Basic Spanish Grammar for English Speakers 1

1. PRONUNCIACIÓN / PRONUNCIATION
1.1. Los fonemas / Phonemes
1.1.1. Las vocales / Vowels
In Spanish, there are five vowels: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/ and /u/. Examples can be seen in these words: mar, es, ir, sol, tu.
The sound system in Spanish is somewhat simpler than the English system. Spanish has only five
☞☞Note:
vowels: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/ and /u/. These are short and clearly pronounced. This contrasts with English where
there are twelve individual vowel sounds, some of which are long and some of which are short.
1.1.2. Los diptongos, triptongos e hiatos / Diphthongs, triphthongs
and hiatuses
A diphthong is the combination of two vowels which are pronounced in the same syllable. Spanish has fourteen
diphthongs. In the following words, an example of each diphthong can be seen: I-ta-lia, sie-te, ra-dio, ciu-da-des,
gua-pa, pue-do, Luis, an-ti-guo, trai-go, a-cei-te, oi-go, au-la, eu-ro, es-ta-dou-ni-den-se.
When three vowels are pronounced in the same syllable, a triphthong is formed: cam-biáis.
A hiatus occurs when a pair of vowels are pronounced as two separate syllables: co-rre-o, po-e-ma, a-é-re-o.
In ordinary spoken language, when two vowels which are the same occur together, these are usually pronounced as
one: zoológico → zológico.
☞☞Note: Many Spanish diphthongs are similar to those used in English. However, one that is not is: /eu/ deuda.
1.1.3. Las consonantes / Consonants
In Spanish, consonants are classified according to where and how they are articulated and according to whether or
not they are voiced. If the vocal chords are used they are voiced, if no vocal chords are used they are unvoiced (see
the table on the next page).
In informal spoken Spanish, when the final consonant of one word is the same as the initial consonant of the following
word, it is pronounced as one consonant: Un nuevo coche → u-nue-vo-co-che. If these final and initial consonants are
both /r/, then together they are pronounced /rr/: Ha preguntado por Ramón → ha-pre-gun-ta-do-po-rra-món.
There are a group of consonants which are commonly found in conjunction with other consonants and which,
together, form a part of the syllable that follows: pr, pl; br, bl; tr, dr; cr, cl; fr, fl; gr, gl: a-bril, in-clu-so, a-gra-da-ble.
The consonants ns, bs, rs, ls, ds may together form a part of the syllable that follows or they may be attached
to separate syllables. It is more common to find them attached to separate syllables: in-se-gu-ro, ab-sor-ber.
However, they form a part of the same syllable when they appear next to other consonants: cons-tru-ir, abs-trac-to.
☞☞Note:
The sound indicated by the letters ll in llamar is pronounced something like the English lli in million.
●
initial r or double rr is pronounced with a trill, as in the Spanish carro.
Spanish, the letter v is pronounced as a /b/. The word vale, for example, is pronounced: /bale/.
● The letter h is silent.
● Ñ is a letter that is only found in Spanish and sounds something like ny: niña, español.
● The letter j, and the letter g before e or i sound something like the h in horse, as in the following names:
Juan, José, Germán, Gil.
● The
● In
Siete
7
CONSONANTS
Place of
articulation
Mode of
articulation
unvoiced
Bilabial
voiced
Labiodental
Plosive
Nasal
Simple trill
Multiple
trill
Fricative
Lateral
Affricate
/p/
lápiz
/b/
noviembre
/m/
mar
/f/
alfabeto
unvoiced
voiced
Interdental
/T/
hacer
unvoiced
voiced
unvoiced
Dental
voiced
/t/
portugués
/d/
ducha
/s/
sal
unvoiced
Alveolar
/n/
menú
voiced
/r/
nevera
/rr/
rojo
/l/
Julia
//
chino
unvoiced
Palatal
/|/
español
voiced
unvoiced
Velar
voiced
/k/
Canadá
//
mayo
/ʎ/
calle
/x/ viajar
/g/ gafas
1.2. La sílaba / Syllables
A syllable consists of a sound or a group of sounds which are pronounced at one short time. They can be
considered as the phonetic building blocks of words. In Spanish, each syllable has at least one vowel, which is the
nucleus, and there may also be consonant sounds before or after the nucleus.
Words which only contain one syllable are called monosílabas, e.g., yo. Those which have two syllables are known
as bisílabas, e.g., Cu-ba. Those which have three syllables are called trisílabas, e.g., Es-pa-ña. Finally, those
which have more than three syllables are called polisílabas, e.g., Gua-te-ma-la, do-mi-ni-ca-na.
In Spanish, words with two or three syllables are the most common.
1.3. La acentuación / Word stress
In most words, one syllable is pronounced with greater intensity than the others so that it stands out. This is known
as word stress. In Spanish, the stressed syllable is called la sílaba tónica or acentuada; the others are known as
sílabas átonas.
In Spanish, the stress can fall on any syllable:
●● If it falls on the final syllable, the word is aguda: ha-blar, es-tán.
●● If it falls on the penultimate syllable, the word is llana: ca-lle, lá-piz.
●● If it falls on the antepenultimate syllable, the word is esdrújula: Bél-gi-ca.
●● If it falls before the antepenultimate syllable, the word is sobresdrújula: cuén-ta-se-lo.
In most Spanish words, the stress falls on the penultimate syllable (palabras llanas).
8
Ocho
PRONUNCIACIÓN / PRONUNCIATION
1.4. E
l grupo fónico y la sinalefa/ The tonic group
and synalepha
The tonic group is a group of words which are normally uttered as one sense group (phrase or clause) without
intrusive pauses. They function as complete grammatical units, and can be understood on their own: Ayer vino
Pedro a comer a casa, || pero se marchó enseguida || porque tenía prisa. ||
Spoken Spanish is notable for its frequent use of tonic phrasing.
Synalepha occurs when two syllables from two different words run together, and as a result are pronounced as one
syllable: Ten-goun-po-co-de-frí-o. Sometimes syllables from three words are linked in this way: Par-teaEu-ro-pa.
1.5. La entonación / Intonation
In Spanish, the most important aspect of intonation occurs at the end of the sentence. There are four basic
intonation patterns.
1.5.1. La entonación enunciativa / Declarative intonation
Sentences which are affirmative or negative have a final falling intonation:
Trabaja en una multinacional.
If the elements in the sentence are listed without a conjunction (y, e, ni, etc.), each part is pronounced with a final
falling intonation:
La reunión fue larga, pesada, difícil.
In cases where a conjunction is used to link the elements, each part is pronounced with a rising intonation, except
the final part:
He invitado a Ana, a Jaime y a Eva.
1.5.2. La entonación interrogativa / Interrogative intonation
If the utterance does not begin with an interrogative pronoun (question word), the final intonation rises:
¿Estás cansada?
However, if the utterance begins with an interrogative pronoun, the final intonation usually falls:
¿A qué te dedicas?
Nueve
9
1.5.3. La entonación suspendida / Suspended intonation
This type of intonation indicates an interruption and incompleteness. It is usually represented in writing by a series
of dots (ellipsis):
Si quieres...
1.5.4. La entonación enfática / Emphatic intonation
This type of intonation is associated with emphatic utterances. It is characterized by a high rising and a high falling
tone:
¡Estupendo!
10
Diez
2. ORTOGRAFÍA / SPELLING
2.1. El alfabeto / The alphabet
Spanish uses the Latin alphabet. In general, each letter represents a single phoneme, but there are exceptions (see table).
A a. La a: Alemania
J j. La jota: Japón
R r. La ere, la erre: Perú, Rumanía
B b. La be: Bélgica
K k. La ka: Kenia
S s. La ese: Siria
C c. La ce: Canadá, Suecia
L l. La ele: Líbano
T t. La te: Turquía
Ch ch. La che: China
Ll ll. La elle: Seychelles
U u. La u: Uganda
D d. La de: Irlanda
M m. La eme: Marruecos
V v. La uve: Vietnam
E e. La e: Estados Unidos
N n. La ene: Nepal
W w. La uve doble: Taiwán
F f. La efe: Francia
Ñ ñ. La eñe: España
X x. La equis: Luxemburgo
G g. La ge: Guatemala, Níger
O o. La o: Omán
Y y. La i griega: Yemen, Uruguay
H h. La hache: Hungría
P p. La pe: Polonia
Z z. La zeta: Suiza
I i. La i: Italia
Q q. La cu: Eslovaquia
In Latin America, certain letters have other names:
●B
: be alta or be larga.
● V: ve baja, ve corta or ve chiquita.
● W: ve doble, doble ve or doble u.
The double consonants ch and ll do not exist as separate letters in the English alphabet (see 1.1.3.
☞☞Note:
for pronunciation).
Ñ or ñ is a letter that is only found in Spanish.
Letter
b, v
c
Sound
Examples
Pronounced as /b/.
bolígrafos, noviembre
Pronounced as /k/ before a, o, u.
gramática, comunicación, cultura
Pronounced as /T/ before e, i*.
hacer, pronunciación
ch
Pronounced as //.
chalé, archivo
g
Pronounced as /g/ before a, o, u
and when spelt gu 1 e, i (u is not pronounced).
When spelt gü 1 e, i the u is pronounced.
gafas, goma, guantes
guerra, guineano
antigüedades, lingüística
Pronounced as /x/ before e, i.
gente, Bélgica
h
Not pronounced.
hola, Hungría, ahora
j
Pronounced as /x/.
viajar, jerséis, dibujo, jugar
k
Pronounced as /k/.
kilo
ll
Pronounced as /ʎ/**.
silla, llave, amarillo
q
Pronounced as /k/.
Only two combinations are possible: que and qui (u is not pronounced).
chaqueta, quiero
Once
11
Letter
r
w
x
y
z
Sound
Examples
Pronounced weakly as /r/ between vowels, after b, c, d, f,
g, c, p, t and at the end of a syllable.
papelera, nombre, profesor
Pronounced strongly as /rr/ in the initial position and after the
consonants l, n, s. Between vowels rr is written.
relaciona, alrededor, Enrique, Israel,
pizarra
Pronounced as /b/ in foreign words which have been incorporated into
Spanish.
Kuwait
Pronounced as /u/ or as /gu/ in foreign words which have not yet been
adapted to Spanish.
web
Pronounced as /ks/ or /gs/ between vowels or at the end of a syllable.
taxi, excursión
Pronounced as /s/ in the initial position of a word.
xilófono
Pronounced as /x/ in certain words.
México, Oaxaca, Texas
Pronounced as // in the initial position of a syllable.
yo, mayo
Pronounced as /i/ in the final position of a syllable.
soy, hay
Pronounced as /T/*.
pizarra, lápiz, Venezuela
* In the south of Spain, the Canaries and in Latin America c, followed by e or i, and z, followed by any vowel, are
pronounced /s/. For example: cerilla /serilla/, cimiento /simiento/, caza /casa/.
** In many parts of Spain and Latin America, ll and y, when in the initial position of a syllable, are pronounced in a
similar way. For example: llave / abe/, mayo /mao/.
2.2. Las letras mayúsculas / Capital letters
Two types of letters exist in Spanish: capitals (A, B, C, D…) and lower-case (a, b, c, d…).
In any given text, the vast majority of words are written in lower-case, but certain types of words must always begin
with a capital. In some cases, whole words or sentences may be written in capitals for aesthetic reasons or simply
to make the text stand out. For example: REBAJAS EN TODOS LOS JUGUETES.
Capital letters are used at the beginning of words in the following cases:
●● For
the first letter of a text, or the first letter to follow a full stop.
●● After
exclamation marks or question marks, when these marks are not followed by a comma or semi-colon:
¡Hola! Me llamo Carmen.
proper nouns (names of people, places, institutions and festivals): Marta Pérez, Madrid, La Paz, Instituto
Cervantes, Navidad.
●● With
titles of books, newspapers, magazines and songs, etc.: Cien años de soledad, El País, Revista de Occidente,
«Habaneras de Cádiz».
●● For
●● For
certain abbreviations: Sra.
●● For
certain important figures: el Rey, el Papa, el Presidente.
●● For
academic subjects: Matemáticas.
●● After
12
a colon which comes after a greeting in a letter or which introduces a quotation.
Doce
ORTOGRAFÍA / SPELLING
Letters in abbreviations formed using the initial components of a phrase or name are written with capital letters:
DNI (Documento Nacional de Identidad).
When letters consisting of two elements occur at the beginning of a word, only the first of these is written as a
capital: Chile, Llobregat.
Capital letters broadly have the same uses in Spanish as they do in English. However, there are some
☞☞Note:
differences. In Spanish, the following groups of nouns all begin with lower-case letters: months, days of the
week, nationalities, languages: enero, lunes, español, inglés. Another difference is that in titles of books,
films and songs, usually only the initial letter of the first word is capitalised: Cien años de soledad.
2.3. La tilde / The written accent
The written accent indicates where the stress falls in certain words.
2.3.1. Reglas generales de acentuación / General rules for using the
written accent
which are agudas carry a written accent on the final stressed syllable when this ends in a vowel, -n or
-s: tabú, perdón, inglés. However, if an aguda word ends in an -s which comes after a consonant, no written
accent is used: robots.
●● Words which are llanas carry a written accent when they end in a consonant which is not -n or -s: árbol, azúcar,
móvil. However, when a llana word ends in an -s preceded by another consonant, a written accent is used on the
stressed syllable: cómics.
●● Words which are esdrújulas and sobresdrújulas always carry a written accent: médico, dígaselo.
●● Words
Question words and exclamations always carry a written accent, as do words written in capital letters: ¿Cómo te
llamas?, ¡Qué bonito!, CÁDIZ.
2.3.2. Acentuación de los diptongos, triptongos e hiatos /
Written accents on diphthongs, triphthongs and hiatuses
Words containing diphthongs follow the general rules for accent placement. When the written accent is used, it
is placed on the open vowel of the diphthong (a, e, o): amáis, hacéis, canción. If the diphthong is formed by a
combination of i with u, the written accent is placed on the second vowel: cuídalo.
Triphthongs follow the general rules of accent placement. When the written accent is used, it is placed on the open
vowel of the diphthong (a, e, o): averiguáis, limpiáis.
Words with a hiatus follow the general rules of accent placement. In a hiatus formed with an open vowel (a, e, o)
which is unstressed, the stressed closed vowel (i, u) will always carry a written accent: país, baúl, sabía, maíz.
2.3.3. La tilde diacrítica / The diacritic written accent
Some words carry a diacritic written accent, called a tilde diacrítica, to distinguish them from other words which
are written in the same way.
el
Article:
Le gusta el cine español.
él
Personal pronoun:
Me encantaría poder hablar con él.
tu
Possesive adjective:
¿Le doy a Pablo tu teléfono?
tú
Personal pronoun:
Me parece mal que pagues tú la cena.
de
Preposition:
Soy de Brasil.
dé
Imperative form of the verb dar:
Dé la luz, por favor.
mi
Possessive adjective:
El chico moreno es mi profesor.
mí
Personal pronoun:
¿Este regalo es para mí?
te
Personal pronoun:
Te llamo para pedirte un favor.
té
Beverage or plant:
¿Te apetece un té?
Trece
13
sí
Adverb of affirmation:
Sí, vale, de acuerdo.
Personal pronoun:
Hablaba mucho de sí mismo.
se
Personal pronoun:
Se lo dije.
sé
Present indicative form of the verb saber:
No sé.
Imperative form of the verb ser:
Sé bueno.
que
Conjunction:
El sillón que me compré es muy cómodo.
qué
Interrogative or exclamation:
¿A qué te dedicas?
si
Conditional conjunction:
Si te apetece, podemos ir al cine.
2.3.4. Acentuación de formas verbales con pronombres enclíticos /
Written accents on enclitic pronouns (pronouns attached to verbs)
When a pronoun is added to an infinitive, a gerund or an imperative, making one word, the general rules of accent
placement are followed: decírselo, estudiarlo, pidiéndoselas, cuéntamelo, hacedlos.
2.3.5. Acentuación de los adverbios en -mente / Written accents on
adverbs ending in -mente
Adverbs ending in -mente do not follow the general rules of accent placement. They are written with a written accent
when the adjective from which they are derived carries one: fácilmente, rápidamente, claramente, totalmente.
2.3.6. Acentuación de las palabras compuestas / Written accents on
compound words
Compound words follow the general rules of accent placement: portalámparas, baloncesto. On the other hand, if
the two component words are separated by a hyphen, they are accented as if they were two independent words:
teórico-práctico, hispano-alemán.
2.4. La diéresis [¨] / The diaeresis [¨]
The diaeresis is the two dots written above the letter u. When there is no diaeresis, the u is not pronounced: guerra, guisar.
However, when the two dots are placed above the u, as in the syllables güe y güi, the u is pronounced: antigüedades, güisqui.
2.5. Los signos de puntuación / Punctuation marks
2.5.1. El punto [.] / The full stop [.]
The full stop is used to indicate the end of a section of text. Depending on its use, it has various names:
it is used to separate one sentence from another, it is known as punto (y) seguido.
it is used to separate one paragraph from the next, it is known as punto (y) aparte.
●● When it is used to indicate the end of a piece of text, it is called punto final.
The full stop is also used after nearly all abbreviations: etc. (etcétera), p. (página), Sr. (señor).
●● When
●● When
2.5.2. La coma [,] / The comma [,]
The comma is used:
●● To
separate elements in a list: Otros ritmos latinos muy conocidos son el bolero, la cumbia, la conga, el mambo o
el vallenato.
●● In front of the conjunctions y and ni when these are used to connect two clauses or when they are used to introduce
a final item in a list: He comprado un jersey, una camisa, unos pantalones, y se los he regalado a mi hermano.
14
Catorce
ORTOGRAFÍA / SPELLING
●● To
separate the name of the person we are addressing: Elena, ¿qué hora es?
indicate a pause within a sentence, often indicating the insertion of additional information: Jaime, el marido de
mi hermana, es de Lanzarote.
●● Before adversative, consecutive, causal and explicative clauses: Es ingeniero, pero ahora trabaja como agente
comercial.
●● After the connectives es decir, además, o sea, en fin, etc. And after adverbs such as efectivamente, finalmente,
etc.: He quedado con Felipe dentro de tres días, es decir, el jueves próximo.
●● To
☞☞Note: In contrast to English, which uses a full stop, in Spanish the comma is used as the decimal separator: 2,5.
2.5.3. Los dos puntos [:] / The colon [:]
The colon is used:
●● At
the start of a list that has been introduced to the reader: En México existen tres especies de cocodrilos: el
cocodrilo de río, el de pantano y el caimán.
●● To introduce examples: Me gusta mucho la comida española: la tortilla de patatas, las tapas…
In contrast to English, which uses a comma, in Spanish the colon is used after the greeting at the
☞☞Note:
beginning of letters: Querida Marta: (Dear Marta,).
2.5.4. El punto y coma [;] / The semicolon [;]
The semicolon is used:
●● In sentences that already contain commas: Madrid es la capital de España; París, la de Francia; y Londres, la del
Reino Unido.
●● In very long sentences, in front of connectives such as pero, sin embargo, por tanto, etc.: El famoso artista
dio ayer un concierto al que asistieron multitud de personas; sin embargo, no se vendieron todas las entradas.
2.5.5. Los puntos suspensivos […] / Ellipsis […]
An ellipsis, consisting of three dots, may be used:
●● To
●● To
indicate that a list is incomplete: Hemos estado en Madrid, Toledo, Sevilla, Granada…
indicate a pause expressing doubt, surprise, fear, etc.: No sé… No estoy seguro.
2.5.6. Los paréntesis [( )] / Brackets [( )]
Brackets may be used to indicate clarifications, explanations, interruptions, qualifications and additional facts
which are inserted into the text: Los centros y aulas del Instituto Cervantes están situados en cuatro continentes
(África, América, Asia y Europa).
2.5.7. El guión [-] / The hyphen [-]
Hyphens have the following uses:
●● To
indicate a broken word, for example, at the end of a line of text.
join certain compound names: María Pérez-Andújar.
●● To replace a preposition or conjunction: Quería un billete Madrid-Barcelona, por favor.
●● To
2.5.8. Los signos de interrogación [¿ ?] / The question mark [¿ ?]
an opening question mark (¿) is placed at the beginning of a question, and a closing question
☞☞InmarkSpanish,
(?) is placed at the end. It is not correct to use only one question mark, as is the case in many other
languages: ¿Cómo te llamas?, ¿A qué te dedicas?
2.5.9. Los signos de exclamación [¡ !] / The exclamation mark [¡ !]
Spanish, an opening exclamation mark (¡) is placed at the beginning of an exclamation, and a closing
☞☞Inexclamation
mark (!) is placed at the end. It is not correct to use only one exclamation mark, as is the case
in many other languages: ¡Hola!, ¡Qué bien!
Quince
15
2.5.10. La raya [–] / The dash [–]
The dash is used:
●● To introduce explanations in the text, in the same way as brackets: La Paz –capital de Bolivia– es la capital más
alta del mundo.
●● In narrative texts to introduce the speech of the characters: –¿Cuánto tiempo llevas viviendo en esta ciudad?
–preguntó Marcos a su compañero.
that in English, the equivalent function is served by inverted commas: –¿Cuánto tiempo llevas viviendo
☞☞Note
en esta ciudad? –preguntó Marcos a su compañero (“How long have you been living in this city?” Marcos
asked his friend).
2.6. A
breviaturas, símbolos y siglas de uso frecuente /
Common abbreviations, symbols and acronyms
@
arroba
ej.
ejemplo (también, p. ej., por ejemplo)
pl., plza.
plaza
A/A
a la atención
ESO
Enseñanza Secundaria Obligatoria
p.º
paseo
AA. VV.,
aa. vv.
autores varios (también VV. AA.,
vv. aa.)
etc.
etcétera
PP
Partido Popular
a. C., a. de C.
antes de Cristo
EE. UU.
Estados Unidos
admón.
administración
FM
frecuencia modulada
PSOE
Partido Socialista Obrero Español
apdo.
apartado
g
gramo
P. V. P.
precio de venta al público
atte.
atentamente
h
hora
RAE
Real Academia Española
av., avd.,
avda.
avenida
IVA
Impuesto sobre el Valor Añadido
RENFE
ed Nacional de los Ferrocarriles
R
Españoles
c/, c.
calle
izdo., izda., izq.
izquierdo, izquierda
RR. HH.
Recursos Humanos
°C
grados Celsius
kg
kilogramo
Rte.
remite o remitente
cap.
capítulo
km
kilómetro
$
peso o dólar
c/c
cuenta corriente
l
litro
s
segundo (de tiempo)
cént.
céntimo (en plural, cts., céntimos)
m
metro
S
Sur
cm
centímetro
min
minuto
s.
siglo (en plural, ss., siglos)
CC. OO.
Comisiones Obreras
mm
milímetro
S. A.
sociedad anónima
C. P.
código postal
N
Norte
S. L.
sociedad limitada
d. C., d. de C.
después de Cristo
NIE
Número de Identidad de
Extranjero
s. n., s/n
sin número
D., D.ª
don, doña
núm., n.º
número
S. P.
servicio público
dcho., dcha.
derecho, derecha
O
Oeste
S. R. C.
se ruega contestación
Sr., Sra.
señor, señora
DNI
Documento Nacional de Identidad
ONCE
Organización Nacional de Ciegos
de España
depto., dpto.
departamento
ONG
organización no gubernamental
tel., teléf.,
tfno.
teléfono
Dr., Dra.
doctor, doctora
ONU
Organización de las Naciones Unidas
TV
televisión
OTAN
Organización del Tratado del
Atlántico Norte
U., Ud., V., Vd.
usted (en plural, Uds., ustedes)
UE
Unión Europea
UGT
Unión General de Trabajadores
Dir., Dir.ª
director, directora
€
euro
p., pg., pág.
p ágina (en plural, pp. o págs.,
páginas)
E
Este
P. D.
posdata
When an abbreviation consists of just one letter, the plural is formed by adding the same letter: pp. (páginas).
With longer abbreviations, -s or -es is added: págs. (páginas). An article which accompanies a plural acronym is also
plural: las ONG. Unlike abbreviations, symbols and acronyms are written without full stop: kg, DNI.
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Dieciséis
3. GRAMÁTICA / GRAMMAR
3.1. Los sustantivos / Nouns
3.1.1. Definición / Definition
Nouns are words which are used to refer to persons, animals, things, ideas and feelings.
Common nouns refer to any person, animal, thing, idea or feeling: amigo, perro, escuela, alimentación, amor.
Proper nouns are those which are used as names of people, rivers, cities, etc. The first letter of these nouns is a
capital and they are not normally accompanied by an article: Elena, Brasil, Barcelona.
Names of certain cities are accompanied by the article: La Paz, El Cairo… and the article can be used with certain
countries: la India, la China, la Argentina…
The names of rivers, seas, oceans and lakes, as a general rule, also take the article: el (mar) Caribe, el (río) Orinoco,
el (lago) Titicaca, el (océano) Atlántico…
3.1.2. El género y el número / Gender and number
In Spanish, the same noun may have four different endings: -o, -a, -os, -as: niño, niña, niños, niñas. These
variations indicate the gender and number of the noun.
The gender and the number of the noun affect the gender and number of the words which accompany them: casas
(feminine plural noun) → las (feminine plural article) casas blancas (feminine plural adjective).
3.1.2.1. El género / Gender
Nouns may have a masculine or feminine gender. Male humans and male animals have a masculine gender:
niño, gato, toro; females and female animals have a feminine gender: chica, gata, vaca; all other nouns (things,
places, concepts, etc.), even though they do not have a sex, also have either a masculine or feminine gender: libro
(masculine), mesa (feminine).
Masculine nouns usually end in:
●● -o: el
alumno, el libro, el corcho.
paisaje, el mensaje, el equipaje.
●● -or: el ascensor, el ordenador, el director.
●● -ema: el problema, el tema, el teorema.
●● -aje: el
Exceptions: la mano, la foto, la moto, la radio, la flor, la labor…
Feminine nouns usually end in:
●● -a: la
alumna, la mochila, la goma.
and -zón: la canción, la televisión, la razón.
●● -dad and -tad: la ciudad, la unidad, la amistad.
●● -triz: la actriz, la cicatriz, la matriz.
●● -ez: la fluidez, la madurez, la niñez.
●● -tud: la actitud, la longitud, la virtud.
●● -umbre: la costumbre, la muchedumbre.
●● -ción, -sión
Exceptions: el día, el corazón, el buzón, el (color) naranja, el (color) rosa…
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Nouns which refer to people or animals generally have both a masculine and feminine form: el alumno/la alumna,
el profesor/la profesora, el jefe/la jefa, el actor/la actriz, el alcalde/la alcaldesa, el rey/la reina, el león/la leona, el
gato/la gata.
Some nouns have the same ending whether they are masculine or feminine. Certain nouns always have a
masculine article: el bebé (niño o niña), el lince macho, el lince hembra, whilst others always have a feminine
article: la víctima (varón o mujer), la jirafa macho, la jirafa hembra.
For some nouns referring to people, the gender is not expressed by the noun’s ending, but rather by the gender of
the word which accompanies the noun (articles and adjectives): un estudiante estupendo/una estudiante magnífica,
el paciente nuevo/la paciente nueva, un taxista rápido/una taxista experta.
In other cases, gender is expressed by the use of a different word: la mujer/el hombre, el padre/la madre, el yerno/
la nuera.
3.1.2.2. El número / Number
Number is the grammatical aspect related to quantity. In Spanish, there are two categories for number: singular and
plural. The singular form is used when referring to a single being, object or concept: niño, mesa, idea. The plural
form is used when referring to more than one being, object or concept: dos niños, muchas mesas, estas ideas.
For each noun, the base word is singular. Generally, to form the plural, -s or -es is added to the base:
●● -S
is added to a noun ending in a vowel: un niño → cinco niños, el bolígrafo → los bolígrafos.
●● Either
-s or -es is added to a noun ending in -í or in -ú: un tabú → unos tabús/tabúes.
general rule is that -es is added to words ending in a consonant: mi profesor → mis profesores,
el camión → los camiones, el país → los países.
●● A
nouns which end in z, the z changes to a c and -es is added: un lápiz → tres lápices,
el pez → los peces, esta actriz → estas actrices.
●● In
general rule is that -s is added to nouns which don’t end in the following consonants: -l, -r, -n, -d, -j, -s, -x,
-ch: este cómic → estos cómics, el entrecot → los entrecots.
●● A
Words which are llanas or esdrújulas and which end in -s or -x are special; these do not follow the general rules,
rather the plural form is the same as the singular form: un sacapuntas → dos sacapuntas, el lunes → los lunes,
el cumpleaños → los cumpleaños.
Certain words usually take the plural: los pantalones, las gafas, las tijeras.
words, like familia and gente, are always used in the singular, even though they refer to a plural entity.
☞☞Other
When these words are the subject of a sentence, the verb is singular: Toda mi familia vive en Madrid (My
whole family live/lives in Madrid), En España la gente es muy simpática (In Spain, people are very friendly).
With quantifiers such as la mayoría de, la mayor parte de, the verb can have either a singular or a plural form: La
mayoría de/la mayor parte de los cocodrilos vive/viven en América. However, when the verb is either ser or estar, it
is usually written in the plural: La mayoría de/la mayor parte de los cocodrilos y reptiles son especies amenazadas.
3.2. Los artículos / Articles
3.2.1. Definición / Definition
In Spanish, two kinds of article exist: indefinite and definite. Articles do not have any meaning by themselves, but
they have a grammatical function when they are used with nouns.
In Spanish, as a general rule, articles share the gender and the number of the nouns they accompany:
☞☞Note:
un árbol (masculine singular), unos árboles (masculine plural), la playa (feminine singular), las playas
(feminine plural).
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Dieciocho