Front Section - Columbia University

Local Matters: Encountering the Imperial Inkas in the South Andes
Clarence H. Gifford, III
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy
in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
Columbia University
2003
© 2003
Clarence H. Gifford, III
All Rights Reserved
ABSTRACT
Local Matters: Encountering the Imperial Inkas in the South Andes
Clarence H. Gifford, III
This thesis strengthens our understanding of culture contact under state expansion by recognizing
the forces of local history and culture within broader political and economic structures. It considers a series
of prehistoric colonial encounters between the Inka state and indigenous societies in northwest Argentina in
the Calchaquí Valley, which was partially incorporated into the Inka empire in the 15th century AD. In the
course of 150 years prior to the Spanish conquest of South America in AD 1532, the Inkas seized control of
hundreds of Andean societies to create the largest state ever formed in the prehispanic Americas.
Reconstructing colonial encounters archaeologically requires careful attention to the materiality of
culture contact. The data presented in this thesis were generated through analyses of settlement planning,
architecture, and excavated ceramic, faunal, and lithic remains from 13 prehispanic settlements in the
Calchaquí Valley. These sites were investigated systematically through both archaeological surface study
and excavation. The surface study included the preparation of detailed site maps and the collection of
measured variables from 1170 walls and 202 architectural features in 310 standing structures. The
excavation portion of the research, which was designed to obtain sufficient material to facilitate statistical
analyses, included 38 test-pit excavations evenly distributed between the 13 study sites.
This thesis, then, traces in the data the social transformations that occurred during colonial contact
in the region, including the ways that groups modified their landscapes, how space and architecture were
re-formed within affected societies, and how relations changed within regional socioeconomic systems.
Some findings reveal that colonial encounters were frequently negotiated over local sacred places, showing
the persistence of indigenous ideologies. The creation of hybrid spaces and architecture, which involved
the localization of foreign standards, also underscored indigenous initiative in constructing arenas of
interaction. The interpretations of colonialism that appear in this thesis, therefore, contribute to our
understanding of culture contact by highlighting how the forces of indigenous self-determination,
compliance, resistance, accommodation, and cooperation transfigure imperial encounters.
RESUMEN
Asuntos Locales: Encontrando al Imperio Inka en los Andes del Sur
Clarence H. Gifford, III
Esta tesis busca fortalecer nuestro entendimiento sobre las situaciones de contacto cultural que
tienen lugar en contextos de expansión estatal, teniendo en cuenta el rol jugado por la historia y la cultura
local dentro de estructuras políticas y económicas mayores. Específicamente, la tesis estudia los contactos
culturales prehistóricos entre el estado Inka y las sociedades indígenas del valle Calchaquí, en el Noroeste
Argentino; región que fue parcialmente anexada al Imperio Inka en el siglo XV de nuestra era. Con
anterioridad a la conquista española de Sudamérica, acaecida en el año 1532 de la era, los Inkas ejercieron
durante aproximadamente 150 años control sobre cientos de sociedades andinas, creando así uno de los
estados más grandes alguna vez formados en la América prehispánica.
La reconstrucción arqueológica de encuentros coloniales requiere una cuidadosa atención sobre la
materialidad de la cultura del contacto. La información presentada en esta tesis fue generada a través del
análisis de la planificación de los asentamientos, la arquitectura, y la cerámica, artefactos líticos y los restos
de fauna recuperados de 13 sitios prehispánicos del valle Calchaquí. Estos asentamientos fueron
investigados sistemáticamente a partir de estudios arqueológicos de superficie y excavaciones. Los
estudios de superficie incluyeron la confección de planos detallados de los sitios y la recolección de
información métrica de 1170 muros y 202 rasgos arquitectónicos de 310 estructuras y edificios. En lo que
respecta a las excavaciones, que fueron diseñadas para obtener suficiente material arqueológico que
facilitase el empleo de análisis estadísticos, las mismas incluyeron 38 unidades de sondeo uniformemente
distribuidas entre los 13 sitios estudiados.
Esta tesis, así, estudia las transformaciones sociales que tuvieron lugar en la región durante
momentos de contacto cultural. Específicamente se tiene en cuenta la manera en que los grupos
modificaron el paisaje, cómo el espacio y la arquitectura de las sociedades afectadas por este proceso
fueron reformadas, y cómo las relaciones cambiaron dentro de los sistemas socioeconómicos regionales.
Algunos de los hallazgos revelan que estos encuentros coloniales fueron frecuentemente negociados dentro
de espacios sagrados locales, lo que demuestra la persistencia de las ideologías indígenas. La creación de
espacios y arquitectura híbrida, los cuales involucraban el uso de normas y patrones foráneos, también
enfatiza las iniciativas locales por construir arenas de interacción. Las interpretaciones sobre colonialismo
que aparecen en esta tesis, por lo tanto, contribuyen a nuestro entendimiento sobre situaciones de contacto
cultural, especialmente resaltando cómo las fuerzas locales de autodeterminación, conformidad, resistencia,
adaptación y cooperación transfiguran los encuentros imperiales.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Illustrations
iii
Acknowledgements
v
Chapter 1 - Introduction and Research Overview
1
The Archaeology of Imperialism and Colonialism
The Calchaquí Valley: The Setting and Its Chronologies
Chapter Overviews
Chapter 2 - The Archaeology of Colonial Encounters
34
Comparative Colonialism in Archaeology
Inka Colonialism
The Northern Calchaquí Valley and Inka Studies
Chapter 3 - Research Methods
71
Fieldwork Activities
Laboratory Study
Chapter 4 - Chronology in the Northern Calchaquí Valley
103
Archaeological Chronologies in the Northern Calchaquí Valley
Results of Radiocarbon Assays
Quantitative Analyses of the Material Culture Data
A Chronology of Site Occupation in the Northern Calchaquí Valley
Conclusion
Chapter 5 - Affiliation in the Northern Calchaquí Valley
Previous Research
Data Analysis
Northern Calchaquí Valley Affiliations in the Later Periods
Conclusion
169
Chapter 6 - Activities in the Late Periods in the Northern Calchaquí Valley
218
Data Analysis: Portable Artifacts
Data Analysis: Architecture and Site Planning
Site and Valley Sector Summaries
Conclusion
Chapter 7 - Interaction in the Late Periods in the Northern Calchaquí Valley
265
Elite Life, Wealth Displays and Decorated versus Undecorated Ceramic Material
Settlement in the Inka period in the Northern Calchaquí Valley
Architecture and Space at Cortaderas Bajo
Discussion
Chapter 8 - Inka Colonial Encounters in the Northern Calchaquí Valley
308
Overview of Inka Colonial Encounters in the Northern Calchaquí Valley
Discussion of Inka Colonial Encounters in the Northern Calchaquí Valley
Conclusion
Footnotes
345
Appendices
346
Bibliography
438
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Charts:
Chart 1: Chronological plot of calibrated radiocarbon dates
Chart 2: Inka Provincial ceramics per 14C-dated deposit
Chart 3: Changes in the occurrence of ceramic temper over time
Chart 4: Change in the occurrence of ceramic tempers by valley sector
Chart 5: Change in felsite vs. mica and sand tempers by valley site and sector
Chart 6: Percentage change in ceramic surface treatment by time period
Chart 7: Scatter plot and trendline: calendar dates versus wall thickness
Chart 8: Change in percentages of wall binder types over time
Chart 9: Frequencies of pirka and core-filled walls by study sites
Chart 10: Occurrence of lithic material in the Formative and DR periods
Chart 11: Occurrence of walls with and without upright stones by study site
Chart 12: Occurrence of rectified versus shaped structures by study site
Chart 13: Frequency distribution of wall thickness across all data
Chart 14: Comparative distributions of ceramic vessel form by site
Chart 15: Comparative distributions of ceramic vessel form by structure type
Chart 16: Regional origins of ceramics by time period
Chart 17: Regional origins of ceramics by valley sector
Chart 18: Scatter plot of lithic debris by sector, density versus frequency
Chart 19: Comparative frequency distribution of animal bone by valley sector
Chart 20: Densities of animal body parts by structure type
Chart 21: Frequency of animal body parts by time period
Chart 22: Comparative distributions of structure types by time period
Chart 23: Frequency distribution of ASD counts and total ASD surface area
Chart 24: Plot of ASD counts versus total ASD surface area by site and time period
Chart 25: Frequency of roofed/unroofed space as a percentage at the study sites
Chart 26: Comparative distributions of decorated/undecorated ceramics by site
Chart 27: Distributions of decorated/undecorated ceramics by structure type
Tables:
Table 1: Study sites-- originally proposed versus actually studied
Table 2: Total artifacts recovered by study site
Table 3: Carbon samples selected for dating and their provenience
Table 4: Chronological information from artifact categories by site and time period
Table 5: Radiocarbon samples, dates and calibrations
Table 6: Radiocarbon samples, dates and calibrations from SC042
Table 7: Percentages and counts of ceramic types by time period
Table 8: Change in occurrence of red slip on ceramics by time period
Table 9: Averages of structure surface area by time period
Table 10: Occurrence of walls that are freestanding versus shared by time period
Table 11: Occurrence of rectified versus shaped structures by time period
Table 12: Descriptions and codes of types of wall binders
Table 13: Occurrence of ceramic types from all excavated contexts
Table 14: Occurrence of ceramic types by site and valley sector
Table 15: Basic wall data for each of the study sites
Table 16: Distribution of freestanding and shared walls by study site
Table 17: The presence/absence of certain features near the study sites
Table 18: Occurrence of structures within structures at SC065 vs. all other sites
Figures:
Figure 1: Map of South Andes
Figure 2: The Northern Calchaquí Valley, Salta (Argentina)
Figure 3: Map of the greater Calchaquí Valleys
Figure 4: Chronology of the Calchaquí Valley and neighboring areas
Figure 5: Route map of the Northern Calchaquí Valley
Figure 6: Trigal, La Poma
Figure 7: Profile of excavation unit RLP16=4-9-1
Figure 8: Plan of SC042 (Potrero de Payogasta), Northern Calchaquí Valley
Figure 9: The sectors of La Poma, Potrero Valley and Main Valley
Figure 10: Plan of Guitián, Northern Calchaquí Valley
Figure 11: The Cortaderas settlement, Northern Calchaquí Valley
Figure 12: CAD modeling methods
Figure 13: Constructing a gaze
Figure 14: Plan of SC065 (Cortaderas Bajo), Northern Calchaquí Valley
Figure 15: Schematic view of the saddle of Cortaderas Bajo
Figure 16: View looking north from the Cortaderas Bajo patio
Figure 17: View looking west from the Cortaderas Bajo patio
Figure 18: View looking east from the Cortaderas Bajo patio
Figure 19: View looking south from the Cortaderas Bajo patio
Figure 20: Plan of the patio complex at Cortaderas Bajo with access route
Figure 21: Viewshed from Cortaderas Bajo looking south
Figure 22: View looking south from the patio exit at Cortaderas Bajo
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank my committee members for their exceptional support and mentoring over
the years. First among them is Terry D'Altroy, my sponsor, mentor and friend, who has
been the fulcrum of my professional training. I am indebted to him for introducing me to
the rigors of anthropological archaeology in the classroom and for inviting me to work
with him in Argentina. Nan Rothschild, my committee chair, also helped me understand
in class what it means to think like an anthropologist, and has consistently provided me
with wise and timely advice. Lynn Meskell supplied fresh blasts of critical air in a
number of crucial moments and for this I am grateful. From Marc Van De Mieroop I
learned how strong and deep academic dedication can run and from Craig Morris I
learned what it means to be professional. Lastly, Elsa Redmond sat on my committee in
its earliest form, giving me with invaluable insights into the machinations of scientific
archaeology.
Dissertation research was made possible by a number of permitting and granting
institutions. The Secretaría de Cultura of the Ministerio de Educación (Province of
Salta), the Museo de Antropología de Salta, and the Museo Arqueológico de Cachi kindly
granted permission for the field and laboratory work in the Calchaquí Valley. The
particular officials that oversaw my work include Arg. Mario Lazarovich (Ex-Director de
Patrimonio Cultural of the Secretaría de Cultura), Prof. Carmen Martorell (Director de
Patrimonio Cultural of the Secretaría de Cultura), and Dir. Miguel Xamena (Director of
the Museo Arqueológico de Cachi). Prof. Eleonora Mulvany of the Universidad
Nacional de Salta also provided this project with expert guidance. Fieldwork was
primarily funded by a 1998 National Science Foundation Doctoral Dissertation
Improvement Grant (BCS-9810839) and secondarily by a generous group of family and
friends.
The stars in my research universe include Terry D'Altroy, Félix Acuto, Verónica
Williams, Elizabeth DeMarrais, Kirsten Olson and Miguel Xamena, who helped guide
me through the different phases of my research. I thank Terry for allowing me to
participate on the Proyecto Arqueológico Calchaquí and for visiting sites with me during
the first few weeks of my project. I thank Félix for the critical challenges he always
proposes, which force me to think carefully and creatively. I thank Verónica for sharing
with me her insight and knowledge about Argentine archaeology and for helping me
organize and refine my fieldwork methods. I thank Liz for blazing a trail in the
Calchaquí for the rest of us to follow-- her intelligent research provided both inspiration
and an excellent starting point for my own work. Kirsten's unconditional support of my
research and critical insights kept me going throughout. Miguel also provided
encouragement, insights, resources, and good humor during my time in Cachi.
I next want to acknowledge many of the citizens of the town of Cachi itself. The
professional and knowledgeable staff at the Museo Arqueológico de Cachi showed me
unlimited kindness, support and access to the museum collections and library. These
individuals include René and Demetrio, who also helped me in the field, and Manuela,
Lili, Marta and Lidia, who made working in the Museo a delight. In Cachi, I was
generously welcomed and cared for by, among others, Miguel and Viviana Xamena, Julia
Díaz, Roberto Duran, Marcello and Laura Patron, and Luis Peroti.
Many people participated on this project in the field and in the lab, and each
deserves special mention for the skills and ideas that they contributed. First among these
is Antonio Emiliano Mercado Sanz, to whom I owe a great deal of my gratitude. Toni
was instrumental at nearly every stage of the project and contributed endlessly in the field
and in the laboratory (and in the cold water of the Río Calchaquí helping process flotation
samples). I am grateful to these people, who also helped in the field: Terry D'Altroy,
Verónica Williams, Liliana Aguirre, Federico Viveros, Nani Lamagni, Nicolas Antonio
Maioli, Sarah Muir, Kirsten Olson, Félix Acuto, Cristian Eduardo Jacob, Maria Luján
Bravo, and Alba Raquel Guardatti. In the laboratory I received help and insight from
Flavio Ruiz Alemandi and Kirsten Olson. Mabel Mamani made a brief appearance on
the project and helped translate a number of field forms from English into Spanish.
A handful of friends and colleagues from Buenos Aires contributed their time and
energy to help this project along, including Leandro Hernán Luna and Claudia Marcela
Aranda, who measured and analyzed the infant osteological remains from the RC078 urn
burial, and Marisa Lazzari and Félix Acuto, who helped me sort out the origins of some
of the Humahuaca ceramics that were recovered at RC078. Back in the United States, I
am grateful to my fellow students at Columbia University who helped with the painful
task of proofreading data; these include Kelly Britt, Heather Atherton, Christine Chen,
Scott Kremkau, Anna Boozer and Kirsten Olson. Thanks, also, to the office staff in the
Columbia Department of Anthropology for helping me keep many of the details of my
graduate school adventure in good order.
Next, a number of people stepped in during the data analysis and writing portions
of this project to offer guidance, feedback and encouragement. Terry D'Altroy helped me
conceive of, structure and execute my analyses. I am grateful to Timothy Jull and the
staff at the NSF-University of Arizona AMS Facility for processing seven of my
radiocarbon samples at no cost through their Student Researchers Program. I am grateful
to David Lentz at the New York Botanical Gardens for allowing me to use his
microscopes and for his patience in teaching me how to identify some of the botanical
materials. I am grateful to Félix Acuto for helping me develop the ideas presented in
Chapter 8 about architecture and space at Cortaderas Bajo, and to Kirsten Olson and
Marisa Lazzari for providing me feedback on these ideas when they first appeared in a
conference paper. Kirsten also captured photographically the background images used in
the renderings that appear in Chapter 8 and Porter Gifford Productions provided technical
and aesthetic guidance in preparing the same. Finally, Terry D'Altroy, Nan Rothschild
and Lynn Meskell carefully read and commented on an earlier draft of this thesis.
The name Kirsten Olson appears repeatedly in these acknowledgements as she
contributed to my project in countless ways. Kirsten is at once a friend and colleague and
this thesis would be half what it is if not for her intelligent challenges and her caring
encouragement.
Above and beyond this thesis stands Betsy Morgan, without whom this tome
would still be a printer's ream. I am blessed to have Betsy in my life as she provides
every type of support unconditionally, including emotional, spiritual, intellectual,
editorial and financial. I dedicate this thesis and my work to her.
For Betsy L. Morgan