyanidin-3-glucoside;
DF = dilution factor established in D;
I = optic pathway in cm;
ε = 26.900 coefficient of molar extinction.
Determination of total phenolic content. Total
phenolic content was determined using FolinCiocalteau (FC) reagent (BDH Ltd, Radnor/
Pennsylvania). In a 100-mL-graduated flask, 1
mL of extract from each sample was added to 60
mL of ultra pure water and 5 mL of Folin reagent.
After 8 min, 20 mL of 20% sodium carbonate
was added and the volume was completed with
distilled water and kept at rest and in the dark for
2 h. The solution was later filtered in a 250 mL
graduated flask and topped with distilled water.
The measurement of the solutions was performed
with a spectrophotometer at 725 nm. A control
sample was prepared by substituting 1 mL of the
extract for 1 mL of distilled water. A straight line
equation was obtained by a calibration curve with
different concentrations of gallic acid. Data were
applied to the straight line equation by stoichiometry for dilutions, with the results given in mg of
gallic acid per gram of sample.
Statistical analysis
Total anthocyanins. Total anthocyanins were evaluated by spectrophotometry (spectrophotometer
UV-VIS, Femto model 800X, São Paulo/Brazil)
following methods described in Fuleki and Francis
(1968). Two buffer solutions with pH 1.0 and pH
4.5 were prepared. Adequate dilution for each
flour sample (1 mL extract) was determined by
diluting the sample with buffer solutions at pH
1.0 and 4.5. Measurements of the samples were
undertaken at 520 and 700 nm.
Total anthocyanins were obtained according to
the following equation:
(A × MW × DF × 103)/ (ε × I) = equivalent
cyanidin-3-glucoside, mg L-1,
All data were expressed as the means ± standard
deviation. All measurements were replicated
three times. The data were standardized by the
equation x– / s, where x is the observed value,
is the average of three replicates and s is the
standard deviation. This procedure was necessary because there was no normality among most
data. The results were subjected to an analysis of
variance using a statistical significance threshold
of 5%, and significantly different means were
furthered tested using Tukey´s test with Statistica
7.0 (Statsoft Inc, 2004).
Results and discussion
Table 1 shows the percentage of parameters analyzed for the proximal composition and caloric
characteristics of Concord grape bagasse flour
from conventional and organic cultures.
The results showed that the moisture, ash, protein,
lipid, carbohydrate and caloric values in flour from
the conventional culture (CC) were significantly
different (P≤0.05) from the values in flour from
the organic culture grapes (OC). As a rule, flour
from the CC had higher moisture, protein, and
lipid percentages and also a higher caloric index
compared to those in the OC grape bagasse
flour. The latter contained higher percentages of
carbohydrates and minerals (ash).
Because the moisture contents were lower than
12.0%, they complied with the Brazilian legislation on quality parameters for cereal, starch, flour
VOLUME 41 Nº2 MAY – AUGUST 2014
Table 1. Physical and chemical characterization of grape
bagasse flour in conventional and organic culture systems
obtained by muffle drying.
Parameters
Moisture (%)
Ash (%)
Protein (%)
Lipids (%)
Carbohydrate (%)
Caloric value (Kcal)
Grape bagasse flour
Conventional
Organic culture
culture (CC)
(OC)
(%± d.p)
(%± d.p)
9.86 ± 0.10 b
8.99 ± 0.06 a
1.90 ± 0.03 a
2.04 ± 0.02 b
6.54 ± 0.08 b
5.20 ± 0.29 a
5.10 ± 0.05 b
3.62 ± 0.04 a
76.60 ± 0.11 a
80.15 ± 0.32 b
378.45 ± 0.40 b
374.00 ± 0.33 a
Results are the mean of three replicates with their standard
deviation estimates. Values on the same line followed by same
letters do not differ (P>0.05). (Analysis of variance – ANOVA and
Tukey´s test). CC: conventional culture; CO: organic culture.
and grain products. The variation in moisture may
have been caused by the different types of grape
culture because the same technological process
was employed for both types of flour.
A significant difference (P≤0.05) was also reported
between the ash percentages in the samples of
grape bagasse flour from the conventional culture
(1.90%) and the organic culture (2.04%). According
to the Brazilian Institute of Wines, the percentage
of ash in grape flour samples derived from OC
may have been caused by higher mineralogical
availability in the soil of OC and by variations in
soil, climate, irrigation methods and fertilization.
In their study of the ‘Rubi’, ‘Niágara’ and ‘Brasil’
grape varieties, Souza et al. (2011) reported ash
percentages between 0.43 and 2.11% in the peel
and between 0.39 and 1.10% in the pulp. These
values were close to those in the current study.
The percentage of protein in the CC grape bagasse flour was 6.54%, whereas the percentage
was 5.20% in the OC; these values represented
a significant difference (P≤0.05) between the
cultures. Likewise, Bampi et al. (2010) found
5.73% protein in the flour of the oriental raisin
(Hovenia dulcis).
The lipid percentages in the CC and OC grape
bagasse flour varied between 3.62% and 5.10%,
which was a significant difference (P≤0.05)
229
between the cultures. These results were higher
than the lipid content (1.82%) of flour from the
oriental raisin reported by Bampi et al. (2010).
The carbohydrate percentage (80.15%) of OC
grape bagasse flour was significantly higher
compared to the percentage of the conventional
treatment sample (76.60%). The differences in the
carbohydrate percentages between the types of
flour assessed may be due to the acceleration of
vegetal cell metabolism during the OC cultivar´s
development. In fact, a grape’s chemical composition is defined by maturation stage, genetic
potential, climate and management.
The results for the caloric content of the two types
of flour under analysis showed that the CC grape
bagasse flour (378.45 Kcal) had significantly more
calories compared to the OC flour (374.00 Kcal,
P≤0.05). Bampi et al. (2010) reported a caloric
content of 216.09 Kcal for flour from table grape
bagasse. The caloric content in the current study
was similar to those found by the previously
mentioned researchers.
Table 2 shows the sum and ratio of fatty acids in
samples obtained by muffle drying the Concord
grape bagasse flour from the two cultures.
Table 2 shows that the lipid profile, sum and
PUFA/SFA ratio differed significantly (P≤0.05)
for the conventional and organic cultured grape
bagasse flour, whereas the n-6/n-3 ratio was not
significantly different (P>0.05) between the
samples. There were five saturated, six monounsaturated and four polyunsaturated fatty acids in
the Concord grape bagasse flour samples from
the conventional and organic cultures.
The prevalent fatty acids in the lipid fraction
of the grape bagasse f lour derived from the
conventional culture system were linoleic acid
(18:2n-6, 25.77%), paulinic acid (20:1n-7, 14.19%),
cis-vaccenic acid (18:1n-7, 10.61%), gondoic acid
(20:1n-9, 10.15%) and margaric acid (17:0, 7.11%).
These fatty acids were predominant in grape
230
ciencia e investigación agraria
Table 2. Composition, sum and ratio of fatty acids in
samples of Concord grape flour conventionally and
organically cultivated and muffle-dried.
Fatty Acids
(%)
12:0
Grape bagasse flour
Conventional culture
Organic culture
(CC)
(OC)
5.66 ± 0.01 b
3.13 ± 0.01 a
14:0
3.14 ± 0.01 b
2.16 ± 0.01 a
15:0
0.94 ± 0.01 a
3.41 ± 0.02 b
16:0
6.11 ± 0.02 b
0.76 ± 0.01 a
17:0
7.11 ± 0.02 a
8.06 ± 0.02 b
∑-SFA
22.96 ± 0.01 b
17.52 ± 0.01 a
16:1n-5
1.29 ± 0.02 b
1.28 ± 0.02 a
17:1n-9
6.76 ± 0.01 b
5.63 ± 0.01 a
18:1n-9
4.04 ± 0.01 a
5.01 ± 0.01 b
18:1n-7
10.61 ± 0.01 a
14.43 ± 0.01 b
20:1n-9
10.15 ± 0.02 a
11.02 ± 0.02 b
20:1n-7
14.19 ± 0.02 b
11.02 ± 0.02 a
∑-MUFA
47.04 ± 0.01 b
34.09 ± 0.01 a
18:2n-6
25.77 ± 0.01 a
27.70 ± 0.02 b
18:3n-6
1.00 ± 0.02 a
2.71 ± 0.01 b
18:3n-3
3.23 ± 0.02 a
3.68 ± 0.01 b
∑-PUFA
30.00 ± 0.01 a
48.39 ± 0.01 b
∑-n-6
26.77 ± 0.01 a
30.41 ± 0.01 b
∑-n-3
3.23 ± 0.01 a
3.68 ± 0.01 b
PUFA/SFA
1.31 ± 0.01 a
2.76 ± 0.01 b
n-6/n-3
8.29 ± 0.01 a
8.26 ± 0.01 a
Rate
Results are the mean of two replications in percentages with
estimates of standard deviation. Values on the same line
followed by same letters do not differ (P>0.05). (Analysis
of variance – ANOVA and Tukey´s test). CC: Conventional
culture. CO: Organic culture. SFA: saturated fatty acids. MUFA:
monounsaturated fatty acids. PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids
(unsaturation ≥2). n-6: omega-6 fatty acids. n-3: omega-3 fatty
acids. PUFA/SFA: ratio between polyunsaturated and saturated
fatty acids. n-6/n-3: ratio between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty
acids.
bagasse flour derived from the organic culture
system, with mean percentages of 27.70%, 14.43%,
11.02% and 8.06% for linoleic acid (18:2n-6), cisvaccenic acid (18:1n-7), paulinic acid (20:1n-7),
gondoic acid (20:1n-9) and margaric acid (17:0),
respectively.
Lutterodt et al. (2011) underscored that, similar to
data from current investigation, the linoleic acid
percentage (18:2n-6) was higher (66.0 to 75.3%)
than the other fatty acids of the oils and seed
flours from various grape species. The authors
reported that flour had up to 100 times more
phenolic compounds than oils.
The composition of fatty acids in grape bagasse
flour is similar to that of sunflower, soybean,
maize and cotton seed oil. The fatty acid levels
of the CC and OC grape bagasse flours were
lower than those reported by Göktürk-Baydar
et al. (2007) for the seed oils of the Ancelota,
Tannat, Regente, Pinot Noir, Bordeaux, Merlot,
Isabel and Cabernet Sauvignon grape varieties,
which had percentages of linoleic acid (18:2n-6)
varying between 47.63% (Cabernet Sauvignon)
and 60.02% (Merlot). In fact, they were higher
than those in the current analysis.
It is important to note that the evaluation by the
abovementioned authors referred to oils with
high concentrations of fatty acids, whereas the
types of flour from a byproduct (grape bagasse)
of grape processing were the focus of the current
study. The latter had a differentiated composition.
Linoleic (LA, 18:2n-6) and alpha-linolenic (LNA,
18:3n-3) acids are required by the human body for
the maintenance of cell membranes, brain function and the transmission of nervous impulses
in normal conditions. These essential fatty acids
also participate in the transference of atmospheric
oxygen to the blood, in hemoglobin synthesis and
in cell division (Lutterodt et al., 2011).
Saturated fatty acids (SFA) comprised 22.95% and
17.5% of CC and OC grape bagasse flour, respectively, and thus differed significantly (P≤0.05).
The MUFA and PUFA sums were 47.04% and
30.00% for samples of CC grape flour, differing
significantly (P≤0.05) from OC samples, which
had 34.09% MUFA and 48.39 PUFA content.
Fernandes et al. (2013) reported percentages
between 11.64% and 14.94%, between 14.19%
and 21.29% and between 63.64% and 73.53% for
SFA, MUFA and PUFA, respectively, in grape
seed oil, which were different from the values
obtained in the current study.
LNA and LA polyunsaturated fatty acids are
present in vegetal and animal species and are
used in human food. They are highly important in
VOLUME 41 Nº2 MAY – AUGUST 2014
nutritional terms due to their status as precursors
of the other fatty acids of the n-3 and n-6 series.
The same researchers also reported that LNA was
found in vegetables, especially those with dark
green leaves, although its concentration depended
on the species and seasonal factors.
The PUFA/SFA ratio of CC grape bagasse flour,
1.31, differed significantly (P≤0.05) from the 2.76
ratio obtained from the bagasse flour of the same
grape cultivated by the OC system. According to
the Department of Health and Social Security,
eating food with a PUFA/SFA ratio lower than
0.45 was not recommended due to a trend towards
increasing blood cholesterol. Grape bagasse flour
from organic and conventional cultures was acceptable according to the suggested minimum ratio.
The samples were statistically equivalent (P>0.05)
in their n-6/n-3 ratios of 8.28 and 8.26 for CC and
OC grape bagasse flour, respectively.
Ratios between 5:1 and 10:1 are recommended
by the WHO and FAO. However, diets based on
n-6/n-3 ratios lower than 1:1 are not recommended
because they inhibit the transformation of linoleic
acid into longer chain polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Garde-Cerdán et al. (2007) found that the composition of fatty acids and free amino-acids of
grape juices remained stable even after thermal
treatments. It may be inferred that the thermal
treatment of grape bagasse flour does not interfere
significantly with the final product´s fatty acid
and protein composition.
The fatty acid profiles also enabled the evaluation
of the lipid fraction´s nutritional quality index.
The atherogenicity (AI) and thrombogenicity (TI)
indexes and the ratios of hypocholesterolemic
and hypercholesterolemic fatty acids (HH) could
therefore be determined.
According to Turan et al. (2007), nutritional quality indexes can indicate a sample’s potential for
231
plaque aggregation. In other words, low AI and TI
values indicate high quantities of anti-atherogenic
fatty acids in oil or fat.
Table 3 shows the evaluation of the nutritional
quality of the lipid fractions of the grape bagasse
flour from conventional and organic culture systems, as determined by the atherogenicity (AI)
and thrombogenicity (TI) indexes and the ratios
of hypocholesterolemic and hypercholesterolemic
fatty acids (HH).
Table 3. Indexes of the nutritional quality of the lipid
fraction of grape bagasse flour from organic and
conventional culture obtained by muffle drying.
Index
AI
TI
HH
Grape bagasse flour
Conventional
Organic culture (OC)
culture (CC)
0.32
0.18
0.17
0.06
3.57
12.46
AI: atherogenicity index; TI: thrombogenicity index; HH: ratio
between hypocholesterolemic and hypercholesterolemic fatty
acids.
The atherogenicity (AI) and thrombogenicity
(TI) indexes had higher values, 0.32 and 0.17,
respectively, for grape bagasse flour from conventional cultures, whereas the ratios between
hypocholesterolemic and hypercholesterolemic
fatty acids (HH) were higher in grape bagasse
flour derived from OC (12.46).
The values for the three indexes (AI, TI and HH)
showed that grape bagasse flour derived from
CC and OC had beneficial effects on health. The
lower the atherogenicity (AI) and thrombogenicity (TI) index values, the healthier the food. This
is because these indexes report the relationship
between fatty acids in food and their contribution
to the prevention of coronary diseases (Turan et
al., 2007). Further, Souza Bentes et al. (2009)
underscored that oil or fat was nutritionally the
most adequate based on the relation between
hypocholesterolemic and hypercholesterolemic
fatty acids.
232
ciencia e investigación agraria
In the current study, HH ratios of 3.57 and 12.46
were found for the CC and OC grape bagasse flour,
respectively. These ratios indicate the nutritional
adequacy, with an indication of greater quality for
the OC flour. In their analysis of Syagrus oleracea
(guarirova), Nozaki et al. (2012) reported higher
AI and TI values than in the present study. The
authors registered atherogenicity indexes at 0.69
and 11.53 and thrombogenicity indexes at 1.32
and 4.82 for pulp and kernel oils, respectively,
and an HH ratio of 1.39 for pulp oil and 0.40 for
kernel oil.
According to Rockenbach et al. (2008), bioactive compounds, such as anthocyanins and other
flavonoids, are highly beneficial to health, especially due to their activities against free radicals,
allergies, inflammations, ulcers, viruses, tumors
and hepatotoxins.
Table 4 shows the results of the analyses of the
bioactive compounds from grape bagasse flour
dried in a muffle.
Of the analyzed bioactive compounds, only
the OC flour phenolic compound content was
significantly higher (P≤0.05) than those of the
conventional system. The other parameters failed
to differ statistically (P>0.05).
The anthocyanin content in the current study was
higher than that reported by Rockenbach et al.
(2008) in samples from extracts of grape bagasse
from the Ancelota and Tanna varieties, which had
concentrations between 0.13 and 1.95 (g 100 g-1
dry weight) and between 0.04 and 0.77 (g 100 g-1
dry weight), respectively. Exogenous treatments
with UV-C, simulating abiotic stress, undertaken
by Pala and Toklucu (2012) in grape juice, failed
to show any significant differences (P>0.05) in
the phenolic compound content.
In the current analysis, total phenolic compound
content was significantly higher in the OC Concord grape flour. The production system is a
factor that may interfere with the content of total
Table 4. Bioactive compounds of Concord grape
flour samples obtained from conventional and organic
production systems dried in a muffle.
Grape bagasse flour
Bioactive Compounds
Total Anthocyanins1
Total Phenolic
compounds2
Antioxidant activity
EC503
Conventional
culture (CC)
96.31±3.60 a
Organic culture
(OC)
97.13±3.80 a
173.82±4.20 a
215.64±3.80 b
357.16±7.00 a
341.77±7.60 a
7.80±0.01 a
8.42±0.16 a
TEAC4
Results are the mean of three replications with the estimates for
standard deviation. Values on the same line followed by the same
letters do not differ (P>0.05). (Analysis of variance – ANOVA
and Tukey´s test). CC: conventional culture. OC: organic culture.
1
mg of cyanidin-3-glucoside 100 g-1 flour; 2mg GAE g -1 flour; 3g
flour g-1DPPH; 4μmol of trolox g-1 flour.
phenolic compounds and consequently with the
flour retrieved from their waste.
Several researchers report that the bioactive
compound content in fruit may be affected by
the culture system with the development of defense systems against the fruits´ natural pests
(López et al., 2013). Freitas et al. (2010) state that
an increase in the concentration of the grape´s
phenolic compounds is related to the plant´s
own defense system. Investigations by Melo et
al. (2011) on Verdejo and Isabel grape bagasse
found phenolic compound indexes (dry weight)
of 20.94 mg gallic acid g-1 and 16.57 mg gallic
acid g-1, respectively. Rockenbach et al. (2008)
reported 75.6 mg gallic acid g-1 for Ancelota
grape bagasse and 69.0 mg gallic acid g-1 for
Tannat grape bagasse. The results showed that
the natural defense systems developed by plants
triggered bioactive compounds with beneficial
health traits associated with the prevention and
control of diseases in humans.
The antioxidant activity of flour from CC and OC
was not significantly affected by the production
system. Mulero et al. (2010) described higher
antioxidant activity in OC grapes, which, according to the researchers, was directly related
to the accumulation of phenolic compounds. In
VOLUME 41 Nº2 MAY – AUGUST 2014
the current study, a significant co-relationship
between phenolic compounds and antioxidant
activity could not be demonstrated. However,
based on the reports of the authors mentioned
above, the organic system´s influence may be
possible due to the higher content of phenolic
compounds.
233
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Fundação Araucária, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e
Tecnológico (CNPq-Brasil) and the Support Program
for the publication of Universidade Tecnológica
Federal do Paraná (UTFPR) – Francisco Beltrão.
Resumen
L.D. Lopes, B.R. Böger, K.F. Cavalli, J.F. dos S. Silveira-Júnior, D.V.C.L. Osório, D.F. de
Oliveira; L. Luchetta y I.B. Tonial. 2014. Perfil de los ácidos grasos, índices de calidad
de los lípidos y compuestos bioactivos de las harinas de residuos de la uva. Cien. Inv.
Agr. 41(2): 225-234. Los alimentos producidos con el uso de los subproductos, caracterizados
por propiedades bioquímicas y fisiológicas beneficiosas para salud y porque evitan una mayor
degradación del medio ambiente, han sido bastante discutidos y valorados. El estudio evaluó
la composición proximal, perfil de ácidos grasos, los índices de la calidad nutricional de los
lípidos y la presencia de compuestos biológicamente activos en las harinas de orujo de uvas a
partir del métodos de cultivo: convencional (CC) y orgánico (CO). Los resultados mostraron
que la harina CC mostró altos niveles de proteínas, grasas, calorías, ácidos grasos saturados y
monoinsaturados, mientras que el contenido en ácidos grasos poliinsaturados, especialmente
omega-3 y omega-6, los carbohidratos y las cenizas fueron mayores para la harina CO. Estos
resultados indican un bueno potencial nutricional de la harina obtenida de orujo de uva, así
justifican la aplicación tecnológica del subproducto como un ingrediente funcional en la
formulación de productos alimenticios.
Palabras clave: Calidad de lípidos, compuestos bioactivos, orujo de uva, subproducto.
References
AOAC–Association of Official Analytical Chemists. 2008 - Official methods of analysis. 18th ed.
Gaitherburg.
Bampi, M., M.O.P. Bicudo, P.S.G. Fontoura, R. H.
Ribani. 2010. Composição centesimal do fruto,
extrato concentrado e da farinha da uva-do-japão. Ciência Rural 40: 2361-2367.
Bligh, E.G., W. J.Dyer. 1959. A rapid method of total
lipid extraction and purification. Canadian Journal Chemistry 37:911-917.
Coda, R., A. Lanera, A.Trani, M.,Gobbetti, and R. Di
Cagno. 2012. Yogurt-like beverages made of a
mixture of cereals, soy and grape must: Micro-
biology, texture, nutritional and sensory properties. International Journal Food Microbiological
155:120-127.
Fernandes, L., S. Casal, R. Cruz, J.A. Pereira, and
E. Ramalhosa. 2013. Seed oils of ten traditional Portuguese grape varieties with interesting
chemical and antioxidant properties. Food Research International 50:161-166.
Freitas, A.A., A.M.C. Detoni, and C.C. Oliveira.
2010. Determinação de resveratrol e características químicas em sucos de uvas produzidas em
sistemas orgânico e convencional. Revista Ceres
57:001-005.
Fuleki, T., and F.J. Francis. 1968. Quantitative determination of anthocyanins. Determination of total
234
ciencia e investigación agraria
anthocyanins and degradation index for cranberry juice. Journal Food Science 33:78-83.
Garde-Cerdán, T., M. Arias-Gil, A.R. Marsellés-Fontanet, C. Ancín-Azpilicueta, and O. Martín-Belloso. 2007. Effects of thermal and non-thermal
processing treatments onfatty acids and free aminoacids of grape juice. Food Control 18:473-479.
Göktürk-Baydar, N., G. Özkan, and E.S. Çetin. 2007.
Characterization of grape seed and pomace oil
extracts. Grasas Aceites 58: 29-33.
Instituto Adolpho Lutz. 2008. Normas Analíticas do
Instituto Adolpho Lutz: Métodos Químicos para
Análise de Alimentos. 4.ed. São Paulo: Instituto
Adolpho Lutz (IAL).
López, A., J. Fenoll, P. Hellín, and P. Flores. 2013.
Physical characteristics and mineral composition
of two pepper cultivars under organic, conventional and soilless cultivation. Science and Horticulture 150:259-266.
Lutterodt, H., M. Slavin, M. Whent, E. Turner, and
L.L. Yu. 2011. Fatty acid composition, oxidative
stability, antioxidant and antiproliferative properties of selected cold-pressed grape seed oils
and flours. Food Chemistry 128:391-399.
Melo, P. S., K.B. Bergamaschi, A.P. Tiveron, A.P.
Massarioli, T.L.C. Oldoni, M.C. Zanus, G.E.
Pereira, and S.M. Alencar. 2011. Composição
fenólica e atividade antioxidante de resíduos
agroindustriais. Ciência Rural 41:1088-1093.
Mulero, J., F. Pardo, P. Zafrilla, P. 2010. Antioxidant
activity and phenolic composition of organic and
conventional grapes and wines. Journal of Food
Composition and Analysis 23:569-74.
Nozaki, V. T., C.L. Munhoz, R.C.A. Guimarães, P.A.
Hiane, M.P. Andreu, L.H. Viana, and M.L.R.
Macedo. 2012. Perfil lipídico da polpa e amêndoa da guarirova. Ciência Rural 42:1518-1523.
Özvural, E. B., and H. Vural. 2011. Grape seed flour
is a viable ingredient to improve the nutritional
profile and reduce lipid oxidation of frankfurters.
Meat Science 88:179-183.
Pala, U. C., and K. Toklucu. 2012. Effects of UV-C
Light Processing on Some Quality Characteristics of Grape Juices. Food Bioprocess Technology 6:719-725.
Perestrelo, R., Y. Lu, S.A.O. Santos, A.J.D. Silvestre,
C.P. Neto, J.S. Câmara, and S.M. Rocha. 2012.
Phenolic profile of Sercial and Tinta Negra Vitis vinifera L. grape skins by HPLC–DAD–ESIMSn: Novel phenolic compounds in Vitis vinifera
L. grape. Food Chemistry 135:94-104.
Rockenbach, I.I., G.L. Silva, E. Rodrigues, E.M.
Kuskoski, and R. Fett. 2008. Influência do solvente no conteúdototal de polifenóis, antocianinas e atividade antioxidante deextratos de bagaço
de uva (Vitis vinifera) variedades Tannat e Ancelota. Revista Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos
28:238-244.
Sáyago-Ayerdi, S. G., A. Brenes, and I. Goñi. 2009.
Effect of grape antioxidant dietary fiber on the lipid oxidation of raw and cooked chicken hamburgers. Food Science and Technology 42:971-976.
Sousa Bentes, A., H.A.L. Souza, M.G. Simões, and
X.M.F.D. Mendonça. 2009. Caracterização física e química e perfil lipídico de três espécies de
peixes amazônicos. Revista Brasileira de Tecnologia Agroindustrial 03:97-108.
Souza, A. V., G.P.P. Lima, and R.L. Vieites. 2011.
Avaliação nutricional de diferentes variedades de
uva (Vitis sp). Naturalia 33:12-21.
Tagle, M. A. 1981. Nutrição. Editora Artes Médicas.
São Paulo, Brasil. 233 pp.
Tseng, A., and Y. Zhao. 2013. Wine grape pomace as
antioxidant dietary fibre for enhancing nutritional value and improving storability of yogurt and
salad dressing. Food Chemistry 138:356-365.
Turan, H., G. Sönmez, and Y. Kaya. 2007. Fatty acid
profile and proximate composition of the thornback ray (Raja clavata L. 1758) from the Sinop
coast in the Black Sea. Journal fisheries Sciences
1:97-103.