Performing Jim Crow: Blackface Performance and - e

Performing Jim Crow: Blackface
Performance and Emancipation
Thomas L. King
James Madison University
Revista de Humanidades, 23 (2014). p. 75-94. ISSN 1130-5029
Performing Jim Crow: Blackface Performance and
Emancipation
Interpretando a Jim Crow: Blackface y emancipación
Thomas L. King
School of Theatre and Dance
James Madison University
kingtl@jmu.edu
Recibido: 11 de marzo de 2014
Aceptado: 17 de julio de 2014
Abstract
A nineteenth-century American actor named Thomas Rice was sensationally
popular as a blackface character named Jim Crow. His popularity is credited with
giving birth to blackface minstrelsy as others began to imitate him in the hope of
emulating his success. Rice’s Jim Crow provided a name for laws and customs
designed to repudiate the emancipation of African slaves. Blackface minstrelsy
staged an idealized version of slave life on a southern plantation. Paradoxically, as
blackface revoked the emancipation of slaves on stage, it emancipated the American
theatre from its British origins and its audience of recently immigrated laborers
from a low social position. It even occasionally performed an ironic reversal of
the subaltern status of the very African slaves whose freedom by proclamation and
constitutional amendment the performance sought to negate. Contradictions in the
history of blackface performance in the United States stage American anxieties
about race, class, emancipation, and the very construction of the concepts of
blackness and whiteness.
Keywords: Blackface; Minstrel; Gilpin; Octoroon; Robeson.
Resumen
En el siglo XIX, Thomas Rice, un actor estadounidense, ganó mucha fama haciendo
el papel de un personaje cuya cara estaba pintada de negro con el nombre Jim Crow.
Se le da crédito a Rice la creación de grupos de actores que se pintaron la cara de
negro (un estilo denominado blackface) que luego otros se pusieron a imitarlos con
la esperanza de emular su éxito. El Jim Crow de Rice dio nombre a una serie de
leyes y costumbres diseñadas para repudiar la emancipación de esclavos africanos.
Los espectáculos de los actores en blackface representaron una versión idealizada
de la vida de los esclavos en una hacienda sureña. Paradójicamente, mientras el
blackface revocó la emancipación de los esclavos sobre el escenario, emancipó
el teatro estadounidense de sus orígenes británicas y su público que consistía en
obreros inmigrantes de baja clase social. De vez en cuando hasta representó un revés
irónico del estatus barriobajero de los mismos esclavos africanos cuya libertad
por proclamación y enmienda constitucional, la representación quiso negar. Las
77
Performing Jim Crow: Blackface Performance and Emancipation - Thomas L. King
contradicciones en la historia de espectáculos teatrales blackface en los Estados
8QLGRVSRQHQGHPDQLÀHVWRDQVLHGDGHVHVWDGRXQLGHQVHVVREUHODUD]DFODVHVRFLDO
emancipación y hasta la construcción misma de los conceptos de blancura étnica y
negrura étnica/”blancura” y “étnica.”
Palabras clave: Blackface; Grupo teatral; Gilpin; Octoroon; Robeson.
Para citar este artículo: King, Thomas L. (2014). Performing Jim Crow:
Blackface Performance and Emancipation. Revista de Humanidades, n. 23, p. 7594. ISSN 1130-5029.
Until the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 and the Thirteenth Amendment
to the Constitution in 1865, the social and legal status of Africans in the United
6WDWHVZDVGH¿QHGE\VODYHU\:KHQVODYHU\HQGHGWKHLUVWDWXVZDVUHGH¿QHGE\D
complex of laws and social practices termed “Jim Crow” which had the purpose of
NHHSLQJIUHHG$IULFDQVODYHVVHSDUDWHGIURPDQGVXEMXJDWHGWRFLWL]HQVRI(XURSHDQ
GHVFHQW,QODZDQGFXVWRP³-LP&URZ´ZDVDUHSXGLDWLRQRIHPDQFLSDWLRQ7KHWHUP
³-LP&URZ´ZDVSRSXODUL]HGHVSHFLDOO\E\WKHSHUIRUPDQFHVRIDZKLWHDFWRUQDPHG
7KRPDV ' 5LFH ZKR EHFDPH VHQVDWLRQDOO\ FHOHEUDWHG IRU SRUWUD\LQJ D EODFNIDFH
FKDUDFWHUQDPHG-LP&URZDQGIRUGRLQJDGDQFHURXWLQHLQZKLFKKH³MXPSHG-LP
&URZ´2QFHSRSXODUL]HGE\5LFHEODFNIDFHFRQWLQXHGRQWKH$PHULFDQVWDJHLQWR
WKHWZHQW\¿UVWFHQWXU\DQGIURPWKDWWLPHWRWKLVVWDJHGDQ[LHWLHVDERXWUDFHFODVV
DQGFRQFHSWLRQVRIZKLWHDQGEODFN
Thomas D. Rice jumping Jim Crow
TCS 82, Harvard Theatre Collection, Houghton Library, Harvard University
78
Revista de Humanidades, 23 (2014). p. 75-94. ISSN 1130-5029
5LFHEHJDQWR³MXPS-LP&URZ´LQFODLPLQJWKDWKHKDGOHDUQHGWKHGDQFH
DQGWKHVRQJIURPDFULSSOHGEODFNVWDEOHZRUNHU7KHGHWDLOVRIKRZ5LFHOHDUQHGWKH
URXWLQHYDU\DVGRYHUVLRQVRIWKHVRQJRQHRIZKLFKJRHVWKXV
6WHS¿UVWXSRQ\R¶KHHO
$Q¶GHQXSRQ\R¶WRH
$Q¶HEU\WLPH\RXWXUQVDURXQG
<RXMXPS-LP&URZ5RRUEDFK,QWURGXFWLRQ
>6WHS¿UVWXSRQ\RXUKHHO
$QGWKHQXSRQ\RXUWRH
$QGHYHU\WLPH\RXWXUQDURXQG
<RXMXPS-LP&URZ@
$FFRUGLQJWRRQHYDULDQWRIWKHOHJHQGRI5LFH¶VGLVFRYHU\RI-LP&URZDQG
VXEVHTXHQWULVHWRIDPHKH¿UVWSHUIRUPHGWKHURXWLQHDQGXVHGWKHQDPH-LP&URZ
LQ D SOD\ FDOOHG7KH 5LÀH 5RRUEDFK ,QWURGXFWLRQ +LV SHUIRUPDQFH
ZDVVRVXFFHVVIXOWKDWKHEHJDQWRSHUIRUPLWHYHU\ZKHUHDQGLQPDQ\FRQWH[WV+H
HYHQZHQWRQWRXUWR(QJODQG-XPSLQJ-LP&URZEHFDPHDOOWKHUDJHRQERWKVLGHV
RIWKH$QJORSKRQH$WODQWLF$QDUWLFOHLQ The Knickerbocker claimed—
)URPWKHQRELOLW\GRZQWRWKHORZHVWFKLPQH\VZHHSLQ*UHDW%ULWDLQDQGIURPWKH
PHPEHURI&RQJUHVVGRZQWRWKH\RXQJHVWDSSUHQWLFHRUVFKRROER\LQ$PHULFDLW
ZDVDOO³7XUQDERXWDQGZKHHODERXWDQGGRMXVWVR$QGHYHU\WLPH,WXUQDERXW
,MXPS-LP&URZ´
(YHQWKHIDLUVH[GLGQRWHVFDSHWKHFRQWDJLRQWKHWXQHVZHUHVHWWRPXVLFIRU
WKHSLDQRIRUWHDQGQHDUO\HYHU\\RXQJODG\LQWKH8QLRQDQGWKH8QLWHG.LQJGRP
SOD\HGDQGVDQJLIVKHGLGQRWjump³-LP&URZ´.HQQDUGFLWHGE\/RWW
%ODFNIDFHEXUOHVTXHVRI6KDNHVSHDUHHYHQMXPSHG-LP&URZ
2KµWLVFRQVXPPDWLRQ
'HYRXWO\WREHZLVKHG
7RHQG\RXUKHDUWDFKHE\DVOHHS
:KHQOLNHO\WREHGLVK¶G
6KXIÀHRII\RXUPRUWDOFRLO
'RMXVWVR
:KHHODERXWDQGWXUQDERXW
$QGMXPS-LP&URZ+D\ZRRG
79
Performing Jim Crow: Blackface Performance and Emancipation - Thomas L. King
7KHSRSXODUDFFODLPDFFRUGHG5LFHLVFUHGLWHGZLWKJLYLQJELUWKWREODFNIDFH
PLQVWUHOV\LQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDVRWKHUVEHJDQWRLPLWDWHKLPLQWKHKRSHRIHPXODWLQJ
KLVVXFFHVV7KXVEHJDQDKLVWRU\RIEODFNIDFHSHUIRUPDQFHLQWKH86WKDWH[WHQGV
WRWKHSUHVHQW'DQ(PPHWH[SDQGHGLPLWDWLRQVRI5LFH¶VVRORSHUIRUPDQFHLQWRD
SURIHVVLRQDOEODFNIDFHPLQVWUHOWURXSHIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHLQ1HZ<RUNLQ7ZR
\HDUVODWHUPLQVWUHOVSHUIRUPHGDWWKH:KLWH+RXVH7ROO%HJLQQLQJLQ
WKH PLGQLQHWHHQWK FHQWXU\ EODFNIDFH PLQVWUHOV\ ZDV D GRPLQDQW SUHVHQFH LQ 86
performance and the ancestor of much of American popular entertainment in the
WZHQWLHWKDQGWZHQW\¿UVWFHQWXULHV³>7@KHIRXQGDWLRQRI$PHULFDQFRPHG\VRQJ
DQGGDQFHZDVODLGGRZQE\ZKLWHDQGEODFNPLQVWUHOVWDJHOHJHQGV´7D\ORUDQG
$XVWHQ6WHSKHQ)RVWHU¶VFHQWUDOSODFHLQWKHKLVWRU\RI$PHULFDQPXVLF
LV URRWHG LQ EODFNIDFH (DUO\ LQ OLIH KH SHUIRUPHG LQ EODFNIDFH DQG WULHG WR VHOO
5LFHKLVVRQJV$IWHUKHVROGPDQ\RIKLVPRVWIDPRXVVRQJVWRWKHSRSXODU
&KULVW\0LQVWUHOV7ROO$O-ROVRQZDVNQRZQDVDVLQJHUWKURXJKRXWWKH
86LQWKHHDUO\WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\DQGZDVHVSHFLDOO\ZHOONQRZQIRUKLVEODFNIDFH
SHUIRUPDQFHV+HSHUIRUPHGLQEODFNIDFHDVDPHPEHURI'RFNVWDGHU¶V0LQVWUHOV
RQHRIWKHODUJHVWDQGEHVWNQRZQPLQVWUHOFRPSDQLHVRIWKHWLPH,QKHDFWHG
LQEODFNIDFHLQWKHFODVVLFPRYLHThe Jazz Singer*ROGPDQ0HGLFLQHVKRZV
WRXULQJVPDOOWRZQ$PHULFDDVUHFHQWO\DVWKHV³EODFNHGXS´/KDPRQ
³(YHQ DV ODWH DV WKH 'HSUHVVLRQ WKH )HGHUDO 7KHDWUH 3URMHFW RI WKH :RUNV
Progress Administration was sponsoring minstrel shows; and DixieWKHPRYLH
VWDUU>HG@ %LQJ &URVE\ LQ RFFDVLRQDO EODFNIDFH DV WKH PLQVWUHO 'DQLHO (PPHW ,Q%ULWDLQWKHBlack and White Minstrel ShowZDVRQ79HYHU\6DWXUGD\QLJKW
WKURXJK ´ 7D\ORU DQG$XVWHQ 7KH FRQWLQXHG VWDJLQJ RI PLQVWUHO
VKRZVLQWRWKHPLGWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\LQWKH86FDXVHGWKH1DWLRQDO$VVRFLDWLRQIRU
WKH$GYDQFHPHQWRI&RORUHG3HRSOHLQWKHVWRLQLWLDWHOHJDOSURFHHGLQJVWRVWRS
WKHP/KDPRQ
,QWKHZDQLQJ\HDUVRIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\DQGWKHHDUO\WZHQW\¿UVWFHQWXU\
EODFNIDFHSHUIRUPDQFHKDVEHFRPHLQFUHDVLQJO\FRQWURYHUVLDO7KH:RRVWHU*URXS
SHUIRUPHGD3LJPHDW0DUNKDPEODFNIDFHPLQVWUHOV\VHTXHQFHLQLWVSURGXFWLRQ
of Route 1 & ³%\-DQXDU\LWKDGEHFRPHWKHVXEMHFWRIDZLGHO\UHSRUWHG
FRQWURYHUV\´6DYUDQ7KH1HZ<RUN6WDWH&RXQFLORQWKH$UWVFXWWKH
:RRVWHU*URXS¶VIXQGLQJE\IRUW\SHUFHQW6KHZH\'7KH:RRVWHU*URXS¶V
L.S.D. (...Just the High Points...)XVHVH[FHUSWVIURP$UWKXU0LOOHU¶VThe Crucible
.DWH9DONZRUHEODFNIDFHZKHQVKHSOD\HG7LWXEDD:HVW,QGLDQZRPDQDQGORRNHG
³PRUH OLNH WKH$XQW -HPLPD RI ¿IWLHV WHOHYLVLRQ FRPPHUFLDOV WKDQ DVHYHQWHHQWK
FHQWXU\VODYH´6DYUDQ.DWH9DONDOVRZRUHEODFNIDFHLQThe Emperor
Jones,QDQLQWHUYLHZ9DONVSHDNVRIDSDUWLFXODUWDONEDFNDIWHUDSHUIRUPDQFHZKHUH
WKHTXHVWLRQRIUDFHFDPHXSDQGLWJRW³XQFRPIRUWDEOHLQWKHURRP>6@RPHSHRSOH
IRXQGLWRIIHQVLYH´9DON7HG'DQVRQLQVSLUHGRXWUDJHZKHQKHSHUIRUPHG
LQEODFNIDFHDWD)ULDU¶V&OXEURDVWRI:KRRSL*ROGEHUJLQ5LFK,Q
'DYH&KDSHOOHFUHDWHGDFKDUDFWHULQEODFNIDFHPDNHXSKHFDOOHGD³UDFLDOSL[LH´
80
Revista de Humanidades, 23 (2014). p. 75-94. ISSN 1130-5029
+HZRUH³DEHOOKRS¶VXQLIRUPDQG>GDQFHG@WREDQMRPXVLF´/DWHUKHVDLGWKDWKH
KLPVHOIZDVPDGH³XQFRPIRUWDEOH´E\KLVFUHDWLRQ7D\ORUDQG$XVWHQ
³,QWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\WKHPLQVWUHOVKRZEHFDPHWKHPRVWSURPLQHQWDQG
SRSXODUIRUPRI$PHULFDQHQWHUWDLQPHQW´7D\ORUDQG$XVWHQ0LQVWUHOV\
SURYLGHG D EURDG UDQJH RI HQWHUWDLQPHQWV LQFOXGLQJ VXFK IDUH DV MXJJOLQJ DQLPDO
DFWV IHPDOH LPSHUVRQDWLRQ GDQFH DQG DFUREDWLFV +RZHYHU YDULHG WKH SURJUDP
WKRXJKDSULPDU\LQJUHGLHQWZDVWKHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIDVWDJHYHUVLRQRIOLIHDPRQJ
WKHVODYHVLQWKH$PHULFDQVRXWK%HIRUHWKH&LYLO:DUWKHPLQVWUHOVKRZFODLPHGWR
SURYLGHQRUWKHUQDXGLHQFHVDZLQGRZRQWKHH[RWLFZRUOGRIWKHVRXWKHUQSODQWDWLRQ
ZLWK DQ LGHDOL]HG YLHZ RI OLIH DPRQJ$IULFDQ VODYHV ZKR DPXVHG WKHPVHOYHV DQG
WKH DXGLHQFH ZLWK VRQJ GDQFH FRPLF UHSDUWHH DQG VNLWV $IWHU WKH VODYHV ZHUH
HPDQFLSDWHGPLQVWUHOV\HQDFWHGDQRVWDOJLFYLVLRQRIOLIHEHIRUHWKH&LYLO:DUDVLW
ORRNHGEDFNRQDWLPHEHIRUHWKHVODYHVZHUHIUHHG$IWHUDQGHPDQFLSDWLRQRQ
VWDJHDWOHDVW$IULFDQVZHUHVWLOOVODYHVDQGHQMR\HGWKHPVHOYHVVLQJLQJDQGGDQFLQJ
DQGWHOOLQJFRPLFVWRULHV5LFHDQGKLVLPLWDWRUVPDGH-LP&URZDQGKLVEODFNHGXS
HSLJRQHVDVWDSOHRI$PHULFDQSHUIRUPDQFH,WLVQRWVXUSULVLQJWKHUHIRUHWKDWZKHQ
ODZVDQGFXVWRPVZHUHSXWLQWRSODFHWRVXSSUHVVDQGVHJUHJDWHIUHHGVODYHVWKH\
ZHUHWHUPHGµ-LP&URZ¶ODZV5LFHDQGEODFNIDFHPLQVWUHOV\KDGPDGH-LP&URZWKH
DUFKHW\SDO$IULFDQLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV%\UHFUHDWLQJDSRVWZDUVWDJHYHUVLRQRIWKH
DQWHEHOOXP6RXWKEODFNIDFHPLQVWUHOV\SHUIRUPHGD¿FWLRQDOUHSHDORIHPDQFLSDWLRQ
DQGJDYHDQDPHWRWKHODZVWKDWUHSHDOHGLWLQDFWXDOLW\
3DUDGR[LFDOO\ ZKLOH EODFNIDFH PLQVWUHOV\ VWDJHG D WKHDWULFDO UHSHDO RI
HPDQFLSDWLRQLWDOVRKHOSHGWRHPDQFLSDWHWKH86WKHDWUHIURPLWV%ULWLVKURRWV7KH
(QJOLVKODQJXDJHWKHDWUHLQ1RUWK$PHULFDZDVHVVHQWLDOO\%ULWLVKWKHDWUHXQWLOWKH
¿UVWKDOIRIWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\7KHUHSHUWRU\RIWKH86VWDJHZDVWKH(QJOLVK
UHSHUWRU\RULPLWDWLRQVWKHUHRI,QWKHHLJKWHHQWKFHQWXU\HGXFDWHG$PHULFDQVSHHFK
KDGQRW\HWGHYLDWHGIURP%ULWLVKVSHHFK,QVRPHHDUO\$PHULFDQSOD\VWKDWLPLWDWH
WKH%ULWLVKKRZHYHUWKHUHDUHORZHUFODVVYHUQDFXODUFKDUDFWHUVZKRDUHXQLTXHO\
$PHULFDQ²WKH\XVHSURQXQFLDWLRQVDQGLGLRPVQRWIRXQGLQWKH%ULWLVK,VOHV7KHVH
FKDUDFWHUVDUHIURQWLHUVPHQOLNH'DY\&URFNHWWZKRZDVSRSXODUERWKRQVWDJHDQG
LQ ¿FWLRQ 7KH ,QGLDQ WKH 1HZ (QJODQG<DQNHH DQG WKH ,ULVK YROXQWHHU ¿UHPDQ
NQRZQDV³0RVHWKH¿UH%¶KR\´EHJDQWRDSSHDULQPLQRUUROHVRQWKH$PHULFDQ
VWDJH7ROO&KDSWHU7KHVHZHUHW\SHVQRWIRXQGLQWKH%ULWLVK,VOHVDQG
WKH\VSRNHDVQRRQHVSRNHLQWKH%ULWLVK,VOHV
7KHVH YHUQDFXODU $PHULFDQ FKDUDFWHUV DSSHDUHG LQ PLQRU UROHV ZKLOH WKH
SULQFLSDOFKDUDFWHUVVSRNHDQGEHKDYHGPXFKDVWKHLUDQFHVWRUVKDGRQWKH%ULWLVK
VWDJH'LRQ%RXFLFDXOW¶VThe OctoroonLOOXVWUDWHVWKLVSKHQRPHQRQ7KHSOD\LVD
W\SLFDOPRUWJDJHPHORGUDPDLQZKLFKFKDUDFWHUVLQWHQGHGWRHYRNHWKHDXGLHQFH¶V
V\PSDWK\ DUH WKUHDWHQHG ZLWK HYLFWLRQ LI WKHLU GHEWV DUH QRW SDLG )LUVW SHUIRUPHG
DWWKH:LQWHU*DUGHQ7KHDWUHLQ1HZ<RUNLQWKHSORWFRQFHUQVWKH¿QDQFLDO
WURXEOHV RI WKH 3H\WRQV¶ SODQWDWLRQ LQ /RXLVLDQD DQG *HRUJH 3H\WRQ¶V ORYH IRU D
81
Performing Jim Crow: Blackface Performance and Emancipation - Thomas L. King
ZRPDQQDPHG=RH7KHLUORYHLVGRRPHGEHFDXVH=RHLVWKHHSRQ\PRXVRFWRURRQ
7KRXJKVKHDSSHDUVZKLWHVKHLVOHJDOO\EODFNDQGLVRQHRIWKHVODYHVRQWKH3H\WRQV¶
SODQWDWLRQ6KHLVLQIDFWWKHSURSHUW\RI*HRUJH3H\WRQ6KHWHOOV*HRUJHWKDWWKH\
FDQQRWPDUU\EHFDXVHVKHEHDUV³WKHLQHIIDFHDEOHFXUVHRI&DLQ2IWKHEORRGWKDW
IHHGVP\KHDUWRQHGURSLQHLJKWLVEODFN²EULJKWUHGDVWKHUHVWPD\EHWKDWRQH
GURSSRLVRQVDOOWKHÀRRG´*DVVQHU%HFDXVHRIWKDWIDWDOGURSRIEODFN
EORRGVKHFDQQRWPDUU\WKHZKLWHKHURRIWKHSLHFHEXWZLOOIDOOLQWRWKHFOXWFKHVRI
WKHYLOODLQ0F&ORVNH\DVKLVVODYHLIWKHHVWDWHLVVROGWRSD\LWVGHEWV6KHLVVDYHG
IURP 0F&ORVNH\ EXW WKH KDSS\ HQGLQJ ZLWK D ZHGGLQJ QRUPDOO\ H[SHFWHG IRU D
PHORGUDPDFDQQRWRFFXU,QDQWLPLVFHJHQDWLRQODZVLQ/RXLVLDQDDQGLQPXFK
RIWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVPDGHLWLOOHJDOIRUDZKLWHPDQWRPDUU\DQ³RFWRURRQ´=RH¶V
ZKLWHQHVV PDVNV D EODFN LGHQWLW\ WKDW PDNHV PDUULDJH ZLWK *HRUJH 3H\WRQ DQG D
KDSS\HQGLQJLPSRVVLEOH
The OctoroonLVVHWRQDVRXWKHUQSODQWDWLRQSRSXODWHGE\HOLWHHGXFDWHGZKLWH
FKDUDFWHUV DQG OHVV HGXFDWHG ZRUNLQJFODVV ZKLWH FKDUDFWHUV 7KHVH DUH MRLQHG E\
$IULFDQVODYHVDQGHYHQDQ,QGLDQ:LWKWKHVHIHDWXUHVThe Octoroon is a perfect
H[DPSOHRIDSHFXOLDUO\$PHULFDQSOD\HYHQWKRXJKLWVDXWKRUZDVERUQLQ'XEOLQ
7KHSUREOHPRIDYRLGLQJIRUHFORVXUHDQGHYLFWLRQLVDFRQYHQWLRQDOPHORGUDPDWLF
SORWEXWWKHVHWWLQJLQ/RXLVLDQDDQGWKH$IULFDQDQG$PHULQGLDQFKDUDFWHUVPDUNLW
DVGLVWLQFWO\$PHULFDQ
7KHHOLWHZKLWHFKDUDFWHUVH[FHSWIRUWKHLUFRQQHFWLRQWRD/RXLVLDQDSODQWDWLRQ
UDWKHUWKDQDQ(QJOLVKFRXQWU\HVWDWHFRXOGEHIRXQGLQD%ULWLVKSOD\RIWKHWLPH
,QGHHG=RH¶VORYHU*HRUJH3H\WRQKDVEHHQOLYLQJLQ3DULVDQGZKHQKLVPRWKHU
VSHDNVVKHVSHDNVLQODQJXDJHWKDWFRXOGHDVLO\FRPHIURPWKH/RQGRQVWDJH
, IHDU WKDW WKH SURSHUW\ LV VR LQYROYHG WKDW WKH VWULFWHVW HFRQRP\ ZLOO VFDUFHO\
UHFRYHU LW 0\ GHDU KXVEDQG QHYHU NHSW DQ\ DFFRXQWV DQG ZH VFDUFHO\ NQRZ LQ
ZKDWFRQGLWLRQWKHHVWDWHUHDOO\LV*DVVQHU
7KH ODERULQJ FKDUDFWHUV DQG VODYHV KRZHYHU VSHDN LQ D GLVWLQFWO\$PHULFDQ
LGLRP:KHQRQHRIWKHVODYHV3HWHKDVDEXFNHWKHLVXVLQJDVDSLOORZNLFNHGRXW
IURPXQGHUKLPKHVD\V²
+L'HEEHO¶VLQGHSDLO:KDU¶VEUHDNIDVV"*DVVQHU
>+H\7KHGHYLOLVLQWKHSDLO:KHUHLVEUHDNIDVW"@
:KHQ 6FXGGHU D ORFDO ZKLWH FKDUDFWHU WHOOV 0F&ORVNH\ WKDW KH LV JRLQJ WR
SUHYHQWKLPIURPJHWWLQJ=RHKHVSHDNVLQDQ$PHULFDQLGLRPHQWLUHO\IRUHLJQWR
WKH%ULWLVKVWDJH
%\IDLUPHDQV,GRQ¶WWKLQN\RXFDQJHWKHUDQGGRQ¶W\RXWU\IRXOZLWKKHUµFDXVH
LI\RXGR-DFREFLYLOL]DWLRQEHGDUQHG,¶PRQ\RXOLNHDSDLQWHUDQGZKHQ,¶P
GUDZHGRXW,¶PSL]LQ*DVVQHU
82
Revista de Humanidades, 23 (2014). p. 75-94. ISSN 1130-5029
7KH$PHULFDQWKHDWUHGHSDUWHGIURPLWV%ULWLVKRULJLQVE\WXUQLQJLWVDWWHQWLRQ
WRQDWLYHYHUQDFXODUFKDUDFWHUVOLNH6FXGGHUDQG3HWH7KHHOLWHHGXFDWHGFKDUDFWHUV
ZKRVSRNHOLNHWKRVHDSSHDULQJRQWKH/RQGRQVWDJHZHUHUHSODFHGE\FKDUDFWHUV
ZKRFDOOHGSDQWKHUVµSDLQWHUV¶DQGGHYLOVµGHEEHOV¶2IFRXUVHFKDUDFWHUVOLNH3HWH
ZHUH SOD\HG E\ ZKLWH DFWRUV LQ EODFNIDFH7KH PRVW FXULRXV DQG RQH RI WKH PRVW
SRSXODU RI WKHVH HQWHUWDLQPHQWV EDVHG RQ PLQRU YHUQDFXODU FKDUDFWHUV ZDV WKH
EODFNIDFH PLQVWUHO VKRZ ,W ZDV D XQLTXHO\ $PHULFDQ WKHDWUH IRUP URRWHG LQ WKH
XQLTXHO\$PHULFDQKLVWRU\RI6RXWKHUQVODYHU\DQGWKH&LYLO:DU:KHQEODFNIDFH
FKDUDFWHUVOLNH3HWHVHSDUDWHGWKHPVHOYHVIURPZKLWHHOLWHFKDUDFWHUVDQGSHUIRUPHG
RQWKHLURZQWKH\EHFDPHWKH$PHULFDQPLQVWUHOVKRZ
:KLOH EODFNIDFH SHUIRUPDQFH ZDV IUHHLQJ WKH $PHULFDQ WKHDWUH IURP LWV
%ULWLVKURRWVDQGUHYRNLQJWKHHPDQFLSDWLRQRIWKHVODYHVRQVWDJHLWDOVRVHUYHGWR
HPDQFLSDWH UHFHQWO\ LPPLJUDWHG ODERUHUV DQG HYHQ RQ RFFDVLRQ WKH YHU\$IULFDQ
VODYHV ZKR KDG EHHQ IUHHG E\ SURFODPDWLRQ DQG FRQVWLWXWLRQDO DPHQGPHQW 7KH
SUHVHQFHRIODUJHQXPEHUVRI$IULFDQV¿UVWDVVODYHVDQGWKHQDVFLWL]HQVFUHDWHGD
VSHFLDOFODVVV\VWHPLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV$V-RKQ&DOKRXQDUJXHGFODVVLQ$PHULFD
LVDPDWWHURIVNLQFRORUUDWKHUWKDQZHDOWK
:LWKXVWKHWZRJUHDWGLYLVLRQVRIVRFLHW\DUHQRWWKHULFKDQGSRRUEXWZKLWHDQG
EODFNDQGDOOWKHIRUPHUWKHSRRUDVZHOODVWKHULFKEHORQJWRWKHXSSHUFODVVDQG
DUHUHVSHFWHGDQGWUHDWHGDVHTXDOV&LWHGE\&RUH\
2QFH VNLQ FRORU EHFRPHVWKH PDUNHURI FODVV EODFNQHVV FDQ EH DWWULEXWHGWR
DQ\ GHVSLVHG JURXS /DERUHUV HVSHFLDOO\ ODERUHUV UHFHQWO\ DUULYHG IURP ,UHODQG
ZHUHUHOHJDWHGWRWKHORZHVWOHYHOLQWKHVRFLDOKLHUDUFK\$VODQJWHUPIRU$IULFDQ
$PHULFDQVLQWKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\ZDV³6PRNHG,ULVKPDQ´/RWW(ULF
/RWWVD\VWKDW³$QH[WUHPHLQVWDQFHRIZRUNLQJFODVVµEODFNHQLQJ¶ZDVWKDWRIWKH
LPPLJUDQW ,ULVK ZKRP DQWHEHOOXP QDWLYH ZKLWHV ZLGHO\ HTXDWHG ZLWK EODFNV DV
DQDOLHQVXEKXPDQDQGEUXWDOVSHFLHV´/RWW³6RPHVXJJHVWHGWKDWWKH
,ULVKZHUHSDUWRIDVHSDUDWHFDVWHRUDµGDUN¶UDFHSRVVLEO\RULJLQDOO\$IULFDQ5DFLDO
FRPSDULVRQVRI,ULVKDQG%ODFNVZHUHQRWLQIUHTXHQWO\ÀDWWHULQJWRWKHODWWHUJURXS´
5RHGLJHU,ULVKODERUHUVZHUHIUHTXHQWO\XVHGLQWKH6RXWKIRUGLWFKLQJDQG
OHYHHEXLOGLQJEHFDXVHVODYHVZHUHWRRYDOXDEOHWRULVNLQVXFKDGDQJHURXVRFFXSDWLRQ
³)UHGHULFN /DZ 2OPVWHG TXRWHG PRUH WKDQ RQH 6RXWKHUQHU ZKR H[SODLQHG WKH
XVHRI,ULVKODERURQWKHJURXQGWKDWµQLJJHUVDUHZRUWKWRRPXFKWREHULVNHGKHUH
LIWKH3DGGLHVDUHNQRFNHGRYHUERDUGQRERG\ORVHVDQ\WKLQJ¶´5RHGLJHU
7KH ODERUHU HVSHFLDOO\ WKH ,ULVK ODERUHU QHHGHG WR GLVWLQJXLVK KLPVHOI IURP
WKHDQWHEHOOXPVODYHLQWKHVRXWKDQGDIWHUWKH&LYLO:DUWKHHPDQFLSDWHGVODYHLQ
1RUWKHUQFLWLHV
7KHDXGLHQFHVIRUPLQVWUHOVKRZVLQ1HZ<RUNLQFOXGHGDVLJQL¿FDQWQXPEHURI
,ULVKZRUNLQJFODVVLPPLJUDQWV/RWW%ODFNIDFHPLQVWUHOV\SURYLGHGD
PHFKDQLVPZKHUHE\WKRVHLQDORZVRFLDOSRVLWLRQHVSHFLDOO\WKH,ULVKFRXOGFRXQWHU
83
Performing Jim Crow: Blackface Performance and Emancipation - Thomas L. King
FODLPV WKDW WKHLU LGHQWLW\ DV ZKLWH (XURSHDQV ZDV VXVSHFW ³>%@ODFNIDFH PLQVWUHOV
ZHUH WKH ¿UVW VHOIFRQVFLRXVO\ white HQWHUWDLQHUV LQ WKH ZRUOG 7KH VLPSOH SK\VLFDO
GLVJXLVH²DQG HODERUDWH FXOWXUDO GLVJXLVH²RI EODFNLQJ XS VHUYHG WR HPSKDVL]H WKDW
WKRVH RQ VWDJH ZHUH UHDOO\ ZKLWH DQG WKDW ZKLWHQHVV UHDOO\ PDWWHUHG 2QH PLQVWUHO
SLRQHHUZRQIDPHE\EHLQJDEOHWRFKDQJHIURPEODFNWRZKLWHDQGEDFNLQVHFRQGV´
5RHGLJHU$FWRUVLQEODFNIDFHGHPRQVWUDWHGWKDWWKHLUEODFNQHVVZDVQRW
DSHUPDQHQWSLJPHQWDWLRQRIWKHVNLQEXWDPHUH¿FWLRQWKDWFRXOGEHZLSHGRIILQWKH
GUHVVLQJURRP,QGHHGDGVDQGSURJUDPVIRUPLQVWUHOVKRZVSLFWXUHGDFWRUVEHIRUH
DQGDIWHUEODFNLQJXS7ROO³6RQJVUHSHDWHGO\UHPLQGHGWKHDXGLHQFHRI
LWVRZQZKLWHQHVVE\EHJLQQLQJµ1RZZKLWHIRONV¶6QDSS\MRNHVFDUULHGWKHSRLQW
OHVVODERULRXVO\ZLWKSHUIRUPHUVSURFODLPLQJWKDWWKH\ZHUHµOLNHZLGRZV¶LQWKDWWKH\
RQO\ZRUHEODFNIRUDVKRUWWLPH´5RHGLJHU
7KHDXGLHQFHZLWKLWVDSSURYLQJJD]HFRXOGFROODERUDWHLQWKLVH[HUFLVHLQVRFLDO
FOLPELQJE\ORRNLQJRQDEODFNQHVVWKDWZDVQRWWKHLUV²WKDWWKH\DVVSHFWDWRUVFRXOG
NHHSDWDGLVWDQFH%ODFNIDFHGLVVROYHGHWKQLFDQGFODVVGLIIHUHQFHVDPRQJUHFHQW
LPPLJUDQWVE\LQVLVWLQJRQDVRFLDOVWUXFWXUHWKDWDGPLWWHGRIRQO\WZRFDWHJRULHV
ZKLWHDQGEODFN0LFKDHO5RJLQLQBlackface, White NoiseFLWHV&RQVWDQFH5RXUNH¶V
DSWFKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQRIWKLVSURFHVVLQWKHFDVHRI-HZLVKLPPLJUDQWV³$VVLPLODWLRQLV
DFKLHYHGYLDWKHPDVNRIWKHPRVWVHJUHJDWHGWKHEODFNIDFHWKDWRIIHUV-HZVPRELOLW\
NHHSVWKHEODFNV¿[HGLQSODFH%\ZLSLQJRXWDOOGLIIHUHQFHH[FHSWEODFNDQGZKLWH
EODFNIDFH WXUQV 5DELQRZLW] LQWR 5RELQ EXW WKH IXQGDPHQWDO ELQDU\ RSSRVLWLRQ
QHYHUWKHOHVVUHPDLQV7KDWVHJUHJDWLRQLPSRVHGRQEODFNVVLOHQFHVWKHLUYRLFHVDQG
VLJQVLQWKHLUQDPH5HSODFLQJWKH2OG:RUOG-HZEODFNIDFHDOVRUHSODFHGWKHEODFN´
5RJLQ:KDW5RXUNHVD\VWKDWEODFNIDFHGLGIRUWKH³2OG:RUOG-HZ´
LW FRXOG DOVR GR IRU PLQVWUHOV\¶V ODERULQJ FODVV DXGLHQFH 2Q VWDJH WKH EODFNIDFH
SHUIRUPHUV DUH RQFH DJDLQ VODYHV 7KLV ¿FWLYH UHSHDO RI /LQFROQ¶V (PDQFLSDWLRQ
3URFODPDWLRQLVVWDJHGLQEODFNIDFHZKLFK³>E@\ZLSLQJRXWDOOGLIIHUHQFHH[FHSW
EODFNDQGZKLWH´EODFNRQVWDJHZKLWHLQWKHDXGLHQFHDVVLPLODWHVWKHODERULQJ
FODVVDXGLHQFHLQWRZKDW&DOKRXQFKDUDFWHUL]HGDVDZKLWHXSSHUFODVV,URQLFDOO\WKH
WKHDWULFDOUHHQVODYHPHQWRIWKRVHRQVWDJHHPDQFLSDWHVWKHDXGLHQFHIURPZKDW(ULF
/RWWFDOOV³ZRUNLQJFODVVEODFNHQLQJ´
0LQVWUHOV\¶V PRYH WR UHWXUQ WKH EODFN IDFHV RI HPDQFLSDWHG VODYHV WR WKH
SODQWDWLRQKRZHYHUDOVRFRQWDLQHGLQVWDQFHVRIUHYROWDJDLQVWWKHVXEDOWHUQVWDWXV
RI IUHHG VODYH DQG EODFN IDFH ,Q WKH QLQHWHHQFHQWXU\ 86 DV =RH VD\V LQ The
Octoroon, D EODFN VNLQ ZDV WKH PDUN RI &DLQ$IULFDQV ZHUH WKH GHVFHQGDQWV RI
&DLQDQGWKHUHIRUHVODYHU\ZDVWKHLUDSSURSULDWHFRQGLWLRQ&RPLFVDWLULFDOOHFWXUHV
DQGVHUPRQVZHUHDIUHTXHQWIHDWXUHRIWKHPLQVWUHOVWDJHDQGDUHFXUULQJPLQVWUHO
VHUPRQWXUQHGUDFLDOL]HGKLHUDUFKLHVXSVLGHGRZQDQGPDGHDZKLWHVNLQWKHPDUN
RI&DLQ
¶6WUDWH DP GH URDG DQ¶ QDUURZ DP GH SDII ZKLFK OHDGV RII WR JORU\¶ %UHGHUHQ
%OHYHUV<RXDPµVHPEOHGGLVQLJKWLQFRPLQJWRKHDUGHZRUGDQGKDYHVSODLQHG
84
Revista de Humanidades, 23 (2014). p. 75-94. ISSN 1130-5029
Minstrel performers with and without blackface.
TCS 82, Harvard Theatre Collection, Houghton Library, Harvard University
DQGµPRQVWUDWHGWR\X\HV\XLV²DQG,WHQGIRUWRVSODLQLWDVGHOLWHREGHOLEHQ
GD\:HDPDOOZLFNHGVLQQHUVKHDEHORZ²LW¶VDIDFNP\EUHGHUHQ¶DQG,WHOO\RX
KRZLWFXP<RXVHH
µ$GDPZDVGHIXVWPDQ
(EHZDVGHWXGGHU
Cane was de wicked man
µ.DVHKHNLOOKLVEUXGGHU¶
85
Performing Jim Crow: Blackface Performance and Emancipation - Thomas L. King
$GDPDQG(YHZHUHERIHEUDFNPHQDQGVRZDV&DQHDQG$EHO1RZ,V¶SRVHLW
VHHPVWRVWULNH\HUXQGHUVWDQGLQJKRZGH¿UVWZKLWHPDQFXP:K\,OHW\RXNQRZ
'HQ\RXVHHZKHQ&DQHNLOOKLVEUXGGHUGHPDVVDFXPDQGVD\µ&DQHZKDU¶V\RXU
EUXGGHU$EHO"¶&DQHVD\µ,GRQ¶WNQRZPDVVD¶%XWWKHQLJJHUQRGHDOOGHWLPH
0DVVDQRZJLWPDGDQGFXPDJLQVSHDNPLJKW\VKDUSGLVWLPHµ&DQHZKDU¶V\RXU
EUXGGHU$EHO\XQLJJHU"¶&DQHQRZJLWIULJKWHQHGDQGKHWXUQZKLWHDQGGLVGH
ZD\GHIXVWZKLWHPDQFXPXSRQGLVHDUWK$QGLILWKDGQRWEHHQIRUGDWGDUQLJJHU
&DQHZH¶GQHEEHUEHHQWUXEEOHGZLGGHZKLWHWUDVKµSRQGHIDFHRIGLV\HUFLUFXPODU
JOREH %UXGGHU %RQHV SDVV URXQG GH VDVVHU 5RRUEDFK >µ6WUDLWLVWKHURDGDQGQDUURZLVWKHSDWKZKLFKOHDGVWRJORU\¶%UHWKUHQEHOLHYHUV
<RXDUHDVVHPEOHGWKLVQLJKWWRFRPHWRKHDUWKHZRUGDQGKDYHLWH[SODLQHGDQG
GHPRQVWUDWHGWR\RX\HV\RXDUH²DQG,LQWHQGWRH[SODLQLWDVFOHDUDVWKHOLJKWRI
WKHOLYLQJGD\:HDUHDOOZLFNHGVLQQHUVKHUHEHORZ²LW¶VDIDFWP\EUHWKUHQDQG
,¶OOWHOO\RXKRZLWFDPHDERXW
µ$GDPZDVWKH¿UVWPDQ
(YHZDVWKHRWKHU
Cain was the wicked man
%HFDXVHKHNLOOHGKLVEURWKHU¶
$GDPDQG(YHZHUHERWKEODFNPHQDQGVRZHUH&DLQDQG$EHO1RZ,VXSSRVH
\RXZDQWWRXQGHUVWDQGKRZWKH¿UVWZKLWHPDQFDPH:K\,¶OOOHW\RXNQRZ7KHQ
\RXVHHZKHQ&DLQNLOOHGKLVEURWKHUWKHPDVWHUFDPHDQGVDLGµ&DLQZKHUH¶V\RXU
EURWKHU$EHO"¶&DLQVDLGµ,GRQ¶WNQRZPDVWHU¶%XWWKHQLJJHUNQHZDOOWKHWLPH
7KHPDVWHUQRZJRWPDGDQGKHFDPHDJDLQKHVSRNHYHU\VKDUSO\WKLVWLPHµ&DLQ
ZKHUHLV\RXUEURWKHU$EHO\RXQLJJHU"¶&DQHQRZJRWIULJKWHQHGDQGKHWXUQHG
ZKLWHDQGWKLVLVWKHZD\WKH¿UVWZKLWHPDQFDPHXSRQWKLVHDUWK$QGLILWKDGQRW
EHHQIRUWKDWQLJJHU&DLQZHZRXOGQHYHUKDYHEHHQWURXEOHGZLWKWKHZKLWHWUDVK
XSRQWKHIDFHRIWKLVFLUFXODUJOREH%URWKHU%RQHVSDVVDURXQGWKHVDXFHUWKH
FROOHFWLRQSODWH@
7KLV µVHUPRQ¶ HPDQFLSDWHV $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV IURP DOO WKH VKRFNV WKDW
EODFNQHVVLVKHLUWRDQGWXUQVµQLJJHU¶LQWRDWHUPRIGLVDSSUREDWLRQIRUDPDQZLWK
DZKLWHVNLQ7KHPDUNRI&DLQLVQRWDEODFNVNLQDV=RHDYHUVLQThe Octoroon,
EXWDZKLWHRQH
,QIDFWWKHUHZDVDNLQGRIHPDQFLSDWRU\UHYROWEXLOWLQWRWKHYHU\VWUXFWXUHRI
PLQVWUHOVWDJLQJ%ODFNIDFHSURYLGHGDPDVNIRUWKHH[SUHVVLRQRIFODVVUHVHQWPHQWV
DQGVRFLDOVDWLUH7UDGLWLRQDOO\EODFNIDFHPLQVWUHOV\SXWDOLQHRISHUIRUPHUVDFURVV
WKHVWDJH$WFHQWHUVWDJHWKHLQWHUORFXWRUZDVDPDVWHURIFHUHPRQLHVDQDXWKRULW\
¿JXUH ZKR ZDV FKDOOHQJHG E\ WKH XQUXO\ HQG PHQ²7DPER DQG %RQHV²ZKR
86
Revista de Humanidades, 23 (2014). p. 75-94. ISSN 1130-5029
WRRN WKHLU QDPHV IURP WKH WDPERXULQH DQG WKH ERQHV VLPLODU WR FDVWDQHWV ZLWK
ZKLFKWKH\SHUIRUPHG7KH,QWHUORFXWRUZDVVRPHWLPHVZKLWHDQGKLVVSHHFKZDV
FRUUHFW DQG VWLOWHG7KH HQG PHQ GLVUXSWHG WKH DXWKRULW\ RI FRUUHFW VSHHFK ZLWK D
WKHDWULFDO YHUVLRQ RI EODFN YHUQDFXODU ³%ODFNIDFH DFWLRQ LV XVXDOO\ VODVKLQJ EDFN
DW WKH SUHWHQVLRQV DQG SROLWHVVH RI DXWKRULW\ PRUH WKDQ DW EODFNQHVV &HUWDLQO\ LQ
WKHVH HDUOLHVW LQVWDQFHV RI ZKLWH IDVFLQDWLRQ ZLWK EODFN SHUIRUPDQFH WKHUH ZDV
OLWWOHODXJKLQJDWEODFNV´/KDPRQ'DYLG5RHGLJHUFLWHV6HDQ:LOHQW]¶
statement in Chants Black WKDW³>D@VWKHIRUP>EODFNIDFHPLQVWUHOV\@GHYHORSHGWKH
UHDOREMHFWRIVFRUQZDVOHVV-LP&URZWKDQWKHZRXOGEHDULVWR>FUDW@²HLWKHUWKH
ZKLWHLQWHUORFXWRURUWKHGDQGL¿HGEODFN´5RHGLJHU7KHZRUNLQJPHQLQ
WKHDXGLHQFHFRXOGVDIHO\H[SHULHQFHDQHPDQFLSDWLQJFKDOOHQJHWRDXWKRULW\LQWKH
PLGVWRIDIRUPWKDWUHVFLQGHGWKHHPDQFLSDWLRQRIWKHVODYHVDQGVWDJHGWKHWULXPSK
RIYHUQDFXODUVSHHFKRYHUWKHµFRUUHFW¶VSHHFKRIWKHHOLWH,QWKHLUEDGLQDJHZLWKWKH
LQWHUORFXWRUWKHHQGPHQ¶VYHUQDFXODUVSHHFKZDVULFKHUDQGFOHYHUHUWKDQWKDWRI
WKHLQWHUORFXWRU7KH\KDGWKHSXQFKOLQHVRIWHQXVLQJSXQVDQGJRWODXJKVDWWKH
H[SHQVHRIWKH,QWHUORFXWRU¶VSRPSRVLW\7KHDXWKRULW\RIWKHPDVWHU¶VFRUUHFWVSHHFK
ZDVWUXPSHGE\YHUQDFXODUORZHUFODVVVSHHFK
)RUH[DPSOHLQRQHH[FKDQJH³DIWHUDEDOODGKDVEHHQVXQJ´%RQHVFODLPVLQ
DYHUQDFXODULGLRPWRKDYHFRPSRVHGWKHVRQJWKDWZDVMXVWVXQJ+HVD\V³'DW¶V
D QLFH VRQJ DLQ¶W LW"´ >7KDW¶V D QLFH VRQJ LVQ¶W LW"@7KH LQWHUORFXWRU UHSOLHV ³<HV
VLUDYHU\SUHWW\VRQJLQGHHG´:KHQ%RQHVVD\VWKDWKHFRPSRVHGWKHVRQJWKH
LQWHUORFXWRU XSEUDLGV KLP IRU O\LQJ DQG HQFRXUDJHV KLP WR IROORZ WKH H[DPSOH RI
*HRUJH:DVKLQJWRQZKRWROGWKHWUXWKDERXWFXWWLQJGRZQKLVIDWKHU¶VFKHUU\WUHH
ZLWK KLV OLWWOH KDWFKHW 1RZ %RQHV JRHV HYHQ IXUWKHU DQG FODLPV WR KDYH NQRZQ
*HRUJH:DVKLQJWRQ7KHLQWHUORFXWRULVKXI¿O\RIIHQGHGDW%RQHV¶EODWDQWO\LQJEXW
%RQHV KDV WKH ODVW ODXJK ZKHQ KH LQIRUPV WKH LQWHUORFXWRU WKDW LW ZDV D GLIIHUHQW
*HRUJHKHNQHZ²DVFKRROPDWHRIKLV
:HOO,JRWWLQJVPL[HG²GDWDLQWGHFKDS,PHQW,PHQW*HRUJH:DVKLQJWRQ-XOLRXV
&DHVDU$QGUHZ-DFNVRQ-RKQ6PLWKEXWGHER\VDWVFKRROXVHGWRFDOOKLP*HRUJH
DQG:DVKDQG-X²MXVWDVGH\OLNHG\RXNQRZ7KRXJKWGDWZDVGHVDPHIHOORZ
\RXZDVGULYLQJDW5RRUEDFK
>:HOO,JRWWKLQJVPL[HGXS²WKDWLVQ¶WWKHPDQ,PHDQW,PHDQW*HRUJH:DVKLQJWRQ
-XOLXV&DHVDU$QGUHZ-DFNVRQ-RKQ6PLWKEXWWKHER\VDWVFKRROXVHGWRFDOOKLP
*HRUJHDQG:DVKDQG-X²ZKDWHYHUWKH\OLNHG\RXNQRZ,WKRXJKWWKDWZDVWKH
VDPHIHOORZ\RXZHUHWDONLQJDERXW@
:KHQWKLV*HRUJHZDVFDXJKWLQDSUDQNWKDWULGLFXOHGWKHLUWHDFKHUKHOLNH
*HQHUDO *HRUJH :DVKLQJWRQ FRXOG QRW WHOO D OLH DQG FRQIHVVHG WKDW KH PDGH WKH
WHDFKHU IDOO RQ KLV IDFH E\ QDLOLQJ KLV VOLSSHUV WR WKH ÀRRU ZLWK KLV OLWWOH KDWFKHW
5RRUEDFK
87
Performing Jim Crow: Blackface Performance and Emancipation - Thomas L. King
%ODFNIDFHPLQVWUHOV\VRPHWLPHVSRUWUD\HGIUHHGVODYHVLQWKH1RUWKEXWERWK
EHIRUH DQG DIWHU HPDQFLSDWLRQ WKH SDUDGLJPDWLF PLQVWUHO VKRZ ZDV D WKHDWULFDO
UHSUHVHQWDWLRQRI$IULFDQVODYHU\,QGHHGLWPDGHVODYHU\VHHPDSOHDVDQWFRQGLWLRQ
¿OOHGZLWKMRNHVDQGPXVLF,WDOVRSURYLGHGWKHHDUOLHVWRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUEODFNDFWRUV
RQWKH$PHULFDQVWDJH6RPHWLPHSDVVHGKRZHYHUXQWLOWKH\FRXOGEHHPDQFLSDWHG
IURPEODFNIDFHVRWKDWWKH\FRXOGPRYHRQWRWKHPDLQVWUHDPRI86WKHDWUH2QHRI
WKHHDUOLHVW$IULFDQ$PHULFDQSHUIRUPHUVRQWKH86VWDJHZDV:LOOLDP+HQU\/DQH
ZKRZDVNQRZQDV-XEDZKHQKHGDQFHGDW37%DUQXP¶V9DX[KDOO*DUGHQV7KHDWUH
LQ1HZ<RUN&LW\+HZDVRULJLQDOO\KLUHGE\%DUQXPZKHQKLVVWDUZKLWHGDQFHU
0DVWHU'LDPRQGZKRSHUIRUPHGLQEODFNIDFHGRLQJ³QHJUREUHDNGRZQV´GHVHUWHG
KLP$FFRUGLQJWR7KRPDV/RZ1LFKROV²
%DUQXPIXOORIH[SHGLHQWVH[SORUHGWKHGDQFHKRXVHVRIWKH)LYH3RLQWVDQGIRXQG
DER\ZKRFRXOGGDQFHDEHWWHUEUHDNGRZQWKDQ0DVWHU'LDPRQG,WZDVHDV\WR
KLUHKLPEXWKHZDVDJHQXLQHQHJURDQGWKHUHZDVQRWDQDXGLHQFHLQ$PHULFD
WKDWZRXOGQRWKDYHUHVHQWHGLQDYHU\HQHUJHWLFIDVKLRQWKHLQVXOWRIEHLQJDVNHG
WRORRNDWWKHGDQFLQJRIDUHDOQHJURFLWHGE\/RWW
%DUQXP DYRLGHG WKLV GLI¿FXOW\ E\ KDYLQJ:LOOLDP +HQU\ /DQH EODFN XS DQG
SXWRQDZRRO\ZLJ7KHHDUOLHVWEODFNDFWRUVRQWKH$PHULFDQVWDJHEODFNHGXSMXVW
DVWKHLUZKLWHFROOHDJXHVGLGDQGLPLWDWHGZKLWHDFWRUVLPLWDWLQJEODFNVODYHV7KXV
WKHVWHUHRW\SHVFUHDWHGE\EODFNHGXSZKLWHDFWRUVZHUHSHUSHWXDWHGE\EODFNHGXS
EODFNDFWRUV
0LQVWUHO VKRZV HVSHFLDOO\ DIWHU WKH &LYLO:DU RIWHQ FODLPHG WKDW WKH\ ZHUH
SUHVHQWLQJDWUXHDQGDXWKHQWLFSLFWXUHRISODQWDWLRQOLIH,QVSLWHRI7KRPDV/RZ
1LFKROV¶EHOLHIWKDWDQ$PHULFDQDXGLHQFHZRXOGUHVHQW³WKHLQVXOWRIEHLQJDVNHG
WRORRNDWWKHGDQFLQJRIDUHDOQHJUR´³>L@QDIHZLQVWDQFHVWKHUHVHHPVWRKDYHEHHQ
JHQXLQHFRQIXVLRQDPRQJYLHZHUVDVWRWKHUDFLDOLGHQWLW\RIEODFNIDFHSHUIRUPHUVDQG
RQDWOHDVWRQHRFFDVLRQDFKXUFKDJUHHGWROHWDWURXSHSHUIRUPRQO\RQWKHFRQGLWLRQ
WKDWWKH\QRWFRPHDV%ODFNV´5RHGLJHU
(DUO\ DXGLHQFHV VR RIWHQ VXVSHFWHG WKDW WKH\ ZHUH EHLQJ HQWHUWDLQHG E\ DFWXDO
1HJURHVWKDWPLQVWUHOVKHHWPXVLFEHJDQWKHSURWR%UHFKWLDQSUDFWLFHRISLFWXULQJ
EODFNIDFHSHUIRUPHUVRXWRIFRVWXPHDVZHOODVLQDQGWKHUHDUHVHYHUDOH[LVWLQJ
DFFRXQWV RI ZKLWH WKHDWHUJRHUV PLVWDNLQJ EODFNIDFH SHUIRUPHUV IRU EODFNV (YHQ
0DUN7ZDLQ¶VPRWKHUDWKHU¿UVWDQGSUHVXPDEO\RQO\PLQVWUHOVKRZEHOLHYHG
VKHZDVZDWFKLQJEODFNSHUIRUPHUV0DUN7ZDLQZDVKLPVHOILQWULJXHGE\ZKDW
KHFDOOHGµWKHKDSS\DQGDFFXUDWH¶UHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRIWKHPLQVWUHOVKRZ/RWW
$V FRPSDQLHV WULHG WR DWWUDFW DXGLHQFHV ZLWK WKH FODLP WKDW WKH\ SURYLGHG D
PRUHDXWKHQWLFYLVLRQRIWKHDQWHEHOOXPSODQWDWLRQWKDQWKHLUFRPSHWLWRUVSURGXFHUV
KLWXSRQWKHLGHDRIXVLQJEODFNDFWRUVDQGFODLPLQJWKDWWKH\ZHUHIRUPHUVODYHV
88
Revista de Humanidades, 23 (2014). p. 75-94. ISSN 1130-5029
ZKR KDG D WUXH DQG DFFXUDWH NQRZOHGJH RI SUHZDU SODQWDWLRQ OLIH 7KH TXHVW IRU
DXWKHQWLFLW\ EURXJKW DFWXDO EODFN DFWRUV WR WKH VWDJH ZKR FODLPHG WR EH IRUPHU
VODYHV³7KLVZDVWKHFXOPLQDWLRQRIWKHEODFNPLQVWUHOVKRZ²DQLGHDOL]HGYLVLRQ
RISODQWDWLRQOLIHRQGLVSOD\IRUZKLWHQRUWKHUQHUV´7D\ORUDQG$XVWHQ
³%ODFNPLQVWUHOVEHFDPHWKHDFNQRZOHGJHGPLQVWUHOH[SHUWVDWSRUWUD\LQJSODQWDWLRQ
PDWHULDO´7ROO
%\WKHHDUO\WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\VRPHEODFNDFWRUVZHUHEHJLQQLQJWRZLQOLPLWHG
DFFODLPRXWVLGHRIPLQVWUHOV\&KDUOHV*LOSLQEHJDQKLVFDUHHULQPLQVWUHOVKRZVDQG
PRYHGRQWRKDYHKLVRZQVWRFNFRPSDQ\LQ+DUOHPDQGWRSOD\UROHVRQ%URDGZD\
+HFUHDWHGWKHUROHRI%UXWXV-RQHVLQ(XJHQH2¶1HLOO¶VThe Emperor JonesLQ
ZKLFK UDQ IRU WKUHH \HDUV 0URF]ND 6WLOO WKH OLIH RI D EODFN DFWRU LQ WKH
8QLWHG6WDWHVZDVDQGLVDGLI¿FXOWRQH:KLWHDFWRUVPLJKWEODFNXSWRSOD\2WKHOOR
DQGRWKHUµEODFN¶UROHVEXWEODFNDFWRUVZHUHVRPHWLPHVFRQWURYHUVLDOHYHQZKHQ
WKH\SOD\HGDUROHZULWWHQIRUWKHP(XJHQH2¶1HLOO¶VAll God’s Chillun Got Wings
FRQFHUQVDZKLWHZRPDQPDUULHGWRDEODFNODZ\HU2QHVFHQHFDOOVIRUWKHZRPDQ
WRNLVVKHUKXVEDQG¶VKDQG3DXO5REHVRQZDVFDVWLQWKHUROHRIWKHKXVEDQGDQGWKH
SUHVVZDVRXWUDJHGDQGSUHGLFWHGUDFHULRWVLIWKHSOD\ZDVDOORZHGWRJRRQDVFDVW
,WZDVWKRXJKWWKDWLIDZKLWHZRPDQZHUHWRNLVVDEODFNFKDUDFWHU¶VKDQGWKHUROH
RXJKWWREHSOD\HGE\DZKLWHDFWRULQEODFNIDFH*HOEII&KDUOHV*LOSLQ
RQ WKH RWKHU KDQG SOD\HG WKH UROH RI WKH YLOODLQ 0F&ORVNH\ LQ 'LRQ %RXFLFDXOW¶V
The Octoroon LQ +H DQG RWKHU EODFN DFWRUV SOD\LQJ ZKLWH FKDUDFWHUV ZRUH
ZKLWHIDFH7KHDWUHFULWLF/HVWHU$:DOWRQZURWHRI*LOSLQ¶VSHUIRUPDQFHWKDWKH³VR
FOHYHUO\PDNHVXSWKDWKHUHVHPEOHVWKHVODYHRZQHURIGD\VJRQHE\WRDUHPDUNDEOH
GHJUHHLQYHVWLQJWKLVW\SHZLWKDFHUWDLQGLVWLQFWLRQ´0F$OOLVWHU
&ULWLFVZHUHHQWKXVLDVWLFDERXWWKHRULJLQDOSURGXFWLRQRIWKHEmperor Jones
DQG*LOSLQ¶VSHUIRUPDQFH+H\ZRRG%URXQIRUWKHTribuneVDLGWKDW*LOSLQ¶VDFWLQJ
ZDV³WKHPRVWWKULOOLQJZHKDYHVHHQDQ\SODFHWKLVVHDVRQ,WLVDSHUIRUPDQFH
RI KHURLF VWDWXUH´ *HOE 7KH KHURLVP ZDV DEVHQW IURP WKH :RRVWHU
*URXS¶VSURGXFWLRQLQZKLFKZDVUHYLYHGLQ&KDUOHV*LOSLQJDYHZKDW
+H\ZRRG%URXQFDOOHG³KHURLFVWDWXUH´WRWKHUROHRI-RQHV,QWKH:RRVWHU*URXS¶V
SURGXFWLRQ -RQHV ZDV SOD\HG E\ D ZRPDQ .DWH 9DON LQ EODFNIDFH VHDWHG LQ D
ZKHHOFKDLUDQGXVLQJDPLFURSKRQH,QVWHDGRI³KHURLFVWDWXUH´.DWH9DONPDNHV
-RQHVDEODFNIDFHPLQVWUHO+HUSHUIRUPDQFHWDNHVQRWHWKDW2¶1HLOOKDV%UXWXV-RQHV
VSHDNLQJDODQJXDJHEDVHGRQWKHWKHDWULFDOLGLRPRIEODFNIDFHPLQVWUHOV\UDWKHUWKDQ
RQ WKDWRI DFWXDO SHRSOHLQ WKHLU HYHU\GD\OLYHV )RU H[DPSOH DW WKH EHJLQQLQJRI
VFHQH ¿YH RI The Emperor Jones -RQHV IUDQWLF DQG GHOLULRXV LV WU\LQJ WR HVFDSH
VRPH&DULEEHDQLVODQGHUVZKRPKHKDVELONHG+HKDVMXVWKDOOXFLQDWHGDVFHQHRI
WKHWLPHKHNLOOHGKLVIULHQG-HIILQDGLFHJDPHDQGVD\V²
/DZG-HVXVKHDKP\SUD\HU,¶VHDSR¶VLQQHUDSR¶VLQQHU,NQRZV,GRQHZURQJ
,NQRZVLW:KHQ,FRWFKHV-HIIFKHDWLQ¶ZLGORDGHGGLFHP\DQJHURYHUFRPHVPH
DQG,NLOOVKLPGHDG/DZG,GRQHZURQJ2¶1HLOO
89
Performing Jim Crow: Blackface Performance and Emancipation - Thomas L. King
>/RUG-HVXVKHDUP\SUD\HU,DPDSRRUVLQQHUDSRRUVLQQHU,NQRZWKDW,GLG
ZURQJ,NQRZLW:KHQ,FDXJKW-HIIFKHDWLQJZLWKORDGHGGLFHP\DQJHURYHUFDPH
PHDQG,NLOOHGKLPGHDG/RUG,GLGZURQJ@
%ODFNIDFHFKDUDFWHUVDQGGLFHZHUHDUHJXODUSDUWRIPLQVWUHOV\DQGDQDFWRU
VSHDNLQJWKLVODQJXDJHFRXOGMXVWDVZHOOEHWHOOLQJDQDXGLHQFH³KRZGH¿UVWZKLWH
PDQFXP¶SRQGHIDFHRIGLV\HUFLUFXPODUJOREH´(YHQWKRXJK2¶1HLOO¶VODQJXDJH
VPDFNVRIQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\PLQVWUHOV\ZKHQ,VDZWKHUHYLYDORIThe Emperor
Jones.DWH9DONJDYHWKHODQJXDJHDKDXQWLQJUK\WKPDQGSRHWU\2¶1HLOO¶VSOD\LQ
LWVWLPHZDVSUDLVHGIRULQQRYDWLRQ\HWWKH:RRVWHU*URXSSURGXFWLRQGLVFORVHVWKDW
LWORRNVEDFNZDUGWRWKHWLPHRIPLQVWUHOVKRZV
Kate Valk as Brutus Jones in the Wooster Group’s The Emperor Jones
Photo: © Paula Court
%ODFNIDFHSHUIRUPDQFHLVQRWXQLTXHWRWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV$UOHFFKLQRZRUHD
EODFNPDVNLQ,WDOLDQcommedia dell’ arte%URFNHWWDQG(QJOLVK0RUULV
GDQFHUV DQG PXPPHUV EODFNHG XS %URFNHWW 7KH 0ROO\ 0DJXLUHV LQ
,UHODQGEODFNHQHGWKHLUIDFHVDQGZRUHZRPHQ¶VFORWKHV1RUZDVEODFNIDFHLQWKH
8QLWHG6WDWHVDOZD\VDVVRFLDWHGZLWK$IULFDQV³,QWKHYDVW&KULVWPDVSURFHVVLRQV
RIDQWHEHOOXP3KLODGHOSKLDEODFNIDFHVSUHDGUDSLGO\WREHFRPHWKHµPRVWFRPPRQ
90
Revista de Humanidades, 23 (2014). p. 75-94. ISSN 1130-5029
GLVJXLVH¶LQWKHIHVWLYDOPDVNLQJVKRUWO\DIWHULWV¿UVWXVHLQ´5RHGLJHU
1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHSUHVHQFHRIZLGHVSUHDG$IULFDQVODYHU\LQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV
JDYH D SDUWLFXODU VLJQL¿FDQFH WR$PHULFDQ EODFNIDFH DV SHUIRUPHUV EODFNHG XS WR
UHSUHVHQWHQVODYHGDQGIUHHG$IULFDQV 7KH QRUWKHUQ ZKLWH SRSXODWLRQ IDFHG ZLWK D VXGGHQ LUUXSWLRQ RI IUHHG EODFN
$IULFDQVPDQ\RIZKRPZHUHFRPLQJQRUWKWRLQGXVWULDOFLWLHVWXUQHGWREODFNIDFH
PLQVWUHOV\ LQ ODUJH QXPEHUV 2QH RI WKH PDLQ YHQXHV RI PLQVWUHO SHUIRUPDQFH LQ
1HZ<RUNZDV0HFKDQLFV+DOOWKHKRPHRIWKHIDPRXV&KULVW\0LQVWUHOVIRUVHYHUDO
\HDUV7KHYHU\QDPHLQGLFDWHVWKHDXGLHQFHLWVRXJKWWRDWWUDFW)RUWKHZRUNLQJ
FODVVDXGLHQFHLQFRPSHWLWLRQZLWKIUHHGVODYHVIRUMREVDQGVRFLDOVWDWXVEODFNIDFH
DFWRUVFRXOGVWDQGLQIRUDFWXDO$IULFDQ$PHULFDQVDQGWKHUHE\UHSODFHDFWXDOEODFN
SHRSOHZLWKDWKHDWULFDO¿FWLRQ7KLV¿FWLYHUHSHDORIHPDQFLSDWLRQDOORZHGZKLWH
DXGLHQFHVWRDYRLGGHDOLQJZLWKWKHXQUXO\DQGXQSUHGLFWDEOHYDULHW\RIDFWXDOEODFN
people and to turn their attention to the managed and controlled artistic creations
RI WKH PLQVWUHO VWDJH %ODFNIDFH SHUIRUPDQFH HPDQFLSDWHG ZKLWH DXGLHQFHV IURP
KDYLQJWRFRPHWRWHUPVZLWKWKHFRPSOH[DQGYDULHGUHDOLW\RIIUHHGEODFNVODYHV
%ODFNIDFH PLQVWUHOV\ KDV RIWHQ EHHQ FRQVLGHUHG VLPSO\ UDFLVW DQG YXOJDU
)UHGHULF 'RXJODVV ZURWH WKDW EODFNIDFH PLQVWUHOV ZHUH ³WKH ¿OWK\ VFXP RI ZKLWH
VRFLHW\«´ &LWHG E\ 5RHGLJHU IURP WKH North Star, 2FWREHU 0RUHUHFHQWO\LQKLVIRUZDUGWRDarkest America0HO:DWNLQVFLWHVWKHDXWKRUV¶
FKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQRIEODFNIDFHPLQVWUHOV\DV³EDVHGSUHFLVHO\RQWKHDGRSWLRQRIWKHPRVW
VODQGHURXV¿FWLRQVWKDWZKLWHSHRSOHKDYHXVHGWRFKDUDFWHUL]HEODFNPHQ´7D\ORUDQG
$XVWHQ[LLL
$PHULFDQEODFNIDFHKRZHYHULVQRWVRVLPSOH-LP&URZRQVWDJHDQG-LP&URZ
LQ ODZ UHVW RQ WKH DVVXPSWLRQ WKDW EODFN DQG ZKLWH FDQ EH H[DFWO\ GHWHUPLQHG ,I
-LP&URZODZVDUHWRVHJUHJDWHEODFNDQGZKLWHWKHERXQGDU\EHWZHHQWKHPPXVW
EHFOHDUO\PDUNHG+HQFHWKHDQ[LHW\DERXWPLVFHJHQDWLRQH[SUHVVHGLQ-LP&URZ
ODZVSURKLELWLQJLQWHUUDFLDOPDUULDJHZKLFKZHUHQRWGHFODUHGXQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOXQWLO
LQLoving v. Virginia3OD\VOLNHThe OctoroonEOXUUHGWKHOLQHEHWZHHQZKLWH
DQGEODFN$ZKLWHDFWRULQEODFNIDFHSOD\HGWKHEODFNFKDUDFWHU3HWHDQGDZKLWH
DFWRUZLWKRXWEODFNIDFHSOD\HGWKHµEODFN¶FKDUDFWHU=RH7KRXJKWKHFKDUDFWHU=RH
DSSHDUVZKLWHVKHLVEODFN37%DUQXPDFFRUGLQJWR7KRPDV/RZ1LFKROVKDG
WR GLVJXLVH WKH EODFN :LOOLDP +HQU\ /DQH DV D ZKLWH DFWRU LQ EODFNIDFH LQ RUGHU
WRPDNHKLPDFFHSWDEOHWRDQDOOZKLWHDXGLHQFHLQDQDOOZKLWHH[FHSWIRU/DQH
FDVW%ODFNIDFHSHUIRUPDQFHVXQGHUPLQHWKHYHU\GLFKRWRP\RQZKLFKWKH\GHSHQG
$XGLHQFHVPLVWDNHWKHEODFNHGXSPLQVWUHOIRUDQDFWXDOEODFNSHUIRUPHU$PLQVWUHO
SHUIRUPHUQDPHG6DP6DQIRUGUHSRUWHGWKDWWKHRZQHURIWKHERDUGLQJKRXVHZKHUH
KHDQGKLVFRPSDQ\ZHUHVWD\LQJZDQWHGWRFRPHDQGVHHWKHVKRZ$IWHUZDUGVWKH
ODQGORUGWROG6DQIRUG³,ORRNHGDURXQGEXWGLGQRWVHH\RX´6DQIRUGUHSOLHGWKDWWKH\
ZHUHWKHUHDQG³LI\RXZDV\RXFRXOGQRWKHOSEXWVHHXV´7KHODQGORUGVDLG³,VDZ
QRRQHEXWWKH1HJURHV´/KDPRQ7KHODQGORUGZDVXQDZDUHWKDW
91
Performing Jim Crow: Blackface Performance and Emancipation - Thomas L. King
KLVZKLWHJXHVWVZHUHWKHEODFNHGXSµ1HJURHV¶KHKDGVHHQRQVWDJH7KHPLQVWUHO
YHUVLRQRIWKHVWRU\RI&DLQDQG$EHOPDNHV$GDPDQG(YHEODFNDQGDZKLWHVNLQ
LVWKHPDUNWKDW*RGSXWVRQ&DLQWRVKRZWKDWKHLVDPXUGHUHU7KHUHEHOOLRXVHQG
PHQZLWKWKHLUYHUQDFXODUDQWLFVWULXPSKRYHUWKHDXWKRULW\DQGWKHFRUUHFWVSHHFKRI
WKHLQWHUORFXWRUZKRLVVRPHWLPHVZKLWH%ODFNIDFHSHUIRUPDQFHGHSOR\VDNLQGRI
VXUUHSWLWLRXVHPDQFLSDWRU\HVFDSHIURPULJLGVRFLDOFDWHJRULHVEDVHGRQVNLQFRORU
,WFRQVWUXFWVDQDUWL¿FLDOZRUOGRIGLVWLQFWFDWHJRULHVRIEODFNDQGZKLWHRQO\WREOXU
DQGXQGHUPLQHWKHP$V9LUJLQLD5'RPLQJXH]ZULWHV³>,QOHJDOKLVWRU\@ZH¿QG
DPSOHHYLGHQFHRIWKHFKDQJHDELOLW\DQGDUELWUDULQHVVRIWKHERXQGDULHVRIOHJDOO\
LQVWLWXWHG UDFLDO FDWHJRULHV´ 'RPLQJXH] 6KH EHJLQV KHU ERRN ZLWK
WKHFHOHEUDWHGFDVHRI6XVLH3KLSSVZKRZKHQVKHDSSOLHGIRUDSDVVSRUWLQ
GLVFRYHUHGWKDWDFFRUGLQJWRKHUELUWKFHUWL¿FDWHVKHZDVOHJDOO\EODFNWKRXJKVKH
KDGDOZD\VFRQVLGHUHGKHUVHOIZKLWHDQGRWKHUPHPEHUVRIKHUIDPLO\ZHUHLGHQWL¿HG
DVZKLWHRQOHJDOGRFXPHQWV'RPLQJXH]II6XVLH3KLSSVLQDFWXDOOLIH
KDGHQWHUHGWKH¿FWLRQDOZRUOGRIEODFNIDFHSHUIRUPDQFHDZRUOGWKDWGHFODUHVDQ
HPDQFLSDWLRQIURPVWULFWUDFLDOFDWHJRULHVDQGGH¿QHVDVSDFHZKHUHDZRPDQOLNH
6XVLH3KLSSVFDQEHERWKEODFNDQGZKLWHDWWKHVDPHWLPH
BIBLIOGRAPHY
%URFNHWW2VFDU*DQG+LOG\)UDQNOLQ-History of the Theatre%RVWRQ1HZ
<RUN6DQ)UDQFLVFR$OO\QDQG%DFRQ
&RUH\ 5LFKDUG The Reactionary Mind: Conservatism from Edmund Burke to
Sarah Palin. 1HZ<RUN2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
'RPLQJXH] 9LUJLQLD 5 :KLWH E\ 'H¿QLWLRQ 6RFLDO &ODVVL¿FDWLRQ LQ &UHROH
Louisiana1HZ%UXQVZLFN1-5XWJHUV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
*DVVQHU-RKQBest Plays of the Early American Theatre: From the Beginning to
19161HZ<RUN&URZQ3XEOLVKHUV,QF
*HOE$UWKXUDQG%DUEDUDO’Neill1HZ<RUN+DUSHUDQG5RZ
*ROGPDQ +HUEHUW * ³-ROVRQ $O´ American National Biography Online
2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZDQERUJDUWLFOHV
html!>$FFHVVHG-XO\@
+D\ZRRG&KDUOHV³1HJUR0LQVWUHOV\DQG6KDNHVSHDUHDQ%XUOHVTXH´,Q%UXFH
-DFNVRQHGFolklore and Society+DWERUR3$)RONORUH$VVRFLDWHVS
.HQQDUG-DPHV.-U³:KR$UH2XU1DWLRQDO3RHWV"´KnickerbockerQ
S
/KDPRQ:7-URaising Cain: Blackface Performance from Jim Crow to Hip
Hop&DPEULGJH0$DQG/RQGRQ+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
/RWW (ULF Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working
Class1HZ<RUNDQG2[IRUG2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
92
Revista de Humanidades, 23 (2014). p. 75-94. ISSN 1130-5029
0F$OOLVWHU0DUYLQWhiting Up: Whiteface Minstrels and Stage Europeans in
African American Performance &KDSHO +LOO 1& 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 1RUWK &DUROLQD
3UHVV
0URF]ND3DXO³*LOSLQ&KDUOHV6WDQOH\´American National Biography Online
2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZDQERUJDUWLFOHV
html!>$FFHVVHG-XO\@
2¶1HLOO(XJHQHNine Plays by Eugene O’Neill1HZ<RUN7KH0RGHUQ/LEUDU\
5DQGRP+RXVH,QF
5LFK)UDQN³6WHSLQ,Q,W´New York Times Magazine1RYS
5RHGLJHU'DYLGThe Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American
Working Class./RQGRQDQG1HZ<RUN9HUVR
5RJLQ0LFKDHO. Blackface, White Noise: Jewish Immigrants in the Hollywood
Melting Pot%HUNHOH\/RV$QJHOHV/RQGRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVV
5RRUEDFK 2UYLOOH$XJXVWXV Minstrel Gags and End Men’s Handbook
8SSHU 6DGGOH 5LYHU 1- /LWHUDWXUH +RXVH*UHJJ 3UHVV 7KLV LV D UHSULQW RI WKH
RULJLQDO SULQWLQJ LQ E\ WKH +DSS\ +RXUV &RPSDQ\ 7KH SDJHV RI WKH
LQWURGXFWLRQDUHQRWQXPEHUHG
6DYUDQ 'DYLG Breaking the Rules: The Wooster Group 1HZ <RUN 7KHDWUH
&RPPXQLFDWLRQV*URXS
6KHZH\ 'RQ ³7KH :RRVWHU *URXS 6WLUV &RQWURYHUV\ :LWK DQ $YDQW*DUGH
Series,” New York Times0D\S'
7D\ORU<XYDODQG$XVWHQ-DNHDarkest America: Black Minstrelsy from Slavery
to Hip-Hop. 1HZ<RUNDQG/RQGRQ::1RUWRQ&RPSDQ\
7ROO5REHUW&Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth-Century America
/RQGRQ2[IRUG1HZ<RUN2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
9DON.DWH³.DWH9DON7DONVDERXWThe Emperor Jones DQGKHU:RUNZLWKWKH
:RRVWHU *URXS´ 3KLODGHOSKLD SRVW SHUIRUPDQFH LQWHUYLHZ 7KH 3HZ &HQWHU IRU
$UWV DQG +HULWDJH 7KHDWUH ,QLWLDWLYH $YDLODEOH DW KWWSZZZSFDKXVWKHDWUH
SXEOLFDWLRQVUHVHDUFKSKLODGHOSKLDWKHDWUHLQLWLDWLYHWDONVZLWKNDWHYDON>
>$FFHVVHG'HFHPEHU@
93