Discoursive analysis and pragmatic metadiscourse in four sub

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Discoursive analysis and pragmatic
metadiscourse in four sub-areas of
Economics research articles
Concepción Hernández Guerra and Juan M. Hernández Guerra
Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Spain)
chernandez@dfm.ulpgc.es & jhernandez@dmc.ulpgc.es
Abstract
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP)
are two disciplines whose importance has been growing lately. This is due to the
ever-increasing interest in the language that describes the most recent
developments in varying disciplines and the need to communicate in and
understand that language. One of the means for the spreading of those new
developments in the different technologies is through research articles in
specialised journals. These impose certain rules that must be fulfilled by all
researchers who want to see their papers published. Much literature has been
written about this, covering most linguistic areas (see, for instance, Bazerman,
1988; Bhatia, 1993; Dudley-Evans, 1994; Fortanet, 2002). Many articles contrast
different genres but rarely distinguish different sub-areas within a genre
(Bridgman & Carlson, 1984; Malcolm, 1987; Hyland, 1988; Neff Van Aertselaer,
2006). In the present case, we will consider texts within the discipline of
Economics. The aim of this paper is to show a structural, grammatical and
metatextual analysis of ten articles recently published in very prestigious
specialised publications, covering the most important areas of study in
Economics. We conclude by making a contrastive rhetorical analysis of the four
sub-genres analysed here. These are: Applied Economy, Quantitative Economy,
Financial Economy, and Management and Business.
Key words: metadiscourse, genre, rhetoric, economics, discourse analysis.
Resumen
An‡lisis discursivo y metadiscurso pragm‡tico de cuatro sub-‡reas de
Econom’a en art’culos de investigaci—n
Este artículo se inscribe en una línea de trabajo cuya importancia ha ido en
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C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA AND J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
aumento en los últimos años. Se trata del Inglés para Fines Específicos y del
Inglés para Fines Académicos, disciplinas que han experimentado un desarrollo
considerable debido al interés que despierta la lengua inglesa como vehículo de
difusión de los nuevos avances científico-técnicos, y a la consideración actual
de esta lengua como herramienta de comunicación común. Desde esta
perspectiva, es bien sabido que uno de los mecanismos esenciales para la
difusión de los nuevos avances científico-técnicos son los artículos de
investigación publicados en revistas especializadas, que son las que establecen
las normas que deben ser aceptadas por los investigadores que deseen publicar
en ellas. A este respecto, disponemos de numerosos artículos: unos contienen
un estudio contrastivo de diferentes géneros con el objetivo de precisar sus
rasgos definitorios (véase, por ejemplo, Bazerman, 1988; Bhatia, 1993; DudleyEvans, 1994; Fortanet, 2002); pero muy pocos ahondan en los distintos
subgéneros en que puede manifestarse un género en particular (Bridgman &
Carlson, 1984; Malcolm, 1987; Hyland, 1988; Neff Van Aertselaer, 2006). Con
tales planteamientos, este trabajo desarrolla un análisis estructural, gramatical y
metatextual de un corpus de textos constituido por diez artículos aparecidos
recientemente en prestigiosas publicaciones especializadas en Economía y,
particularmente, en las ramas siguientes: Economía Aplicada, Economía
Cuantitativa, Economía Financiera, y Gestión y Administración Empresarial.
Concluye esta investigación con un estudio retórico contrastivo de las cuatro
ramas objeto de análisis.
Palabras clave: metadiscurso, género, retórica, economía, análisis del
discurso.
Introduction
The need for communication through different means in order to explain
the advances in a specific technical area has meant that linguistic disciplines
such as English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) are increasingly important to researchers specialized in
fields other than linguistics. For this reason the literature of these disciplines
has been quite prolific recently. We can mention Bazerman’s (1988) historical
approach, Swales’ (1990) work on academic discourse, or Bhatia’s (1993)
study on business, legal and academic genres as three well-known examples
of literature published on these matters. Also noteworthy are Hyland’s
(1998) paper, basing his study on four different disciplines from a
metatextual viewpoint, and Valero-Garcés’ (1996) interesting paper on
Economics texts written in English by native and non-native speakers.
Research has not been so prolific when dealing with the same genre and its
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DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
different sub-areas. We consider it important, as the identification of those
differences can mean successful publication and a wider knowledge of the
specific conventions required. For this reason this paper will focus on ten
articles from four different sub-areas on Economics to analyse their
structural, grammatical and rhetorical conventions. The first two will serve
us as an introduction to the most important one, the rhetorical convention,
as the functional perspective is considered the most useful in this type of
text. To do this, we must briefly refer to some relevant background notions:
genre, rhetoric and metadiscourse.
“Genre” is a term related to the description of language use in academic or
professional settings. Texts are no longer considered as merely a matter of
form and content, nor genre as simply the form into which the content is
put. Nowadays when we identify a text we make assumptions not only about
its form but also about its purposes, its subject matter, its writer and its
intended reader. So, according to Devitt (1993: 575), “genre entails purposes,
participants, and themes, so understanding genre entails understanding a
rhetorical and semiotic situation and a social context.” For this reason,
research papers can be said to constitute a genre within the scientific world
with different conventions across different disciplines.
“Rhetoric”, in the framework used here, is understood as persuasive
discourse; that is, the strategies writers use not only to convince readers of
their claims but also to increase the credibility of their research. In this way,
the analysis for the reasons of changes in expressions belongs to rhetoric.
Genre and rhetoric can be seen as two different dimensions, the latter being
conditioned by the former (Valero-Garcés, 1996).
Lastly, Hyland (1998: 437) defines “metadiscourse” as follows:
Based on a view of writing as a social and communicative engagement
between writer and reader, metadiscourse focuses our attention on the ways
writers project themselves into their work to signal their communicative
intentions. It is a central pragmatic construct which allows us to see how
writers seek to influence readers’ understandings of both the text and their
attitude towards its content and the audience.
Taking into account that “discourse” refers to “language use in institutional,
professional or more general social contexts” (Bhatia, 2004: 3),
“metadiscourse” can be considered as the original application of those
norms. It is more personal than genre and rhetoric. Metadiscourse can make
the text more friendly and considerate but, on the other hand, as it can be
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C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA AND J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
realized through all kinds of linguistic units (from affixes to whole
sentences), it is quite impossible to classify them solely according to linguistic
criteria. In other words, it is relatively easy to accept the concept of
metadiscourse but more difficult to establish its limits (Swales, 1990).
For all that has been said above we may understand that some features of
scientific discourse are determined by the genre the text belongs to, whereas
others are influenced by the writer’s own style. We shall analyze both features
in the different types of texts to conclude which should be considered as
common when writing for a research paper within particular Economics
sub-areas.
Materials
We have selected ten research articles on Economics with a high impact
factors of the official database within the studies of social sciences (Social
Science Citation Index, SSCI in ISI Web of Science and Condit) and that
cover four of the largest areas in Economics research: Applied Economy,
Quantitative Economy, Financial Economy, and Management and Business
(for a full list of titles, see Appendix). Following the JEL (Journal of Economic
Literature) classification that divides the different areas from A to Z it could
be stated that our articles cover the theory of Economics (corresponding to
the letter A in the classification), Mathematical and Quantitative Methods
(C), Financial Economy (G) and Business Administration and Business
Economy, Marketing and Accounting (M). Generally speaking, Quantitative
Economy bases its research on mathematical methods in Economics while
Applied Economy looks at the application of theory and methods in
economic practice. In other words, Applied Economy analyses and
interprets reality and looks for policy implications of the results. Business
Economy deals with different problem-solution matters in businesses and
Financial and Management with business administration.
These ten articles have been fully detailed in the appendix and can be
classified as follows: three articles (i.e., those by Nickell, Siciliani, and Hoxby)
are found in Applied Economy, published in two reviews placed in the top
20 of the whole Economics area in the SSCI, with impact indexes over 1.5;
two papers (i.e., those by Kim, and Bianchi) are in the Quantitative Economy
area, in journals with medium and high impact index, or located in the
searcher Condit; two (i.e., those by Nowlis, and Andersen) in the Business
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DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
area, published in leading journals; and three (i.e., those by Frooman, Brigo,
and Singh) in Management and Financial Economy, also with a high impact
index in their field.
Textual Features and Grammatical Pattern
Textual features
Textual features are the characteristics that mark a genre and include the
layout, the organization, and so on. Such formal features are the physical
markings of a genre, its traces, and hence may be quite revealing regarding
genres even though they comply with the form, not with the content. Our
comments will be based on an analysis of Tables 1 and 2, which have been
developed after a comprehensive reading of the papers selected, focusing on
the different items stated.
Table 1 provides the general facts of the articles, that is, the skeleton of the
paper. As we can see, the number of pages varies between 30 (Hoxby, paper
4, Applied Ec.) and 7 (Siciliani, paper 3, Applied Ec.) but the average is 20.
Normally the maximum number of pages is established by the publishers’
guidelines so it is not a matter of personal decision or habit. The number of
authors also varies from one to three, prevailing single authorships. The
abstract may be between 5 and 13 lines long but the average length is 9 lines.
Again, this is imposed by the publication. Not all of them have keywords
after the abstracts. In just half of the articles reviewed 3 to 6 words appear.
As we can see, differences between sub-areas are not significant. In this sort
of publications, introductions are quite rich regarding content. They are not
very strict in the moves –by “moves” we mean the different aspects the
author deals with in the different sections (Swales, 1990). In this way, Table
1 shows a summary of these different moves used in the introduction and
conclusion sections. It is easily predictable that the introduction will describe
the background and summary of the purpose of the paper but the variation
of moves in this section is quite surprising. Five different moves can be
found (as in paper 5, Nowlis, Business Area), that include: problem to solve,
objective of the paper, state of the art, hypothesis and results. Other moves
named in different articles can be the contribution (in five of ten papers), the
structure of the paper (in four of them), the usefulness of the study (in two
samples) and the background (in five). The most common move is the
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C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA AND J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
objective
of the
paper
but,
interestingly
it is
named
contribution
(in five
of ten
papers),
the structureenough,
of the paper
(in not
four of
them), in the
the usefulness
study
(in twoassamples)
background
(in in
five).
The all of
introduction
of ofallthethe
papers,
wouldand
bethe
expected,
but
seven,
most
common
move
is
the
objective
of
the
paper
but,
interestingly
enough,
it is
them belonging to Applied and Business.
not named in the introduction of all the papers, as would be expected, but in
seven, all of them belonging to Applied and Business.
Applied Economy
Authors’ name
No. of pages
No. of authors
Lines in abstract
Key words incl.
Items in introduction
2. Nickell
27
3
5
No
Problem to solve
Objective of paper
Hypothesis
Structure of paper
3. Siciliani
7
1
11
3
Context
Objective of paper
Contribution
Structure of paper
Items in conclusions
Work done
Results
Acknowledgements
References
Appendices
Bibliography
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Work done
Results
Policy implications
New empirical
evidences
Yes
Yes
No
No
4. Hoxby
30
1
8
No
Context
Objective of paper
Utility of paper
Justification of
methodology (no section
title)
Results
Implications
Yes
Yes
No
No
Quantitative Economy
Authors’ name
No. of pages
No. of authors
Lines in abstract
Key words incl.
Items in introduction
Items in conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Appendices
Bibliography
1. Kim
20
1
8
6
Problem to solve
Contribution
Utility of study
Structure of paper
Problem to solve
Work done
Utility of paper
Analysis of results
Future extensions
Limitations
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
10. Bianchi
24
1
12
No
Background
Problem to solve
Contribution
Contribution
Opinion based in experience
Future research
No
Yes
No
Yes
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C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA & J.M.
J.M. HERNÁNDEZ
HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
GUERRA
Business Area
Authors’ name
No. of pages
No. of authors
Lines in abstract
Key words incl.
Items in introduction
5. Nowlis
9
3
9
No
Problem to solve
Objective of paper
Brief state of the art
Hypothesis
Results (no section title)
Items in conclusions
Background
Objective of Paper
Characteristics of the paper
(strengthness)
Structure of paper
No
Yes
No
No
Acknowledgements
References
Appendices
Bibliography
6. Andersen
18
1
13 (sections)
5
(Discussion)
Work done
Testing the hypothesis (work
extended)
Contribution
Future research
Consequences and no
consequences of the work
Future research
No
Yes
No
No
Management & Financial
Authors’ name
No. of pages
No. of authors
Lines in abstract
Key words incl.
Items in introduction
Items in conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Appendices
Bibliography
7. Frooman
14
1
8
No
Background
Aim of the paper
Objective of the
paper
(no section title)
Summary of results
Utility of theory
Contribution
8. Brigo
14
2
10
5
Propose of the
paper
Contribution
Background
9. Singh
12
2
7
6
Background
Definitions
Contribution
Work done
Future research
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Work done
Opinion
New description of results
General conclusion
No
Yes
No
Yes
Table 1.
1. Textual
Textual features across sub-areas in Economics.
Table
(Italics correspond to the same title used by the author)
(Quantitative
and Management).
is remarkable
that noand
move
is repeated in named
Thefive
second
most frequent
move isItthe
contribution
background,
five
(Quantitative
and Management).
is remarkable
no move
is repeated
in
all
the
papers studied.
There is quite aIt wide
degree ofthat
freedom
in this
regard. In
in five
(Quantitative
and
Itresults
isofremarkable
that
nonot
move is
all the
papers studied.
There
is quite aEconomy
wide degree
freedom
in this
regard.
In
the
conclusions
section
of Management).
Applied
and conclusions
are
the conclusions
of studied.
Applied
Economy
and
conclusions
not
clearly
Inpapers
Quantitative
Economy
contribution/usefulness
of
repeated
indefined.
all thesection
Therethe
isresults
quite
a wide
degreeare
of the
freedom
clearlyisdefined.
In Quantitative
Economy
the contribution/usefulness
of and
the
paper
named,
which
is quite striking,
as this
a theoretical
discipline;
in this
regard.
In the
conclusions
section
ofis Applied
Economy
results and
future research is just expressed in Quantitative Economy and Business.
conclusions are not clearly defined. In Quantitative Economy the
contribution/usefulness of the paper is named, which is quite striking, as
16 (2008): …-…discipline; and future research is just expressed in
this 6 is IBÉRICA
a theoretical
Quantitative Economy and Business.
The second most frequent move is the contribution and background, named in
The second most frequent move is the contribution and background, named in
In Table Two the different moves in the remainder of the sections are
described. The articles we are dealing with are not homogeneous in
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C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA AND J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
structure. The standard structure
of the ANALYSIS
research
inMETADISCOURSE
English, that is,
DISCOURSIVE
ANDarticle
PRAGMATIC
Abstract – Introduction – Method – Results – Discussion/Conclusion
(IMRD)
is not
fulfilled
inremainder
social science
papers.
A first view
In Table
Twocompletely
the different moves
in the
of the sections
are described.
The that
articlesthe
we number
are dealingof
withsections
are not homogeneous
in structure.
The in
standard
indicates
is not constant
except
Business.
structure of the research article in English, that is, Abstract – Introduction –
Although
not
following
the
IMRD
model
strictly,
it
is
Singh
(paper
9,
Method – Results – Discussion/Conclusion (IMRD) is not completely fulfilled in
Management)
whopapers.
mostAclosely
follows
it. that the number of sections is not
social science
first view
indicates
constant except in Business. Although not following the IMRD model strictly, it
is Singh (paper 9, Management) who most closely follows it.
Applied Economy
Authors’ name
2. Nickell
3. Siciliani
4. Hoxby
Section 1
Description of
data/reality
Description of the
model
Empirical evidence
Theoretical analysis of
the model
Importance of the study
Section 2
Model-empirical
economic strategy
Policy implications and
Conclusions
Previous theoretical insight
of the problem
Section 3
Analysis of results
Description of the model
Section 4
Summary and
Conclusions
Problem identification
Section 5
Analysis of possible
alternative measures
Section 6
Propose of a measure
Goodness of measure
Section 7
Extended description of the
model
Section 8
Description of data sources
Section 9
Description and analysis of
results
Section 10
Conclusions
Quantitative Economy
Authors’ name
1. Kim
10. Bianchi
Section 1
Description of model
Extended problem to be solved
Literature review
Section 2
Numerical experiments
Simulations of the model
Description of the propose theory
Section 3
Extended argument of the theory
Section 4
Extended argument of the theory
Example
Section 5
Shorter argument of the theory
Section 6
Conclusions and further research
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DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA & J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
Business Area
Authors’ name
5. Nowlis
6. Andersen
Section 1
Prior research (state of the art)
Objective of the paper
Hypothesis (extension)
Structure of the rest of the paper
Description of the theoretical model
Section 2
Method 1
Result 1
Analysis of results
Hypothesis
Testing hypothesis with real examples
Section 3
Method 2
Result 2
Analysis of results
Hypothesis
Testing hypothesis with reasoning and
real examples
Section 4
Method 3
Result 3
Analysis of results
New points of discussion
Section 5
General discussion
Management and Financial
Authors’ name
7. Frooman
8. Brigo
9. Singh
Section 1
Brief state of the art
Contributions
Previous knowledge to
the model, with
background
Literature review around
main argument
Section 2
State of the art
Aim of the paper
Description of the
model
Calibration
Numerical simulation
Literature review around
main argument
Section 3
Hypothesis
Description of what
follows
Example to be used
Artificial example of
application
Literature review around
main argument
Section 4
Description of theory
Literature references
around theory
No example
Conclusions and further
research
Description of method
Section 5
Structure of the
argument- theory
Example
Description of results
Section 6
Follow the argument to
build the theory
Example
Description of results
Section 7
Conclusion of theory
Interpret ate the results
References description
according previous theory
Example
Four propositions, DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC
Conclusions METADISCOURSE
consequence of theory
Discussion around
empirical validation
validation
Conclusions
Section 8
Section 9
Table 2. Textual features across sub-areas in Economics.
(Italics correspond to the same title used by the author)
8 we
IBÉRICA
16 (2008):
…-… and Management is the sub-area that dedicates longer
As
can see,
Business
sections
to theBusiness
explanation
of their
research (8 is
or 9the
sections),
whilethat
the other
As we can see,
and
Management
sub-area
dedicates
three sub-areas have fewer chapters (with the exception, of course, of Hoxby,
longerwho
sections
to
the
explanation
of
their
research
(8
or
9
sections),
while
has written 10 sections). Traditionally, technical areas are not usually very
the other
threeinsub-areas
have fewer
chapters (with
the exception,
course,
extensive
their literature,
and Management
and Financial,
dealingofwith
problems in businesses, could be considered to be half way between pure
technical areas and more literary ones. But it is also true that the same could be
IBÉRICA 16 [2008]: 81-108 89
said of Business Area, which in our sample conforms to the pattern IRMD.
Business area, on the one hand, and Management and Financial, on the other,
express the method, results and analysis of results in the same section, having
applied different methods or theories. This is different to the case of Applied
Economy and Quantitative Economy, which base their research on an
experiment.
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C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA AND J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
of Hoxby, who has written 10 sections). Traditionally, technical areas are not
usually very extensive in their literature, and Management and Financial,
dealing with problems in businesses, could be considered to be half way
between pure technical areas and more literary ones. But it is also true that
the same could be said of Business Area, which in our sample conforms to
the pattern IRMD. Business area, on the one hand, and Management and
Financial, on the other, express the method, results and analysis of results in
the same section, having applied different methods or theories. This is
different to the case of Applied Economy and Quantitative Economy, which
base their research on an experiment.
Grammatical pattern
There has been much literature explaining all the aspects that must be taken
into account when writing an academic paper (Weissberg & Buker, 1990;
Swales & Feak, 1994; Day, 1995; Fortanet, 2002; among others). All of them
give advice about the need to write plain English and be as accurate and clear
as possible. Day (1995), for instance, is quite general but offers interesting
clues for writing plain English from a semantic and syntactic point of view.
He recommends the avoidance of the passive voice as the active voice is
more direct and always less wordy although it does not mean that on some
occasions it is better to use the passive voice. With reference to tenses, it is
admitted that present and past tenses are the most frequently used. The
future tense might be used in pointing to the need for further
experimentation, for example, and only rarely should one use the so-called
“perfect” tenses.
Next, we shall consider how grammatical features are presented in our
corpus. To do this we shall analyse the frequency in use of tenses, passive
voice, modal verbs and first person. We consider them to be the most
important aspects to deal with in the grammatical analysis of a text, as they
are basic when writing any scientific paper due to their frequency and the
importance in the meaning and purpose of the work.
Table 3 shows that the coincidence in the tense used in the abstracts is quite
remarkable. Only in one case (paper 9, Singh, Management & Financial) is
the simple past used but, curiously enough, at an even higher frequency than
the simple present. This is due to the fact that this abstract makes a comment
on a survey. In Business and Applied Economy papers something striking
happens. The only tense used is the simple present, and the former category
is limited in other grammatical tenses, mood or voice; but in Applied
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DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
Economy, the simple present in passive voice is also used on five occasions.
As we can see in Table 3 they combine both voices, and this means it is richer
they combine both voices, and this means it is richer in the combination of
in the
combination
different
elements. of different elements.
C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA & J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Tenses Simple Present
Management
Business
Quantitativ e
Applied
13
13
9
16
Tenses Simple Past
3
Modal v erbs w ill
1
1
1
Modal v erbs can
1
Modal v erbs may
3
2
1
Modal v erbs must
1
Modal v erbs w ould
3
Passiv e v oice Simple Present
Passiv e v oice Present Perfect
1
1st Person I
2
5
1
1
Table 3. Grammatical pattern in abstracts.
With reference to modal verbs, something different happens. The use of modal
in abstracts
is very rare
as abstracts
must express
whathappens.
the paper will
Withverbs
reference
to modal
verbs,
something
different
Thebe use of
about and modal verbs generally encode meanings connected with degrees of
modal
verbsand
in abstracts
very rare
asis,abstracts
must express
what the
certainty
degrees of is
necessity.
That
it seems somewhat
contradictory
to paper
express
a summary
of the verbs
researchgenerally
done in a less
than categorical
But, as with
will be
about
and modal
encode
meaningsway.
connected
Carter states (2006), modals are used to say whether something is real or true, or
degrees
of certainty and degrees of necessity. That is, it seems somewhat
whether it is the subject of speculation rather than definite knowledge.
contradictory to express a summary of the research done in a less than
About the passive voice, Tarone et al. (1981) concluded in a paper that
categorical
way.theBut,
states
used to journal
say whether
investigated
useasofCarter
the active
and (2006),
passive modals
forms in are
astrophysics
something
is real
or true,
or whether
it isgenre
the studied
subjectitofwasspeculation
articles that
within
the conventions
of the
the writer’s rather
purpose that governs choice at the grammatical and lexical
thancommunicative
definite knowledge.
use the
of the
passivevoice,
voice in
abstractset isal.very
odd, and
we can find
About
passive
Tarone
(1981)
concluded
in aseveral
paper that
examples in which not one instance appears, although Applied Economy is an
investigated
use
the active and passive forms in astrophysics journal
exception,the
as we
saidofabove.
articles
that
within
the
conventions
of the genre studied it was the writer’s
The use of the first person singular in abstracts is almost non-existent even
communicative
purpose
that
governs
and lexical
though the abstract is the summary of thechoice
intentionatofthe
the grammatical
author when writing
levels. This can probably be also applied to the discipline we are studying.
The use of the passive voice in abstracts is very odd, and we can find several
10 IBÉRICA 16 (2008): …-…
examples
in which not one instance appears, although Applied Economy is
an exception, as we said above.
levels. This can probably be also applied to the discipline we are studying. The
IBÉRICA 16 [2008]: 81-108
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C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA AND J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
The use of the first person singular in abstracts is almost non-existent even
though the abstract is the summary of the intention of the author when
writing the paper. This may be the case because, as Parkinson and Adendorff
(2004: 381) state, ”propositions made impersonal by removal of people
(often achieved by passivisation and nominalization) give the impression of
objectivity”.
DISCOURSIVE
PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
The frequency of use of present
tensesANALYSIS
in theAND
introduction
and following
sections is also remarkable (see Tables 4 to 7). Distinguishing every subthe paper.
Thisintroduction,
may be the caseQuantitative
because, as Parkinson
and Adendorff
(2004:
category
in the
Economy
also makes
use of
381) state, ”propositions made impersonal by removal of people (often achieved
tensesbyother
than
the
simple
present.
This
is
due
to
the
explanation
they
passivisation and nominalization) give the impression of objectivity”.
offer of the problem to solve. To do this they use the simple past even
Thepresent
frequencyisofmore
use offrequent
present tenses
and18
following
though
(17intothe4introduction
in paper 1;
to 7 insections
paper 10).
is also remarkable (see Tables 4 to 7). Distinguishing every sub-category in the
Kim introduction,
(paper 1, Quantitative
Quantitative
Ec.)
explains
“Moreover,
the
effects
of
Economy also makes use of tenses other than the
simple present.
This is due
to the explanation
they offer
the problem
to solve.much
uncertainty
on optimal
policy
formulation
has ofnot
yet received
To doin
thisthe
they CGE
use the simple
past even
though present
is more
(17 to
4
attention
modelling
literature”
(page
98) frequent
but, for
instance,
in paper 1; 18 to 7 in paper 10). Kim (paper 1, Quantitative Ec.) explains
Siciliani
(paper 3,
writes in
Introduction
“Longhaswaiting
“Moreover,
theApplied
effects of E.)
uncertainty
on the
optimal
policy formulation
not yet times
received lists
muchremain
attentionissues
in the of
CGE
modelling
literature”
(page 98)
but, forhealth
and waiting
major
concern
in several
national
instance, Siciliani (paper 3, Applied E.) writes in the Introduction “Long waiting
services”
(page 17) as Applied Economy starts from a current problem and
times and waiting lists remain issues of major concern in several national health
not from
previous
research.
services”
(page 17)
as Applied Economy starts from a current problem and not
from previous research.
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Management
Business
Quantitativ e
Applied
Simple Present
47
48
35
111
Present Perfect
7
2
11
2
Simple Past
7
1
6
Future
1
1
1
Imperativ e
Table 4. Tenses in Introductions.
92
In the description and results sections, Management is the richest sub-area in the
tenses, as they use ten different tenses in these sections. The other
disciplines focus mainly on the simple present as this expresses a description
use of
IBÉRICA 16 [2008]: 81-108
IBÉRICA 16 (2008): …-…
11
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Página 93
DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
In the description and results sections, Management is the richest sub-area in
the use of tenses, as they use ten different tenses in these sections. The other
disciplines
focusGUERRA
mainly
onHERNÁNDEZ
the simple
present as this expresses a description
C. HERNÁNDEZ
& J.M.
GUERRA
performed at “a time around now”, or the more general, permanent time
relating
to truths
general
facts
(Carter,
2006:permanent
410). This
the most
performed
at “a and
time around
now”,
or the
more general,
time is
relating
to
truths
and
general
facts
(Carter,
2006:
410).
This
is
the
most
widely
used
tense
widely used tense in research papers.
in research papers.
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
M anagem ent
Business
Quantitativ e
Applied
Sim ple Present
560
169
170
666
Present Perfect
27
8
2
18
Sim ple Past
126
11
22
27
4
30
1
1
F uture
2
Im perativ e
17
Present Perfect cont.
5
Past Perfect
6
Past Cont.
10
Past Perfect Cont.
1
Present Cont.
5
1
1
1
2
1
7
Table 5. Tenses in Descriptions.
In thealthough
conclusions
as shown
innoticeable.
Table 7, IntheBusiness
use ispapers,
quite they
balanced
the use section,
of the simple
present is
appear
in the
number
as the is
simple
past. ThisInis Business
due to the fact
that they
although
thealmost
use of
thesame
simple
present
noticeable.
papers,
includeina the
summary
the research
done.
For instance
in Nowlis
(paper
5) fact
appearthey
almost
sameofnumber
as the
simple
past. This
is due
to the
we can read “Our studies found that when the first factor…” (page 509); or in
that they
include
the research
For instance in Nowlis
Houman
(papera6),summary
“Malone etof
al. expected
that…”done.
(page 161).
(paperFinally,
5) we Management
can read “Our
studies
found
that
when
the
firsttenses
factor…”
is the sub-area that employs more varied
in mid- (page
et al. tenses
expected
that…”
(page
161).
509); sections.
or in Houman
(paper
“Malone
In every paper
we6),
found
five different
in every
section;
that is,
In the conclusions section, as shown in Table 7, the use is quite balanced
Finally,
Management is the sub-area that employs more varied tenses in midcontinuous.
sections. In every paper we found five different tenses in every section; that
is, simple present, simple past, past perfect, past continuous and past perfect
continuous.
simple present, simple past, past perfect, past continuous and past perfect
12
IBÉRICA 16 (2008): …-…
IBÉRICA 16 [2008]: 81-108
93
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PáginaDISCOURSIVE
94
ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
17:34
C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA AND J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA & J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
Table 6. Tenses in Results.
450
400
Table 7. Tenses in Conclusions.
350
Now, let’s turn to Tables 8 to 11. The use of modal verbs in introduction and
conclusions sections is not so frequent as in mid- sections but this is due to the
difference in length rather than to other causes. As we have already said, this
grammatical aspect must be considered of great importance by researchers in
their publications because of its extensive use in the explanations of the
development of the research done.
300
250
200
150
100
Modal verbs, except for the sections named above, are quite varied. In fact, a
minimum of four different modals are used in every section. In some of them,
there are up to eight, while the differences between sub-areas are very slight.
Foreign researchers should be aware of the importance of their use in these
papers. To give an example, Brigo (paper 8, Management) uses eight different
modal verbs in the section “Model”, employing them 33 times in 7 pages. Even
though it could seem to reflect a lack of clarity in trying to avoid general truths,
what it really reflects is more elaborated structures, where every modal expresses
C.
HERNÁNDEZ
GUERRAin
& J.M.
a subtle
difference
the HERNÁNDEZ
meaning ofGUERRA
the proposal.
50
0
M anagem ent
Business
Sim ple Present
165
187
Present Perfect
6
13
Sim ple Past
81
122
Quantitativ e
54
Applied
427
1
1
7
4
10
F uture
Im perativ e
5
Present Perfect cont.
1
Past Perfect
5
Past Cont.
4
2
2
8
Past Perfect Cont.
Present Cont.
4
It is also remarkable the use of modal verbs in the Descriptions section. Not
6. Tenses in Results.
surprisingly, the modals “can”,Table
“will”
and “may” are the most widely used but,
as we can see in Table 9, no less than eight different modals are named. By
Table 7. Tenses in Conclusions.
80
Now, let’s turn to Tables 8 to 11. The use of modal verbs in introduction and
conclusions sections is not so frequent as in mid- sections but this is due to the
difference in length rather than to other causes. As we have already said, this
grammatical aspect must be considered of great importance by researchers in
their publications because of its extensive use in the explanations of the
development of the research done.
70
60
50
40
Modal verbs, except for the sections named above, are quite varied. In fact, a
minimum of four different modals are used in every section. In some of them,
there are up to eight, while the differences between sub-areas are very slight.
Foreign researchers should be aware of the importance of their use in these
papers. To give an example, Brigo (paper 8, Management) uses eight different
modal verbs in the section “Model”, employing them 33 times in 7 pages. Even
though it could seem to reflect a lack of clarity in trying to avoid general truths,
what it really reflects is more elaborated structures, where every modal expresses
C.
HERNÁNDEZ
GUERRAin& the
J.M. meaning
HERNÁNDEZ
a subtle
difference
ofGUERRA
the proposal.
30
20
10
0
M anagem ent
Business
Quantitativ e
Applied
Sim ple Present
69
34
19
79
Present Perfect
6
5
4
6
Sim ple Past
4
21
3
F uture
Im perativ e
1
Present Perfect Cont.
Past Perfect
It is also remarkable the use of modal verbs in the Descriptions section. Not
6. Tenses
Results. are the most widely used but,
surprisingly, the modals “can”,Table
“will”
and in“may”
as we can see in Table 9, no less than eight different modals are named. By
contrast, in Table 10 we canTable
check
that in
not
only the number
of 16
modals
is lesser
7. Tenses
Conclusions.
13
IBÉRICA
(2008): …-…
but also the number of times used. Exception to this is the use of the modal “can”
Now, let’s turn to Tables 8 to 11. The use of modal verbs in introduction and
in Business, appearing 21 times in the Descriptions section and 27 times in the
conclusions sections is not so frequent as in mid- sections but this is due to the
Now,difference
let’s turnintolength
Tables
8 tothan
11.toThe
use
of modal
in introduction
rather
other
causes.
As we verbs
have already
said, this and
grammatical
aspect ismust
importance
by researchers
conclusions
sections
notbesoconsidered
frequentofasgreat
in midsections
but this isindue to
their
publications
because
of its extensive use in the explanations of the
14 IBÉRICA
16 (2008):
…-…rather
the difference
in
length
than to other causes. As we have already said,
development of the research done.
Past Cont.
Past Perfect Cont.
1
Present Cont.
1
1
80
70
60
50
this grammatical aspect must be considered of great importance by
Modal verbs, except for the sections named above, are quite varied. In fact, a
researchers
theirdifferent
publications
of section.
its extensive
minimumin
of four
modals arebecause
used in every
In some ofuse
them,in the
there are of
up to
while the differences
between sub-areas
explanations
theeight,
development
of the research
done. are very slight.
40
30
20
10
Foreign researchers should be aware of the importance of their use in these
papers. To give an example, Brigo (paper 8, Management) uses eight different
94 IBÉRICA 16 [2008]: 81-108
modal verbs in the section “Model”, employing them 33 times in 7 pages. Even
though it could seem to reflect a lack of clarity in trying to avoid general truths,
what it really reflects is more elaborated structures, where every modal expresses
a subtle difference in the meaning of the proposal.
0
M anagem ent
Business
Quantitativ e
Applied
Sim ple Present
69
34
19
79
Present Perfect
6
5
4
6
Sim ple Past
4
21
3
F uture
Im perativ e
1
Present Perfect Cont.
Past Perfect
It is also remarkable the use of modal verbs in the Descriptions section. Not
Past Cont.
Past Perfect Cont.
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Página 95
DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
Modal verbs, except for the sections named above, are quite varied. In fact,
a minimum of four different modals are used in every section. In some of
them, there are up to eight, while the differences between sub-areas are very
slight. Foreign researchers should be aware of the importance of their use in
these papers. To give an example, Brigo (paper 8, Management) uses eight
different modal verbs in the section “Model”, employing them 33 times in 7
pages. Even though it could seem to reflect a lack of clarity in trying to avoid
general truths, what it really reflects is more elaborated structures, where
every modal expresses a subtle difference in the meaning of the proposal.
It is also remarkable the use of modal verbs in the Descriptions section. Not
surprisingly, the modals “can”, “will” and “may” are the most widely used
but, as we can see in Table 9, no less than eight different modals are named.
By contrast, in Table 10 we can check that not only the number of modals
is lesser but also the number of times used. Exception to this is the use of
the modal “can” in Business, appearing 21 times in the Descriptions section
and 27 times in the Results section. The case of Business is interesting if we
compare it with the other sub-areas. Also, if we add the times used as a
whole we shall see that Management uses the different modals 135 times in
the Descriptions section (Table 9) and 79 times in the Results section (Table
10); Quantitative Economy uses a modal 82 times in the Descriptions section
and 18 in the Results section; Applied Economy 136 to 31 but only Business
doesn’t follow this pattern: it uses the modals 82 times in Descriptions and
91 times in Results even though the modal “must” is not used in the Results
section. It must be stated that the modal “must” hardly appears in the
different sub-areas studied. The case of the modal “may” is also striking as
it is much more used in Descriptions than in Results except for Business
again that can be read twenty times more in the Results section (29) than in
the Descriptions section (9).
IBÉRICA 16 [2008]: 81-108
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Página 96
C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA AND J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Management
Business
Quantitativ e
Applied
can
6
7
4
7
w ill
2
7
3
3
must
2
may
8
2
9
might
3
1
1
could
1
w ould
3
ought to
2
5
Table 8. Modal verbs in Introductions.
C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA & J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
IBÉRICA 16 (2008): …-…
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
M anagem ent
Business
Quantitativ e
Applied
can
36
21
30
41
w ill
29
19
10
34
m ust
7
3
3
11
m ay
29
9
9
22
m ight
2
12
2
9
could
11
1
11
5
w ould
14
7
3
3
should
6
10
3
8
0
3
shall
1
ought to
3
Table 9. Modal verbs in Descriptions.
30
25
20
15
96
IBÉRICA 16 [2008]: 81-108
10
5
0
Management
Business
Quantitativ e
Applied
can
7
27
9
10
w ill
21
11
2
2
29
1
8
must
2
may
9
15
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17:34
shall
6
10
Página 97
1
ought to
3
8
0
3
3
Table 9. Modal verbs in Descriptions.
DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Management
Business
Quantitativ e
Applied
can
7
27
9
10
w ill
21
11
2
2
1
8
must
2
may
9
29
might
4
6
could
13
2
3
3
w ould
22
15
2
6
should
1
1
1
2
Table 10. Modal verbs in Results.
DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
14
16
IBÉRICA 16 (2008): …-…
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Management
Business
Quantitativ e
Applied
8
11
4
4
w ill
7
3
must
1
can
may
3
8
3
5
might
1
13
1
1
4
4
3
4
could
w ould
2
should
1
ought to
1
7
Table 11. Modal verbs in Conclusions.
Tables 12 to 15 comprise the use of the passive voice and the first person.
Contrary to what happened with modal verbs, passive voice is mostly used in the
but in a very low number. This is due to the fact that complex
Tables present
12 to tense
15 comprise
the use of the passive voice and the first person.
tenses could mean a troublesome proposition and the main objective of every
Contrary
to what
happened
with
voice
mostly
researcher
must
be to express
themodal
researchverbs,
as clearpassive
as possible,
notisonly
in theused
but in
the investigation.
Curiously
enough,
in the conclusions
present tense
buttheindevelopment
a very lowofnumber.
This is due
to the
fact that
something similar happens in the next sections where the few examples that we
complex tenses could mean a troublesome proposition and the main
objective of every researcher
must be to express the research as clear as
18
possible, not only in the16 conclusions but in the development of the
14
12
IBÉRICA 16 [2008]: 81-108
10
8
6
4
2
0
Management
Business
Quantitativ e
Applied
97
0
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Management
Business
Página 98
8
can
w ill
Quantitativ e
Applied
11
4
4
7
3
1
must
may
3
8
3
5
might
1
13
1
1
w ould
C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA AND J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
4
4
2
7
3
4
should
1
ought to
1
could
investigation. Curiously enough, something similar happens in the next
Tables 12 to 15 comprise the use of the passive voice and the first person.
sections
where the few examples that we can find are in the present tense. In
Contrary to what happened with modal verbs, passive voice is mostly used in the
section
fivetense
and but
in inthea very
conclusions
of This
Applied
Business
present
low number.
is due Quantitative
to the fact that and
complex
couldGUERRA
mean &aexamples
troublesome
proposition
and the
objective meaningful.
of every
thereC.tenses
are
some
more
but
they cannot
bemain
considered
HERNÁNDEZ
J.M. HERNÁNDEZ
GUERRA
Table 11. Modal verbs in Conclusions.
researcher must be to express the research as clear as possible, not only in the
conclusions but in the development of the investigation. Curiously enough,
Applied
Quantitative
and Business
are where
some more
examples
something
similar happens
in the nextthere
sections
the few
examplesbut
thatthey
we
cannot be considered meaningful.
Table 12.18 Passive voice and first person in Introductions.
16
14 Passive voice and first person in Descriptions.
Table 13.
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Management
Business
C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA & J.M. HERNÁNDEZ
GUERRA
6
14
Passiv e v oice Simple Present
1
Passiv e v oice Present Perfect
3
Quantitativ e
Applied
18
12
2
1
3
5
1st Person I
Applied Quantitative
and Business there are some more examples but they
4
9
2
8
1st Person We
cannot be considered meaningful.
can find are in the Table
present
tense.voice
In and
section
five
and in the conclusions of
12. Passive
first person
in Introductions.
Table 13. Passive voice and first person in Descriptions.
IBÉRICA 16 (2008): …-…
90
17
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA & J.M.
HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
Management
Business
Quantitativ e
Applied
Passiv e v oice Simple Present
64
25
47
86
Passiv e v oice Present Perfect
7
2
3
4
1st Person I
42
Applied Passiv
Quantitative
and Business
there are some
more examples
but they
14
13
7
e v oice Simple Past
90
1
cannot bePassiv
considered
meaningful.
e v oice Past Perfect
1st Person w e
Table8012. Passive
voice and first person in Introductions.
85
6
30
60
70
Table6013. Passive voice and first person in Descriptions.
50
40
30
20
10
0
98
Management
Business
Quantitativ e
Applied
Passiv e v oice Simple Present
64
25
47
86
7
2
3
4
Passiv e v oice Simple Past
14
13
7
18 IBÉRICA 16Passiv
(2008):
…-…
e v oice Present Perfect
IBÉRICA 16 [2008]: 81-108
1
Passiv e v oice Past Perfect
1st Person I
42
1st Person w e
85
30
6
60
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Página 99
DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
45
4540
4035
3530
3025
2520
2015
1510
10 5
50
Management
0
Passiv e v oice Simple Present
20
Management
2
20
14
2
1
14
3
1
12
3
Passiv e v oice Present Perfect
Passiv e v oice Simple Present
Passiv e v oice Simple Past
Passiv e v oice Present Perfect
Passiv e v oice Past Perfect
Passiv e v oice Simple Past
1st Person I
Passiv e v oice Past Perfect
1st Person w e
1st Person I
1st Person w e
Business
Quantitativ e
33
Business
3
33
22
3
13
Quantitativ e
22
2
31
13
2
Applied
44
Applied
1
44
1
7
12
29
7
12
Table 14. Passive
voice and31 first Person in12Results.
29
Table 14. Passive voice and first Person in Results.
12
12
10
10
8
6
4
2
8
6
4
2
0
0
Passiv e v oice Simple Present
Passiv e v oice Present Perfect
Passiv e v oice Simple Present
Passiv e v oice Simple Past
Passiv e v oice Present Perfect
Passiv e v oice Past Perfect
Passiv e v oice Simple Past
Passiv e v oice Present Cont.
Passiv e v oice Past Perfect
1st Person I
Passiv e v oice Present Cont.
1st Person w e
1st Person I
1st Person w e
Management
3
Management
1
3
1
1
Business
4
Business
1
4
3
1
Quantitativ e
3
Quantitativ e
4
3
4
3
5
12
Applied
1
12
2
1
1
2
1
3
1
Applied
4
4
3
4
Table 15. Passive5 voice and first person in Conclusions.
4
Table 15. Passive voice and first person in Conclusions.
With reference to the use of the first person, singular and plural, in these
…-… 19papers
texts what is remarkable is the irregular use of this IBÉRICA
form 16in(2008):
Business
19
IBÉRICA
16
(2008):
…-…
as there are sections, like descriptions and conclusions, where no examples
can be found. Added to this, authors only use the pronoun “we”. This
characteristic can also be traced in Quantitative Economy texts but in the
IBÉRICA 16 [2008]: 81-108
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C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA AND J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
other disciplines both are combined (although “we” is more frequent than
“I”).
It must be stated that the use of the personal pronoun “we” in paper number
four (Applied Ec.) is used in a very general way, so as not to indicate that the
subject is the research team but people in general. We can quote “My goals
are to shed light on the system we have and to demonstrate general
properties of school choice that are helpful for thinking about reforms”
(Hoxby, 2000: 1209).
Rhetorical Elements
Several metadiscourse taxonomies have been proposed in the literature so as
to classify metatextual elements according to their form, meaning, or
function. Salager-Meyer (1994), for instance, offered a research based on
hedges in medical English written discourse with didactic purposes. A
preceding important research was carried out by Myers (1989). To “help
understand the interactions between writers and readers in written texts”
(Myers, 1989: 3), he distinguishes between positive politeness and negative
politeness. The first one is based on the strategic use of pronouns to stress
solidarity, of modifiers assuming common ground, of emotional responses
to indicate solidarity, and other devices as joking and giving gifts. On the
other hand, negative politeness is expressed through hedging, impersonal
constructions and the assertion of general rules. As we can see, both
scholars focus their research on the attitude of the writer mixing the
elements from different grammatical categories that they consider relevant
to fulfil their purpose.
We shall base our study of rhetorical features on Vande Kopple’s (1985)
functional classification, which at the same time is based on Halliday’s (1985)
macro functions of language. He distinguishes seven different categories,
arranged in two main functions (textual function and interpersonal
function). Crismore and Farnsworth (1990) adapted this classification and
later offered a new one in which they included interactive elements (tactical
and lexical metadiscourse). In a third stage Hyland (1998: 442) adapted this
last proposal “to accommodate the meanings expressed in academic articles.
These modifications also helped to more clearly identify rhetorical functions
by eliminating formal categories and minimising functional overlap”. He
offers the schema depicted in Table 16. We have adopted Hyland’s (1998)
classification with the adaptations made to Crismore and Farnsworth (1990),
100
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DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
as we consider it splits the strictly metadiscoursive elements from the pure
grammatical ones and better fits within the structure of this paper. The main
difference between both categories is that while textual metadiscourse refers
to “devices which allow the recovery of the writer’s intention by explicitly
establishing preferred interpretation of propositional meanings” (Hyland,
1998: 442), interpersonal metadiscourse alerts readers to “the author’s
perspective towards both the propositional
information
the readers
DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS
AND PRAGMATIC and
METADISCOURSE
themselves, thus contributing to a writer-reader relationship and anticipating
the subjective
negatibility
of statements”
(Hyland,
1998:
Therefore,
interpretation
of propositional
meanings” (Hyland,
1998:
442),443).
interpersonal
metadiscourse
alerts
readers
to
“the
author’s
perspective
towards
both
the the
textual metadiscourse connects sentences in a meaningful way, enabling
propositional information and the readers themselves, thus contributing to a
writer writer-reader
to emphasize
what needs to be made explicit to the academic
relationship and anticipating the subjective negatibility of
audience.
In
turn,
interpersonal
metadiscourse
expresses
a personal
attitude
statements” (Hyland, 1998: 443).
Therefore, textual
metadiscourse
connects
sentences
in
a
meaningful
way,
enabling
the
writer
to
emphasize
what
needs
to
and a degree of reader involvement.
expresses a personal
attitude and aExamples
degree of reader involvement.
Category
Function
be made explicit to the academic audience. In turn, interpersonal metadiscourse
Category
Textual metadiscourse
Logical connectives
Frame markers
Endophoric markers
Evidentials
Code glosses
Interpersonal metadiscourse
Hedges
Emphatics
Attitude markers
Relational markers
Person markers
Function
Examples
express semantic relation
between main clauses
explicitly refer to discourse acts or
text stages
refer to information in other parts
of the text
refer to source of information from
other texts
help readers grasp meanings of
ideational material
in addition /but/ therefore/
withhold writer’s full commitment
to statements
emphasize force or writer’s
certainty in message
express writer’s attitude to
propositional content
explicitly refer to or build
relationship with reader
explicit reference to author(s)
might/ perhaps/ about
finally/ to repeat/ we try
noted/ above/ below / see
according to X/ Y, 1990
namely/ e.g. / such as
in fact/ definitely/ obvious
surprisingly/ I agree
frankly/ note that/
I/ we/ my/ mine/ our
Table 16. Functions of metadiscourse in academic texts (Hyland, 1998).
But, before applying this classification into our corpus, a previous analysis will
be described following Valero-Garcés’ (1996) proposal in which the number of
sentences,
the number
of paragraphs and
plusathe
approximate
But, before
applying
this classification
intotheir
ourlength,
corpus,
previous
analysis
number
of
words
are
stated
to
have
an
idea
of
how
much
of
the
text
is
a metatext.
will be described following Valero-Garcés’ (1996) proposal in
which the
Quantitative
number of sentences, theApplied
number of
paragraphsBusiness
and theirManagement
length, plus the
Economy
Economy
approximate number of words are stated to have an idea of how much of
No. of pages
57
33
24
35
the text isSentences
a metatext.
980
460
539
826
Total words Economy
21622
Applied
Paragraphs
186
Metatextual words
728 = 3.36%
9708
13448
18381
Quantitative
Economy
Business
129
104
184
404 = 4.16%
534 = 3.97%
877 = 4.77%
Table 17. Number of examples with the percentage per sub-area.
IBÉRICA 16 [2008]: 81-108
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21
101
relationship with reader
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explicit 102
reference to author(s)
I/ we/ my/ mine/ our
Table 16. Functions of metadiscourse in academic texts (Hyland, 1998).
But, before applying this classification into our corpus, a previous analysis will
Valero-Garcés’ (1996) proposal in which the number of
sentences, the number of paragraphs and their length, plus the approximate
number of words are stated to have an idea of how much of the text is a metatext.
be J.M.
described
C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA AND
HERNÁNDEZfollowing
GUERRA
Applied
Economy
Quantitative
Economy
Business
Management
No. of pages
57
33
24
35
Sentences
980
460
539
826
Total words
21622
9708
13448
18381
Paragraphs
186
129
104
184
728 = 3.36%
404 = 4.16%
534 = 3.97%
877 = 4.77%
Metatextual words
Table 17. Number of examples with the percentage per sub-area.
If we divide the total number of words by the number
sentences
IBÉRICA of
16 (2008):
…-… 21 from
Table 17, the result will show that the number of words per sentence is
almost constant: 22.6 in Applied Economy; 21.1 in Quantitative Economy;
C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA & J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
24.9 in Business, and 22.2 in Management, which reveals that no one makes
use ofIf awebigger
number of complex sentences than others. If we apply the
divide the total number of words by the number of sentences from Table
same 17,
mathematical
operation
the other
items
of thisistable
can check
the result will show
that thein
number
of words
per sentence
almostwe
constant:
22.6 in Applied
Economy;
Quantitativein
Economy;
24.9 in Business,
that Applied
Economy
uses21.1
5.2in sentences
every paragraph
but and
only 3.2
22.2 in Management, which reveals that no one makes use of a bigger number of
paragraphs
per
page;
that
is,
they
are
more
keen
on
longer
paragraphs
than
complex sentences than others. If we apply the same mathematical operation in
the rest.
In theitems
other
we find
Management,
that prefers
5.2uses
paragraphs
the other
of end
this table
we can
check that Applied
Economy
5.2
sentences
paragraphinbutevery
only 3.2
paragraphsthat
per page;
that is, they
are
per page
and in4.4every
sentences
paragraph;
is, shorter
paragraphs.
more keen on longer paragraphs than the rest. In the other end we find
This information
is detailed
in paragraphs
Table 17a:per page and 4.4 sentences in every
Management, that
prefers 5.2
Applied Economy
Quantitative Economy Business
paragraph; that is, shorter paragraphs. This information is detailed in Table 17a:
Applied
Economy
Quantitative
Economy
Business
Management
Words per sentence
22.06
21.1
24.9
22.2
Sentences per page
17.1
13.9
22.4
23.6
Sentences per paragraph
5.2
3.5
5.1
4.4
Paragraphs per page
3.2
3.9
4.3
5.2
Table 17a. Average of instances per sub-area.
If we consider the percentage of metatextual words employed in every discipline
(Table 17) we can see that Management makes a wider use (4.77%), while
If weApplied
consider
the shows
percentage
of usemetatextual
Economy
a narrower
(3.36%) and, words
as shownemployed
in Table 18, in
the every
four different
use see
the interpersonal
metadiscourse
elements
more
discipline
(Table sub-areas
17) we can
that Management
makes
a wider
useoften
(4.77%),
than the textual ones. If we sum up all the different metadiscourse elements of
while every
Applied
a narrower
usesee(3.36%)
and, shows
as shown
in
type Economy
(textual and shows
interpersonal)
we shall
that Business
a
in the usesub-areas
of one type use
or thethe
other
(41% of textualmetadiscourse
examples
Tablenarrower
18, thedifference
four different
interpersonal
to 51%
of interpersonal
while ones.
Quantitative
a wider
elements
more
often thanexamples)
the textual
If weEconomy
sum upshows
all the
different
difference (30% to 70%). This probably reflects the common aspect in all of
metadiscourse
elements
of
every
type
(textual
and
interpersonal)
we
shall see
them as being part of the social sciences. They are characterized by not fulfilling
the
conventions
when
writing
a
paper
so
strictly
as
the
experimental
research
that Business shows a narrower difference in the use of one type or the other
(Fortanet, 2002).
(41% of textual examples to 51% of interpersonal examples) while
102
Textual Metadiscourse
Interpersonal Metadiscourse
Log.
Fra.
End.
Evi.
Cod.
Hed.
Emp.
Att.
Rel.
Per.
A
E
76 =
10.43%
78 =
10.71%
30 =
4.12%
23 =
3.15%
52 =
7.14%
232 =
31.8%
4=
0.54%
35 =
4.80%
35 =
4.80%
163 =
22.3%
Q
E
30 =
7.42%
24 =
5.94%
33 =
8.16%
14 =
3.46%
20 =
4.95%
190 =
47%
5=
1.23%
-
6=
1.48%
82 =
20.2%
B
76 =
111 =
15 =
5=
56 =
210 =
3=
-
-
58 =
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Table 17a. Average of instances per sub-area.
If we consider the percentage of metatextual words employed in every discipline
(Table 17) we can see that Management makes a wider use (4.77%), while
Applied Economy shows a narrower use (3.36%) and, as shown
in Table 18, the
DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
four different sub-areas use the interpersonal metadiscourse elements more often
than the textual ones. If we sum up all the different metadiscourse elements of
every type (textual and interpersonal) we shall see that Business shows a
Quantitative
Economy
shows
to examples
70%). This
narrower difference
in the
use of a
onewider
type or difference
the other (41%(30%
of textual
to 51%
of interpersonal
examples)
while in
Quantitative
Economy
shows part
a wider
probably
reflects
the common
aspect
all of them
as being
of the
difference
(30%
to
70%).
This
probably
reflects
the
common
aspect
in
all
of
social sciences. They are characterized by not fulfilling the conventions when
them as being part of the social sciences. They are characterized by not fulfilling
writingthea conventions
paper so strictly
as thea experimental
(Fortanet,research
2002).
when writing
paper so strictlyresearch
as the experimental
(Fortanet, 2002).
Textual Metadiscourse Interpersonal Metadiscourse
Textual Metadiscourse
Interpersonal Metadiscourse
Log.
Fra.
End.
Evi.
Cod.
Hed.
Emp.
Att.
Rel.
Per.
A
E
76 =
10.43%
78 =
10.71%
30 =
4.12%
23 =
3.15%
52 =
7.14%
232 =
31.8%
4=
0.54%
35 =
4.80%
35 =
4.80%
163 =
22.3%
Q
E
30 =
7.42%
24 =
5.94%
33 =
8.16%
14 =
3.46%
20 =
4.95%
190 =
47%
5=
1.23%
-
6=
1.48%
82 =
20.2%
B
76 =
14.2%
111 =
20.7%
15 =
2.8%
5=
0.9%
56 =
10.4%
210 =
39.3%
3=
0.56%
-
-
58 =
10.8%
M
158 =
18%
139 =
15.8%
33 =
3.76%
6=
58 = ANALYSIS
237 = AND
29PRAGMATIC
=
31 = METADISCOURSE
1=
156 =
DISCOURSIVE
0.68% 6.61%
27%
3.30% 3.53% 0.11% 17.7%
Table 18. Number of examples and percentage per sub-area (in initials) and following Hyland’s (1998)
classification presented in Table 16.
22
IBÉRICA 16 (2008): …-…
Focusing on the different rhetorical preferences we can see that Applied
Economy tends to use more examples of logical connectives and frame markers
Focusing
on other
the variable
different
rhetorical
preferencesBoth
wearecan
see insofar
that Applied
than any
within
textual metadiscourse.
related
as
the first
helpstotouse
interpret
betweenofideas
and connectives
the second provides
Economy
tends
morelinks
examples
logical
and frame
interpretive
framing
information
elements
of the discourse.
markers
than any
other
variable about
withinlonger
textual
metadiscourse.
Both are
Business papers use the same percentage but only for frame markers (20.7%),
related
insofar
as
the
first
helps
to
interpret
links
between
ideas
and the
and Management rather lower for logical connectives (18%). So, Applied
Economy
uses interpretive
logical connectives
and frame
markers aabout
slightlylonger
more balanced
second
provides
framing
information
elements of
way, while Quantitative
Economyuse
is the
that makes less
useonly
of them.
the discourse.
Business papers
thediscipline
same percentage
but
forItframe
provides the text with a more neutral tone in the exposition.
markers (20.7%), and Management rather lower for logical connectives
The number of examples for endophoric markers, evidentials and code glosses is
(18%).
Applied Economy
uses
logicalRemember
connectives
andfirst
frame
markers a
notSo,
so meaningful
in any of the
sub-areas.
that the
two make
slightly
more balanced
Economy
reference
to external way,
texts while
and theQuantitative
third one gives
examples. isAsthe
wediscipline
said, the that
is not
as the examples
seenwith
are ina the
introduction
of thein the
makesnumber
less use
of remarkable
them. It provides
the text
more
neutral tone
papers but most of the explanation is devoted to the new research done.
exposition.
hedges is the
prominentfor
in allendophoric
of them. Theymarkers,
mark the writer’s
reluctance
to code
The number
ofmost
examples
evidentials
and
present
propositional
categorically
(Holmes,that
1988;
glosses
is notorsoevaluate
meaningful
in any information
of the sub-areas.
Remember
the first
Hyland, 1998). The second category most used is person markers as they reflect
two make
referenceoftothe
external
and thepresence
third one
gives examples.
the importance
degree texts
of authorial
in contributing
to theAs we
variability
in
tenor
of
a
text.
This
has
been
simply
judged
by
the
frequency
said, the number is not remarkable as the examples seen are ofin the
first person pronouns and possessive adjectives to present both propositional and
introduction
of the papers but most of the explanation is devoted to the
metadiscoursal information. Emphatics and relational markers do not own a
new research
done.of examples and they can be considered a quite personal option
relevant number
If we now focus on the second group, Interpersonal metadiscourse, the use of
If wetonow
focus
on the
second
Interpersonal
the use
address
readers.
Added
to this,group,
no examples
can be foundmetadiscourse,
of attitude markers
in two is
of the
the sub-areas.
Attitude markers
“express
the writer’s
of hedges
most prominent
in all are
of used
them.to They
mark
the writer’s
affective attitude to textual information in a more varied way than hedges”
reluctance
to present or evaluate propositional information categorically
(Hyland, 1998: 444) and, as we can see in Table 18, Quantitative Economy and
(Holmes,
1988;
1998).
Theof second
category
used
is person
Business
use Hyland,
an important
number
hedges; that
is, theymost
are not
so much
as emphatics serve to emphasise the force of the proposition and relationals serve
interested in using a wide range of instances to express specific feelings such as
surprise, obligation, agreement, importance, and so on.
IBÉRICA 16 [2008]: 81-108
Conclusions
Writing scientific papers within a specific sub-area can involve many
specificities, perhaps more than could be seen initially. An appreciation of these
103
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C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA AND J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
markers as they reflect the importance of the degree of authorial presence
in contributing to the variability in tenor of a text. This has been simply
judged by the frequency of first person pronouns and possessive adjectives
to present both propositional and metadiscoursal information. Emphatics
and relational markers do not own a relevant number of examples and they
can be considered a quite personal option as emphatics serve to emphasise
the force of the proposition and relationals serve to address readers. Added
to this, no examples can be found of attitude markers in two of the subareas. Attitude markers are used to “express the writer’s affective attitude to
textual information in a more varied way than hedges” (Hyland, 1998: 444)
and, as we can see in Table 18, Quantitative Economy and Business use an
important number of hedges; that is, they are not so much interested in
using a wide range of instances to express specific feelings such as surprise,
obligation, agreement, importance, and so on.
Conclusions
Writing scientific papers within a specific sub-area can involve many
specificities, perhaps more than could be seen initially. An appreciation of
these slight peculiarities may mean the difference between a successful or
unsuccessful publication as well as producing a wider understanding of the
conventions required. After a detailed analysis of the texts from a structural,
grammatical and rhetorical perspective, all three of these aspects provide
revealing conclusions.
In terms of layout it is common for all scientific papers to provide the
abstract and the references but not the keywords, the acknowledgments or
the bibliography. In a way, references substitute the bibliography chapter in
other disciplines. In fact, only three out of ten authors give references and
bibliography in the same paper. Added to this, the introduction explains
what the text will be about. We can see that authors feel quite unrestricted in
their expression of the moves even within the same sub-area as they do not
follow a common pattern. The remainder of the sections within the same
sub-area can have from two to ten sections, with Business being the
discipline which has the most similar number of sections. The explanation
could be that we are dealing with a genre which can base its research on an
experiment, method or theory. For further research, an analysis of a corpus
following the same procedure could be revealing.
104
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DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATIC METADISCOURSE
Textual features do not follow the same model. Not all the papers express the
objective of the paper in the introduction. Quantitative Economy prefers to
start off with the problem to solve but Management and Financial is not very
strict in the moves included in the introduction. This is due to the fact that
the aim in every discipline is not the same so this has a direct consequence in
the organization of the paper. Consequently, the differences discovered in the
structure are not significant and cannot be considered as rules.
From the grammatical perspective we have seen that some authors prefer
not to separate grammatical pattern from metadiscoursive analysis as many
elements are quite interlinked. For our purposes the analysis of each
category better explains every aspect of our aim. In any case, it is quite
striking that linguists do not completely agree about the reasons for the use
of these different grammatical elements. In general, they try to offer the
different options future scientists can choose from but, in the end, it is the
personal style that is reflected.
The use of the simple present is remarkable but the first and most urgent
conclusion must be the wider use of simple over perfect tenses. Management
takes the most risks, in terms of dealing with different tenses. We have
explained that Management deals with business administration so the
personal viewpoint plays an important role in the exposition. The same
could be said of Business, but it does not comply with this feature. Contrary
to what happened in the introduction where hardly any modals were used, in
the body of the papers all the sub-areas use a rich and varied number of
modals. This can have two interpretations: on the one hand, to enrich the
literature offered and, on the other hand, to reflect the uncertainty of the
author towards what s/he is explaining. The excessive number of examples
could lead to this second option. In any case, the handling and knowledge of
the modal verbs are outstanding as researchers give great importance to
mood.
The frequency of the passive voice is not meaningful and the use of active
voice is twice that of the passive; the simple present tense stands out over
the rest. There is a correspondence between the use of the passive voice and
the use of the first person pronouns in the sentences and, focusing on the
latter, the use of the first person in the plural form doubles its use in the
singular form. Even though, as we have seen, there are linguists that
encourage the use of them, the tendency is to avoid the personalization of
the text. This is probably due to a fashionable attitude rather than to
linguistic criteria.
IBÉRICA 16 [2008]: 81-108
105
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C. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA AND J.M. HERNÁNDEZ GUERRA
In sum, Social Sciences are quite literary in the expression of their research
as the moves named in every section cannot be described as common in
every sub-area. There is a degree of freedom in the papers accepted for
publication so every researcher expresses the development of it in the most
appropriate way according to their aim and characteristics.
As we said above, the first two aims eventually gave us the clues to the
resources that must be fulfilled by the authors, but with the third aim, that is,
rhetorical analysis, the paper shows the writers’ personal style throughout.
Indeed, despite the low percentage use of metatextual words in these texts,
this aspect is considered to be very important in a paper as it allows us to see
how writers seek to influence readers’ understandings of both the text and
their attitude towards its content and audience. Thus, Management and
Applied Economy appear in both ends, with Applied Economy being the
most theoretical discipline. In this way, although in previous chapters no
meaningful differences could be traced, it is in this analysis where the gap
widens. Interestingly enough, the most theoretical sub-area (Quantitative
Economy) does not use fewer metatextual words than the others, including
the Interpersonal category. Applied Economy and Management share in the
textual sample the use of metatextual words on Logical connectives and
Frame markers, and, in the interpersonal sample, Hedges and Personal
markers. Quantitative and Business use Hedges in an important number.
All the sub-areas studied prefer the use of interpersonal over textual words
and Management makes a wider use of metatextual words than the rest.
Hence, by this use, the author will be tempted to convince or assure the
reader of the successful results and the personal attitude performs a
remarkable role in the exposition of content.
(Revised paper received March 2008)
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Dr. Concepción Hernández Guerra is a Doctorate Teacher at the
University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. She is currently teaching English
at the Faculty of English Philology in that university and has published her
research on Business and Computing. Her doctorate thesis dealt with
Contrastive Literature (2002). Her current research interest is Discourse
Analysis in technical and political texts.
Dr. Juan M. Hernández Guerra is Associate Professor of Mathematics
since 2001 in the Faculty of Economics of the University of Las Palmas de
Gran Canaria. He obtained his doctorate degree in 1997 with a PhD
dissertation about entrainment and synchronization of economic cycles. As
regards research, his current fields of interest are environmental economics
and optimization applied to tourism dynamics and aquaculture.
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