English PDF file - Revista Comunicar

INVESTIGACIONES / RESEARCH
l Susana
de Andrés & Rosa L. Maestro
Segovia (Spain)
Received: 15-03-2013 / Reviewed: 01-05-2013
Accepted: 02-08-2013 / / Preprint: 15-11-2013
Published: 02-01-2014 / RECYT Code: 20892
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C42-2014-19
Critical Analysis of Government vs.
Commercial Advertising
Discourse on Older Persons in Spain
Análisis crítico del discurso publicitario institucional/comercial
sobre las personas mayores en España
ABSTRACT
The elderly population has increased considerably in recent years and it is estimated that by 2050 32% of the Spanish
population will be old people. This group is underrepresented in the media and does not attract much research interest.
To put this right, we present an analysis of the representation of older persons in advertisements appearing in magazines
aimed directly or indirectly at seniors in Spain. A content analysis estimated the frequency of appearance of the images
and words that represent the elderly, and a discourse analysis enabled this study to investigate the presence of stereotypes and discourse relations between advertising and theories of ageing. The results show that the older people who
appear in the ads are mostly men portrayed as consumers of entertainment products who are at the beginning of their
period of old age. A marked gender stereotype is observed. The differentiation between the institutional and commercial advertising discourse is also clear. The study analyses such advertising over three decades, covering the period in
which the age distribution of the population has been inverted in Spain. Throughout this period, the frequency of appearance has been very low. Old people are clearly an invisible collective in magazine advertising.
RESUMEN
La población de personas mayores se ha multiplicado en los últimos años. Se estima que en el año 2050, el 32% de
la población española estará constituido por personas mayores. Mientras tanto, es fácil observar la infrarrepresentación de este colectivo en los medios de comunicación, pero la cuestión apenas recibe interés investigador. Se presenta aquí un análisis de la representación de las personas mayores en la publicidad de dominicales y revistas dirigidas directa o indirectamente a las personas mayores en España. A través de un análisis de contenido se calcula la
frecuencia con que se recurre a la imagen de los y las mayores en la publicidad. Mediante un análisis del discurso
se indaga también en la presencia de estereotipos y en las relaciones discursivas entre los mensajes publicitarios y las
teorías de la vejez. Los resultados muestran que las personas mayores que aparecen en los anuncios son mayoritariamente varones, que inician su periodo de vejez y consumidores de productos de ocio. Se encuentra un marcado
estereotipo de género y una clara diferenciación discursiva entre los mensajes comerciales y los institucionales. El
estudio analiza tres décadas, abarcando el periodo en el que se ha producido la inversión poblacional en la distribución por edades en España. En todo este periodo la frecuencia de aparición ha sido muy baja. Se trata de un colectivo de patente invisibilidad en los anuncios publicitarios.
KEYWORDS / DESCRIPTORES
Older persons, social images, advertising, discourse, gender stereotypes, representations, social change.
Mayores, imágenes sociales, publicidad, discurso, estereotipos de género, modos de representación, cambio.
v Dr. Susana de Andrés is member of the Chair in Gender Studies at the University of Valladolid (Spain) and
Associate Professor of the College of Legal, Social and Communication Sciences at the (Campus María Zambrano,
Segovia) (University of Valladolid) (delcampo@hmca.uva.es).
v Rosa de Lima Maestro is a PhD candidate in the «Analysis of Advertising Communication in the Information
and Knowledge Society» program of the University of Valladolid. Campus María Zambrano, Segovia (Spain)
(rosadelanava@yahoo.es).
Comunicar, n. 42, v. XXI, 2014, Media Education Research Journal; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 189-196
www.revistacomunicar.com
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1. Introduction. Old age will define the 21st century (and its form of communication?)
One of the social changes that best describes our
context is progressive population ageing. Global life
expectancy has increased to 69.8 years of age, while
fertility has dropped to 2.6 children per woman (UN,
2007). The population aged 60 and over is expected
to triple, and those over 80 to quadruple by 2050
(UN, 2009). A global demographic transition appears
to be underway.
The elderly population is three times larger in
developed than in developing countries, and these
percentages will continue to grow (Giró, 2004: 30).
Europe will soon have the largest population in the
world in terms of old age. In Spain, life expectancy at
birth has grown progressively from 75 years in 1980 to
more than 81 in 2011. (UNDP, 2011) and Spain’s
National Statistics Institute (INE) estimates that older
persons will form at least a third of the population by
2050. By that date, the United Nations projects that
Spain will be second only to Japan in the number of
old persons (Barrio & Abellán, 2009).
These statistics assume that old age begins at retirement age - 65. Thus, statistical indicators use economic and labor criteria to divide up the age segments.
But when old age begins is arbitrary; other criteria
(Giró, 2004: 24) put it at 50 or 55, taking into account
biological, health economic and social changes, which
only goes to show that old age is defined by social conventions: «We know that the problem of old age is not
strictly a biological, medical or physical issue but social
and cultural; that is to say, old age, its meaning, is a cultural construction» (Giró, 2004: 19). Old age is a social
construction (Kehl & Fernández, 2001), a cultural fact
(Beauvoir, 1989: 20), a matter of images and attitudes
(Iruzubieta, 2004: 77). A specific field of study about
the social construction of old age has been the analysis
of its images and meanings (Featherstone & Wernick,
1995) and, more specifically, the images transmitted by
the media (Santamarina, 2004).
A number of publications have pointed out the
importance of the media in this social construction
(Kehl & Fernández, 2001: 133) and recently, the
analysis of older persons’ representation in the Spanish
press has attracted particular interest (Polo, 2006;
Becerril, 2011).
At the Second World Assembly on Ageing held in
Madrid in 2002, the then UN head Kofi Annan said
that, since the previous Assembly in 1982, the world
had changed so much that it was unrecognizable (UN,
2003: IV). This United Nations strategy called for
governments and civil society to reshape the way older
persons are perceived, expressly including the media
(article 17: 6) as environment makers.
The analysis of older persons’ representation in
advertising is still not an object of specific study in
Spanish scientific literature, though it has been researched in the USA since the 70s (Smith, 1976; Swayne
& Greco, 1987). The different analyses show a stereotypical picture, often with negative connotations and
underrepresentation in advertisements.
2. Research approach
The present study aims to analyse how advertising
discourse, with its particular structures and content
strategies, has shaped the image or social role of older
persons in recent decades. The objectives are the
analysis of the visual and verbal representation of older
persons in advertising, and the study of discursive
divergences between commercial and institutional
advertising.
As a working hypothesis, this study considers the
remarkable invisibility of older persons in advertising,
one of the most numerous social groups in Spain. The
aim is to quantify this visibility/invisibility in advertisements to test the hypothesis and then investigate a possible discursive difference between commercial and
institutional advertising. An analysis of the main differences in the representation of men and women is also
considered, anticipating a possible gender-based stereotyped treatment in advertising. This was done by
means of an analysis of images and text.
As a methodological guide to analyze this set of
representations and discourses we used content analysis and critical discourse analysis (CDA), considering
the definition by Van-Dijk (1999: 22): «Critical discourse analysis is a kind of analytic investigation on discourse that primarily studies the way in which the
abuse of social power, domination and inequality are
practiced, reproduced and occasionally combated by
texts and speech in the social and political context.
Critical discourse analysis, with such a particular investigation, explicitly takes sides, expecting to contribute
in a more effective way to the resistance against social
inequality».
Critical discourse analysis reveals communication
acts that promote social inequality. It also reveals the
distance in communication between emitter and
audiences. In the advertisements analyzed, it is clear
that their creators and decision makers are probably
not older persons, so the advertisements’ discourse is a
speech act about «them» or about «others».
Mass media, including advertising, make it possible
to establish a link between plural emitters representing
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 189-196
social and economic powers (the state, corporations
verbally represent older persons have been collected.
and economic agents) and the audience who daily
Non-repeated advertisements appearing within the
build and validate social concepts and self-concepts.
stated period in all editions, in the case of monthly
Numerical data as well as relationships between
magazines, have been analyzed. In the case of weeadvertising’s argumentation of private and public emitklies, one copy per month has been selected. The total
ters and the models of old age they refer to will be
number of advertisements analyzed was 1,691.
extracted from the application of this mixed modeling.
According to the AIMC (Spanish Association for
«Discourses are interpreted as elements with a
the Investigation of the Media), people over 55 consticoherent relationship to the users’ mental models
tute 33.2% of the readership of supplements and 25%
about the events or facts they refer to» (Van-Dijk,
of the total readership of magazines (2011). This seg2003: 165).
ment is a big consumer of general press media and is
It is known that discourse structures are related to
also a focus for institutional advertising, as pointed out
context structures. Hence the
usefulness of analysis categories which enable us to find
relationships with social strucThe expectation of an old age rich in possibilities for
tures. This observation in
advertising discourse provides
development and personal growth would not only be
a theoretical framework to
culturally but also commercially progress. Only through the
study the present discursive
production that asserts the preconstruction of a more attractive idea of old age that is
sent social status of older persons. In this study advertising
plural, diverse and positive will it be possible to impart an
messages are analyzed at
experience of senior citizenship that can be appreciated.
micro level, to relate them to
the macro level, in the frameHiding and stereotyping images of old age only serves to
work of the theories of social
gerontology.
weaken the bases of the new culture that needs to be built
2.1. Sample design
in this century
Considering when a discourse becomes historical, this
analysis covers an extended
period of time (1980-2010) which can be considered
a stage in communication history (Timoteo, 2012), a
stage of economic study (Sanchís-Marco, 2011) and
as a period of diachronic analysis in the recent history
of international development1. This period corresponds to a progressive increase in the highest life
expectancy rates in history and population ageing. The
year 2001 was a turning point in the demographic history of Spain. Since then, the percentage of the population over 65 has exceeded the child population percentage. (Abellán & Ayala, 2012: 6).
This study analyzes advertisements in the nondaily press in Spain. Specific supports aimed at older
persons have been selected («Vivir con Júbilo»,
«Sesenta y más») as well as general supports with a
larger readership of older persons (Sunday supplements such as «Blanco y Negro»2, «EPS: El País
Semanal») and a magazine from the pharmaceutical
sector (Acófar). All the advertisements that visually or
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 189-196
of the old age person.
in the 6th report of the Committee for Institutional
Advertising and Communication in 2011.
Advertising images and texts provide useful material for analysis as both projector and viewer of these
constructions. It could be said that advertising acts as a
converter of these ideas into images and representational conventions. These representations revert back to
social imagery and can reshape our mental images.
2.2. Analysis model
When the study interest focuses on the analysis of
the role of discourse in the reproduction of ideas about
social groups, the forms of meaning must be analyzed.
This requires a content analysis (Van Dijk, 2003: 149)
that identifies the topics, propositions and elements
selected. These three aspects have been identified as
relevant for advertising discourse analysis regarding the
role of older persons in our society. In terms of advertising’s construction of messages, correspondence has
Comunicar, 42, XXI, 2014
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been established that includes topics or fields related to
information or consumption, thematic proposals, and
words or phrases related to old age. Such elements
have been filtered in categories for an interpretative
analysis of the observed content. Furthermore, images
in which older persons are represented have been
analyzed, taking into consideration the gender, age
segment and appearance, either alone or living with
other people. The type of emitter has also been analysed in order to make a comparative study between
institutional and commercial advertising.
3. Results and analysis
The following data have been drawn from the
application of the content analysis model designed to
facilitate a discourse analysis. These results are then
related to the theories of ageing drawn from social
gerontology studies, taking into account the remarkably
interpretative character of the discourse analysis processes. (Íñiguez, 2006: 121). Several aspects of the
context pointed out by Van-Dijk (1996: 30) have been
integrated in the analysis model, such as subperiods of
age, gender, lexicalization, descriptions of activity, proposition and topics (this last aspect has been incorporated into the present study and applied to advertising
as a thematic proposal of the advertisement and area
of consumption).
3.1. Invisibilities
A key research finding is the patent invisibility of
older persons in advertising, especially if we bear in
mind that the supports analyzed are aimed at an
elderly audience, in a specific or general way. After
reviewing at least 35,000 advertisements, only 1,691
included any representation of older persons.
Invisibility is perhaps the most common exercise of
symbolic violence in communication when talking
about disadvantaged groups. This is the case with
older persons, which is even more unusual if we bear
in mind that they are not a minority. In Spain the population pyramid is clearly inverted.
Only 4.8% of the advertisements studied represented older persons3. It is also significant that in magazines exclusively aimed at older persons («Vivir con
Júbilo», «Sesenta y Más») this percentage only reaches
27 and 40%, respectively.
But we have to take into consideration that socalled old age covers a wide age range. It seems to
include at least two or three intermediate age groups.
Some studies make a distinction between old age and
very old age (Sánchez Vera, 1996) or between «young
old» and older old, an age that would begin at 80
(«oldest old», in UN terms). This age range has seen
the biggest increase in population terms in Spain.
People over 80 represented 29% of the population
over 65 in 2009, and it is estimated that they will soon
be 36.8% of the total elderly population (Imserso,
2010: 32). In contrast, only 4% of the older persons
represented in advertisements belonged to the group
of the «oldest old». Most images represented the
young old (60%), from 60 to 75 years of age approximately. In their study, Bradley and Longino (2001)
related this stereotype of young old to the so-called age
mask hypothesis, according to which older persons see
themselves as younger than they in fact are. This finding reflects the projective intention of advertising’s
images and messages, and is a starting point for the
debate on cognitive and biological age. Stephens
(1991) talked about the usefulness and potential of the
cognitive age concept for the creation of advertising
targets.
Functionalist theories of old age sociology explain
that age classification is a structural element to which
several functions are assigned. Advertising takes
account of this logic in the framework of the age stratification theory, according to which self-esteem at
each stage is conditioned by the roles it plays (Belando,
2007). The thematic proposal of advertising messages
is fun, relaxation or hope in the case of the young old,
and becomes a proposal for assistance in the oldest age
range. Self-esteem and autonomy are persuasive arguments aimed mainly at the young old.
The invisibility of persons in the «oldest old» range
in commercial advertising as well as its relation to the
idea of dependency is a characteristic of «ageism»
(Fernández-Ballesteros, 2011: 138), or discrimination
towards that social group.
3.2. Lexical study. Old age: an advertising taboo
Invisibility is also apparent in advertising texts. The
work of the copy writer seems to be to avoid mentioning old age explicitly. As a consequence, older persons are not mentioned in advertising, and 56.6% of
advertisements whose subject is older persons avoid
mentioning any words that identify them as such.
In the cases in which it is lexicalized, they use the
word «mayores» (seniors), in 8.9% of cases, or the
description of the age: elderly, golden age, a man who
has aged well, etc. (3.7%). Neither the words «old
age» nor words in the same lexical family appear, not
even in advertisements aimed at that age group. In
contrast, it is easy to check how the words «old age»
and others related to an elderly physical appearance
such as wrinkles, white hairs and flaccidity are com© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 189-196
mon in adverts for female cosmetics. Old age has
become a term used in the advertising model of consumerism in the context of fear of ageing4. This paradox shows that the representation of images of older
persons in advertising is not linked to the use of the
term that identifies them, rather, the word «old age»
appears next to images denoting youth.
3.3. Older persons and the representation of their
dependency / independence
Institutional advertising tends to represent the
older person in the company of others, as was the case
with 49% of the institutional advertisements analyzed,
while only 30% showed the older person alone. The
issue of the social creation of dependency in old age
has already been discussed5, and this is the idea
behind the discourse of institutional advertising. One
of the theories of the sociology of gerontology arises
from symbolic interactionism and goes by the name of
labeling theory. From that perspective, one of the
labels assigned to older persons is dependency (in the
sense that it is a kind of anomaly).
In contrast, the analysis of advertisements made by
private and commercial advertisers revealed that 65%
represented an older person alone or in a couple.
They are the «young old», independent people, a
representation far removed from the stereotype that
relates old age to dependency. Such occurrences are
broadcast mainly in the form of commercial advertising
and tend to exclude very old people.
3.4. Gender
stereotypes in the
representation of
older persons
Despite the fact
that the increase in
life
expectancy
brings about the
feminization of the
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 189-196
elderly population, only 23.6%
of the advertisements have a
woman as the
main character,
compared to 44%
with a man as the
protagonist. This
percentage is similar in institutional and commercial advertising, the latter featuring a higher percentage
of women as the main character (23.7%) with 20.8%
in institutional advertising.
In 1979, Susan Sontag discussed double standards
in ageing, a social order that seems to persist in images
of old age. In the advertising analyzed, the man appears enjoying leisure activities in company whereas
the woman is often alone, in need of health assistance
services. The profile of the elderly person is also feminized in advertising. Of the 28 advertisements examined in which a very old person appeared, 26 featured
a woman rather than a man.
The range of products and services in adverts for
older persons is highly differentiated by gender. Almost
all the drinks advertisements feature a man, while most
health and beauty products have a woman. In relative
terms, women have a greater presence in advertisements for assistance and health products6. Men are
more prominent in advertising for leisure products7,
culture and even for clothes and accessories. This finding can be easily explained in the context of the
current model of consumerism which is generally segmented by gender.
However, there is more equality in institutional
advertising in quantitative terms with 43% of institutional advertisements representing a man and a woman
together, compared to 28% in commercial adverts).
As typically happens in discourses about otherness,
older persons are described only in vague terms. The
representations we have analyzed tend to generalize
Comunicar, 42, XXI, 2014
193
Comunicar, 42, XXI, 2014
194
and few of them present the individuality or personality of the old person, and even less so in the case of
women. Descriptive images are often file pictures that
coldly define the Western type of older person. The
representation of celebrities is the only case in which
older persons’ identity and personality have not been
stolen, and the vast majority of the celebrities represented are men.
3.5. Intertextuality. Discussion on the relations
between advertising discourse and theoretical
models of old age
The findings of this study reveal a link between
the discourse of institutional advertising and the functionalist paradigm of the sociology of old age. In this
paradigm, the image of old age is a social problem
«resulting from mandatory retirement, structural changes in the family and industrialization and urbanization
processes, the emphasis on the individual adjustment
to ageing» (Giró, 2004: 20). The institutional discourse
presents the «official» program of activities suitable for
older persons (IMSERSO trips, club cards, programs to
learn new technologies, etc.). It can be linked to the
functionalist theory that considers retirement as a stage
marked by creative leisure: «the theory of activity is
based on a very optimistic and in some ways idealistic
view, as it hands the elderly population a solution to
their problems which actually depends exclusively on
the social, economic and political structures».
Public administration advertising has raised the
visibility of the oldest. The image of very old persons,
with no recognized activity and represented in company or in need of the help of others, reflects a functionalist idea that is economic in nature when associating old age with retirement or lack of activity. It is related to the discursive perspective that promotes the
social creation of dependency in old age (Alan Walker’s thesis). This has economic implications, as retirement is considered to be «a social death, like the denial
of the right to work», and it is also believed to promote
an economy of social assistance that represents the
«environment» and the idea of welfare in public policies on old age:
The «Action Plan» is based on three pillars: the
aged and development, promotion of health and welfare in old age and the creation of a suitable environment. It constitutes the benchmark for policy formulation and calls on governments, NGOs and other interested parties to redirect the way in which citizens perceive the aged, interact with them and assist them»
(UN International Plan of Action on Ageing, World
Assembly, Madrid, 2003: IV),
For its part, commercial advertising seems to promote the postmodern perspective of ageing and the
creation of lifestyles that are not based on productivity
but on consumption (Giró, 2004: 23). This approach
is closer to the idea of a cultural construction of the
aged through consumption, contrary to a place that is
institutionally assigned.
After analysing eleven categories of products or
services advertised, two categories appear as the most
widely publicized: assistance and help products and/or
services (17.7%) and leisure products/services
(12.2%). The same happens with the thematic proposal of the messages. Of the five categories analyzed,
the vast majority of advertisements include a functional
proposal8 such as assistance (29.5%) or a fun or relaxation proposal (29%). This can be summarized as
two ideological constructions of old age: one that
equates old age with loss of autonomy (increasing
dependencies) and the other that associates this age to
leisure and relaxation.
Advertising discourse, be it institutional or commercial, actively promotes the idea of assistance for an
age range that needs practical, functional support and
objects that provide this. Public administrations choose
fun and relaxation as a thematic proposal in many of
their advertisements (36% of cases). Therefore, the
institutional message would connect with the so-called
«disengagement» theory that defines retirement as
something desirable (Kehl & Fernández, 2001: 147),
an idea that was quickly rejected on the theoretical
level, but one which makes sense in an idealistic
advertising discourse.
4. Conclusions and challenges
The tradition of consumption associated to gender
is deeply rooted in advertising aimed at older persons.
Hygiene, health and beauty are associated with
women, while culture and alcoholic drinks are associated with men. Commercial advertising raises a relational concept of old age and consumption. The
advertising idea of old age deepens the gender gap in
commercial advertising, following the old age approach pointed out by Sontag (1979).
The relation between the advertising discourse on
older persons and the functionalist paradigm is clear,
especially in the case of institutional advertising, which
is close to the «disengagement» theory. For its part,
commercial advertising’s proposal shows a young old
consumer, which can be linked to postmodernity theories that blur the limits of old age and lifestyles based
on consumption not productivity (Giró, 2004: 23).
This theory strongly promotes the possibility of empo© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 189-196
wering older persons in anticipation of their future social role:
«The immediate
future, with the
unstoppable
increase in the
number of aged
persons, is going
to have to deal
with structural
and perspective changes in the social value of ages, to
the point of predicting that social and political power
will rest in the hands of mature and aged people».
The old age discourse in advertising is a duality
and clearly depends on the type of emitter. Institutional
advertising increasingly represents old people in couples. The result is clearly contextual. According to
INE data, the majority of older persons are married
and the rates of widowhood have significantly decreased. However, the most widespread discourse is
the one proposed by the commercial emitter, which
offers all kinds of functional products to make up for the
loss of physical capacity. This model of consumption is
probably based on a subjective definition of old age
understood as loss of autonomy. Camps (2003: 268)
states that old age is characterized, above all, by the loss
of autonomy, a fact that has been used by advertising in
its discourse. Discursive strategy is now no longer based
on the fear of ageing, but on the fear of losing capacity
and autonomy. This is the implicit message of commercial advertising aimed at older persons.
Advertising, defined as persuasive discourse,
shows its ability to transfer meanings related to the old
persons’ social role. Not for nothing does Van-Dijk
(2003: 166) point out that persuasion, in the broad
sense, is defined by control over the terms of social
representations.
It can be safely said that old age is the great opportunity for advertising communication and marketing.
With an inverted population pyramid whose base is
progressively diminishing while the top gets ever
wider, the big market in quantitative terms will be
older persons. There is also greater media consumption at that age. But one of the questions that arises
from these findings is: will the advertising machine
continue to publicize an image of older persons as a
minority? And more important, will it dare to discard
the discourse of fear, of loss of autonomy and embrace
a constructive discourse that progressively prepares
people in each of life’s stages for the arrival and accep© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 189-196
Comunicar, 42, XXI, 2014
195
tance of old age? The expectation of an old age rich
in possibilities for development and personal growth
would not only be culturally but also commercially
progress. Only through the construction of a more
attractive idea of old age that is plural, diverse and
positive will it be possible to impart an experience of
senior citizenship that can be appreciated. Hiding and
stereotyping images of old age only serves to weaken
the bases of the new culture that needs to be built in
this century of the old age person.
Some communications studies anticipated that the
myth of youth widely disseminated by advertising
would soon be replaced by «the silver power »
(Martínez-Pais, 1999: 73), since the myths spread by
the media belong to the economic and sociological
market and its various contexts, but this rational prediction has failed to materialize.
Notes
1 There are several reports on socio-economic analysis, trends and
development in this period, such as the UNDP report on Human
Development or the CEPAL report.
2 The Blanco y Negro supplement has been analyzed up to its final
edition in December 2001. «EPS» and «Sesenta y más» have been
analyzed since their first editions, in 1981 and 1984 respectively.
3 In Spain, the percentage of older persons ranged from 11.2% in
1980 to 17.9% in 2010. Data from INE (the Spanish National
Statistics Institute).
4 For instance, advertising for the product Revitalift by L’Oréal
makes the following promise: «Combat 10 signs of ageing»
(www.loreal-paris.es/cuidados-de-la-piel/cuidadofacial/revitalift/revitalift-total-repair-10.aspx) (18-02-2013).
5 Walker, A. (1980): The Social Creation of Poverty and
Dependency in Old Age. Journal of Social Policy, 9 (1), 49-75, quoted by Giró (2004: 22).
6 11% of the advertisements that represented a woman as the main
character advertised health products, compared to 5.4% of the
advertisements with a man as the main character. 31% of the advertisements with a woman as the main character promoted assistance
products, compared to 19.5% of the advertisements with a man as
the main character.
7 91.4% of the advertisements of leisure products presented a man.
In the case of advertisements of cultural products there was only one
woman as the main character.
8 Hearing aids, residential centres, telecare services, etc.
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196
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