11/11/20052491.doc Jepson, D., Ferreira. L. (1999).Assessing travel time impacts of measures to enhance bus operations. Part I: past evidence and study methodology. Road & Transport Research Journal, 8 (4), 41-54. Paper submitted to Road & Transport Research Title: Assessing Travel Time Impacts of Measures to Enhance Bus Operations. Part I: Past Evidence and Study Methodology Authors: Dale Jepson 1 and Luis Ferreira2 Address for correspondence: Dr Luis Ferreira, AHURI, QUT, P O Box 2434, Brisbane, QLD 4001 Email: L.Ferreira@qut.edu.au ABSTRACT There have been a variety of bus priority measures used for at least 25 years in various areas throughout the world. European countries, particularly the UK, have pioneered many of the bus priority systems on arterial streets. Many of the systems associated with freeway operations have been developed in the United States. Bus lanes and traffic signal priority are the most common forms of bus priority and these systems can provide significant travel time savings for congested arterial roads. This paper presents the main findings regarding evidence from past work and the methodology used in a recent study that focused on the efficiency of the overall journey time of bus transport on arterial roads. The analysis of the various treatments will focus on reducing travel time for buses, which is fundamentally linked to the cost and efficiency of this form of public transport. The work undertaken considers the travel time savings obtained for buses and the associated impacts on the remainder of the general purpose traffic to minimise the person delay through the network. The inclusion of other parameters that may affect the justification of bus priority measures such as vehicle costs and the environmental costs is a logical extension of this research. A methodology for the selection of bus priority is outlined in this paper. This is based on detailed analysis of the travel time impacts of various bus priority treatments. However, it is stated that the selection process should entail the consideration of these issues in conjunction with the wider transport planning context. Furthermore, this paper recommends that bus priority treatments be part of an overall traffic management strategy for a transport corridor. It is suggested that there may be significant travel time savings associated with bus priority treatments. However to obtain these benefits with manageable impacts on other traffic, the type and nature of the bus priority treatments need to be matched to the road and traffic conditions. This will ensure that the efficiency of the road infrastructure is maximised for each traffic management strategy. 1 2 Senior Traffic Engineer, Queensland Dept. Main Roads Associate Professor in Transportation, Queensland University of Technology -1- 11/11/20052491.doc 1. INTRODUCTION It is recognised that the increasing costs of traffic congestion needs to be addressed through an integrated multi-modal transport system. The savings to the community in facilitating a shift to public transport can be significant, particularly in urban peak congested conditions. This may be enhanced through enhancements to the service provided by public transport. Improvements to public transport may be considered through a number of avenues including improving vehicle efficiency, integration of transport modes, reduction of the cost of service, reductions in travel times and in comfort for passengers. Bus operation efficiency is examined here through single trip journeys for buses on arterial roads to investigate techniques for improving this form of transport. The work reported here was part of a research project, which analysed the travel time savings obtained for buses and the associated impacts on other traffic, in order to minimise the person delay through the network. Whilst optimising person delay is one of the most significant transport goals, it is acknowledged that there are other issues that may influence the decision to implement bus priority treatments. The impact on bus operating costs, the environmental benefits of public transport and the management of demand for private vehicles, are three of the substantial issues that would affect this process. The current analysis was undertaken at a micro level for a specific route and examines only travel time issues. The effects of vehicle operating costs and environmental impacts are not included in this research. -2- 11/11/20052491.doc Section 2 of this paper provides a review of the existing practice for each of the main bus priority measures under study, namely: bus lanes, signal priority, busways, transit lanes and measures related to bus stop delays. Section 3 considers the assessment of bus priority measures in the context of the wider transport planning objectives. Section 4 offers a brief outline of the methodology used to assess bus priority measures. This is followed in section 5 by a summary of the main results obtained for bus priority implementation criteria. Finally, a summary of the evidence reviewed is presented in section 6. This paper represents Part I of a two part publication in this journal. Part II deals with the development of assessment criteria for each priority measure and the detailed results obtained, Jepson and Ferreira (1998). 2. PAST WORK 2.1 Background The main components of the total bus journey time include the road travel time, delay due to deccelaration/accelaration of buses stopping at bus stops and the delay associated with the boarding/alighting of passengers. Bus travel time in urban conditions can be typically twice the corresponding travel time for a car. Higginson et al. (1995) describes a case study for a number of areas of the United Kingdom where the journey time for a bus varies from 1.8 to 2.5 times the corresponding journey time for a car. -3- 11/11/20052491.doc The road travel time for arterial roads is influenced by delays associated with road geometry, traffic control devices (eg. traffic signals, roundabouts) and interactions with other vehicles. The travel time function has been considered in Australia by Davidson (1978), Akcelik (1991) and Tisato (1991). The prediction of travel time is important in evaluating the effect of changes in traffic conditions. In situations of high vehicle flows there is increased interactions with other traffic and the delays are higher for vehicles using the route. In these circumstances the benefits of bus priority treatments are the most significant. The travel time effects for buses and general purpose traffic are considered for the main bus priority treatments used throughout the world. This paper considers the important issues in selected bus priority treatments. Typical applications and the assessment is considered below. 2.2 Bus Lanes Bus lanes can be divided in two distinct categories, namely: those that share part of the arterial road space with general traffic; and streets/malls that are designated exclusively for buses, Fuhs (1993). Turnbull (1992a) indicates there are over 500 km of bus lanes in various cities throughout Europe including 200 km in Paris. Furthermore, London Transport (1997) advise there is currently 95 km of bus lanes in London, and it is proposed to extended the length of bus lanes to 500 km. Bus lanes are less common in North America with typical applications involving the re-designation of a parking lane during peak hours to facilitate bus movements. Australia has similar applications of with-flow bus lanes to other parts of the world. With-flow bus lanes in Australia may be found in most major cities including Brisbane, Adelaide (Foley et al., 1980), Melbourne (Piper and Cornwell, 1986) and Sydney (Luk,1992). -4- 11/11/20052491.doc The set-back of the bus lane from a signalised intersection is an issue that is considered in some detail primarily in the United Kingdom. This treatment operates as a with-flow bus lane, that is discontinued a specific distance from the intersection. This allows buses midblock priority, though they travel through the signalised intersection mixed with general traffic. There are numerous examples of this treatment in the United Kingdom. A bus lane in the median lane is used across the Sydney Harbour Bridge as a line haul service into Sydney CBD, Quail and West (1992). A contra-flow median bus lane is also used on the Auckland Harbour Bridge, Wilson and Houghton (1996). Other examples of median bus lanes in North America are in Broadway, Denver; Barbour Blvd, Portland; and Dixie Highway, Miami, Levinson (1987). Evaluation of Bus Lanes As bus lanes have been operational for over 25 years in Europe, these facilities have become an accepted form of bus priority. There was substantial research undertaken in Europe in the 1970s regarding the justification of bus lanes. Bly et al. (1978) indicated that bus lanes would provide appreciable benefits when the degree of saturation is greater than 90 percent, though they may be justified at lower flow rates. According to Oldfield et al. (1977), a bus flow of in excess of 120 buses/hour is needed to justify a bus lane with no set-back at traffic signals. Furthermore, a degree of saturation above 0.9 is required to justify bus lanes with set-back at traffic signals. In the United Kingdom, there are various warrants developed for implementation of bus lanes. These warrants give a ‘rule of thumb’ guidance, though more detailed analysis has -5- 11/11/20052491.doc been undertaken using traffic modelling. Oldfield et al. (1977) provides direction in undertaking economic analysis of bus lanes in the United Kingdom. Their approach weighs up the person travel time and bus vehicle savings against the additional time for private cars. The resultant model used equations for queue lengths and simulates the behaviour of individual vehicles. Robertson (1985) discusses the need for the effects of bus lanes to be quantified, as achieved in West Yorkshire. There have been over 20 bus lane treatments changed or taken out in North America for a variety of reasons, Batz (1986a). The Transportation Research Board (1994) published criteria for assessing the need for with-flow, kerb-side bus lanes for applications in the United States. This indicates that bus lanes would be warranted where minimum one-way bus volumes are 30 - 40 / peak hour, carrying passenger volumes of around 1200 passengers/hour. There is limited work undertaken in Australia dealing with guidelines for the justification of bus lanes. Austroads (1991b) discusses the benefits of bus lanes but it does not provide guidelines for the assessment of these facilities. Taylor (1996) provides information on bus lane warrants based on the work by Vuchic (1981), which suggests that a bus lane should carry at least the number of passengers as adjacent general purpose lanes. 2.3 Priority to Buses at Signals There are two categories of treatments available to allow buses priority at traffic signals, namely active and passive priority. Active priority entails each bus being selectively detected prior to an intersection and adjustments made to the signals to enhance bus progression. -6- 11/11/20052491.doc Passive priority involves adjustment of the traffic control system to suit the bus schedules for that route. These methods of traffic signal priority are considered separately. Active Priority Whilst this treatment has been used for over twenty years, the more recent developments in technology have resulted in significant advancements in this area. Existing modern systems allow real-time detection of buses as an input into sophisticated Urban Traffic Control Systems. Whilst this is based on relatively recent technology, forms of active priority systems have been operational in excess of 25 years. Active bus priority in the United Kingdom started in 1971 with a trial in Leicester. However, the number of active bus priority schemes were limited due to the extra delays to general traffic, Hounsell and McDonald (1988). The ‘SELKENT’ system in London, which started in 1987, was the most significant example of selective detection, Hounsell (1995). Fox (1995) describes a trial in Leeds where a system of bus priority, starting and stopping wave queue management and speed advice to facilitate progression, was implemented. This trial, which used radio frequency identification for bus recorded bus travel time savings of up to 8 per cent with this form of priority (Fox et al. 1995). Other bus priority systems at traffic signals are used in many areas throughout Europe with Bishop (1994) identifying over 20 cities with these systems. The systems in Turin and Gothenburg are part of the ‘PROMPT’ project, which is a major undertaking in Europe to evaluate the effects of various traffic management systems, Hounsell (1995). Nelson et al. (1993) describes the trial at the Corso Grosseto in Turin, where an overall traffic management -7- 11/11/20052491.doc scheme has been devised that includes bus priority and bus stop rationalisation. This project is claiming reductions in bus travel time of between 2 per cent and 7 per cent with reductions also experienced by private traffic, Biora (1995). There are a number of examples within the United States of active priority or signal preemption as it is commonly known in that country. Batz (1986a), in a study of all high occupancy vehicle treatments, found that there were sixteen instances of signal pre-emption systems in the United States. However, over half of those systems have been suspended due to a number of reasons, including perceived lack of benefit to buses with large delays to general traffic. The advancements in technology have prompted several recent instances of active signal priority in North America. These include systems in Minneapolis and Portland. The system in Portland trialed bus priority on a major arterial road carrying 40000 - 50000 vehicles per day and provided priority using green extension/ early green return or queue jump priority for buses, Kloos et al. (1994). Minor reductions in bus travel time have been reported. There are examples of active priority in most of the larger Australian cities including Brisbane (Campbell and Miorandi, 1997); Sydney (Mehaffey and Lowe, 1997 and Moore, 1978); and Melbourne (Wisdom, 1990). Brisbane City Council are using selective vehicle detection on a major western arterial into Brisbane’s CBD, Campbell and Miorandi (1997). Active bus priority is also used in other parts of the world, though less widespread than that experienced in European countries. Turnbull (1992a) indicates examples are located in Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore and South Africa. The results are similar throughout the world with increasing emphasis on this form of priority as traffic signal technology improves. -8- 11/11/20052491.doc A variety of computer models have been used to determine the effects of bus priority (TRANSYT (Vincent et al.,1980); NETSIM (Taylor and Al-Sahili, 1995); NEMIS (Fox et al., 1995); and SATURN (Willumsen et al., 1993). The literature indicates modest savings to buses with traffic signal priority. The technology that is allowing active bus priority at traffic signals involves real-time communication between buses, ticketing systems and traffic signal control systems. The centrally controlled integration of real-time passenger information, bus timetables, real-time bus progress, general traffic conditions and variable message signs has potential to significantly improve arterial road operations. Using algorithms in a central computer, priority may be given to buses based on their current operational and passenger occupancy status. Passive Priority Passive priority includes adjustment of traffic signal settings, such as adjusting the cycle time, splitting phases; or area-wide timing plans. Traffic signal design using this philosophy does not detect individual buses to provide priority. Rather, it increases the probability of a bus receiving minimal delays at traffic signals by increasing the green time for a route travelled by buses. A recent example of passive priority involves a site in West London, which is using a metering technique to control the queues of general traffic to minimise the impacts on bus operations, Oakes and Metzger (1995). This treatment has been modelled and it was predicted that there will be a small increase in queue length for general traffic with significant delay savings for buses. The disadvantages of providing extra priority to a bus -9- 11/11/20052491.doc route include the potential increase in delay to traffic on routes that are not designated bus routes. Other passive priority techniques, such as permitting buses to undertake turns restricted for general traffic or metering of traffic flows, can be effective with no significant disruptions to general traffic. In low bus flow situations, allowing buses to undertake restricted turns can have negligible impact on the general traffic capacity. Similarly, the use of bus pre-signals is a practical means of providing priority to buses in locations where there is congestion at a confined area, such as a reduction in traffic lanes. 2.4 Busways Martinelli (1996) defines busways as access controlled facilities that are dedicated for buses and provide a high standard carriageway separated from the general purpose lanes. Many of the busways are high speed facilities with grade separated access. However, busways may also be constructed in a lower speed environment adjacent to arterial roads. There are a relative small number of major busway facilities operating throughout the world. The two notable examples in North America are in Ottawa and Pittsburg, Fuhs (1993). Turnbull (1992a) identified 6 exclusive busway facilities with separate ‘right-of-way’ operating outside North America. These facilities are located in Adelaide (Australia), Essen (Germany), Istanbul (Turkey), Port of Spain (Trinidad), Redditch (Great Britain) and Runcorn (Great Britain). Other facilities are located in Perth, (Western Australia ) on the Kwinana freeway as indicated by Middleton (1994). These facilities would all appear to be working successfully, with the primary aim of providing a high level of service for line haul bus commuters. A - 10 - 11/11/20052491.doc further busway is being planned in Australia to improve the travel time for passengers travelling to and from the Brisbane CBD area. 2.5 Transit Lanes The use of multi-purpose transit lanes permit high occupancy vehicles (including buses) to use designated lanes that operate at a higher level of service than the general purpose lanes. Vehicles with 2 or more occupants, or 3 or more occupants, are the most common occupancy requirements for such lanes. Turnbull (1992b) identified 10 major transit lane facilities on freeways and a similar number of transit lanes on arterial roads outside North America. Batz (1986a) found 95 examples of concurrent flow arterial preferential lanes, which have been in operation for various periods in North America. Of these facilities in North America, 22 were suspended due to low utilisation and a high numbers of violations. There has been significant work done in the United States evaluating transit (HOV) lanes for the freeway environment. The warrants are predominantly based on maximising person throughput for a roadway. Nurworsoo et al. (1988) proposes that a HOV lane should provide a minimum travel time saving of 1 minute/mile with an overall travel time saving of at least 7 minutes for a HOV lane to be effective. Nuworsoo et al. (1988) suggests that the maximum volume of traffic using a HOV lane should not exceed 1000 vehicles per hour, which equates to a level of service ‘B’ from the Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board (1994). 2.6 Other Treatments to Improve Bus Journey Time - 11 - 11/11/20052491.doc As a significant proportion of the total bus journey time is associated with buses stopping to allow passengers to board and alight, this area is an important component of the total journey time analysis. Improved ticketing systems, loading times, reduce customer inquiry, reduce the number of bus stops and rationalisation of bus stop locations are all examples of treatments that may increase bus travel efficiency. For Australian conditions, Taylor (1996) found that approximately 25 percent of the riding time is taken up with the bus stationary at bus stops. The ticketing systems used by bus operators, the level of passenger enquires and the physical arrangement for entering/leaving a bus, are the major factors affecting the dwell time at bus stops. Bus Stop Relocation The location of bus stops can be critical to the efficiency of the bus system. Factors such as traffic volumes, passenger demand, adjacent land use and road geometric conditions must be considered in siting a bus stop. The location of the bus stop becomes an even more important in areas where there are bus priority systems. Hounsell (1988) describes the issues in bus stop location on arterial roads used in conjunction with bus priority. In general terms, the bus stop location must complement the aim to enhance bus operations. Bus Stop Spacing Watry and Mirabdal (1996) discusses a program to rationalise bus stops in San Francisco, where the bus stop spacing was increased from between 120 m - 250 m to 250 m - 300 m. These changes resulted in a 40 per cent reduction in bus stops and an increase in overall bus travel speeds of between 4 and 14 per cent. The spacing of bus stops requires a balance between bus travel efficiency and passenger convenience in accessing bus stops. The relationship between convenience and efficiency may be modelled to determine the - 12 - 11/11/20052491.doc appropriate spacing of bus stops. It is generally expected that bus stops should be located between 200 metres and 500 metres apart. The minimum spacing of 200 metres was calculated by Pretty and Russell (1988) based on Australian conditions, using typical acceleration, deceleration and stop times for a bus. Reducing time Spent at Bus Stops Savings through minimisation of the time to purchase tickets, would appear to represent the most significant impact on the dwell time at bus stops. The supply of real time passenger information has been gaining popularity in recent years. This can be used both as a tool to improve the exposure of public transport and to reduce the delays with drivers answering questions from infrequent bus users. Campbell and Miorandi (1997) discusses the use of variable message signs with bus arrival data in Brisbane. This system is stated to be accurate and is viewed favourably by passengers, though no detailed survey has been reported. 3. THE ASSESSMENT OF BUS PRIORITY TREATMENTS The discussion on various world-wide practices of the bus priority treatments indicates a plethora of treatments that may be used to provide priority for buses of which a sample have been reported in this paper. The literature reviewed suggests the introduction of bus priority measures for arterial roads should be part of a comprehensive and integrated traffic management strategy. At the local arterial level, locations where bus priority measures may be suitable should be identified taking into account overall demand management, as well as road efficiency considerations. Figure 1 shows the linkages between the more specific objectives of bus priority treatments, which are the subject of this paper, and the wider goals which the same measures may help achieve. - 13 - 11/11/20052491.doc Public transport enhancements, such as those discussed here, need to be assessed in the context of a set of strategies which have a time dimension, as well as those which involve satisfying a range of objectives, which may be in conflict with each other. The time dimension relates to the achievement of longer-term goals, in addition to the more directly measurable short-term objectives, such as bus travel time and operating cost savings. What is much more difficult to quantify with a reasonable degree of accuracy is the potential contribution of those public transport measures to longer-term goals. Examples of the latter are shifts away from private car usage and hence reduced levels of emissions from cars and buses, as well as reduced energy consumption from transport leading to more environmentally sustainable outcomes. Reduced car dependency and public transport enhancements of the type discussed here may also be linked in an indirect way. For example: (1) By including high occupancy vehicles in the bus priority treatment we may increase average vehicle occupancy rates. However, the impact of a car being now potentially available to other members of the household, may somewhat negate the overall impact on vehicular travel; (2) If the enhancement measures result in a reduction in road capacity, the long-term outcome may be one of modal shifts away from car travel at congested times. However, in the short term, there is a critical need to ensure that the loss in capacity and ensuing increased congestion, coupled with a low initial usage made of the priority facility, is not seen by motorists as ‘resource wasteful’. Therefore, a well thought out education and information campaign is required. This apparent conflict between potential inefficient use of road space in the short term and longer-term benefits, can be seen in assessment - 14 - 11/11/20052491.doc terms as effectiveness (in achieving modal shifts), versus efficiency in the use of efficient road network capacity. (3) The individual priority measure(s) when introduced in isolation, may have a limited impact on reducing vehicle-induced congestion. However, they can be a powerful reinforcing element of a package of measures which may include demand management strategies (eg. parking pricing and supply, car pooling incentives and road pricing); and public transport investment (eg. improved frequencies, bus fleet modernisation, new ticketing system and new traveller information systems). By being directly visible to motorists, the priority measures highlight the new distinguishing features between the levels of service provided by the two modes. Another set of issues arises when assessing network-wide impacts of bus priority measures. The latter may have effects which go beyond impacts on general traffic on buses along the arterial road under study. For example: if significant changes are induced to travel times for general traffic, route choice effects may result in increases in vehicular travel for vehicles using the main arterial, or for those experiencing increased delays at minor approaches to intersections where buses are given priority. Temporal effects may accompany such spatial impacts, such as changed peak period trip starting times, to avoid increased congestion. The complexity of arterial road management issues necessitates an analysis of the impacts of bus priority in the wider transport planning context. Nevertheless this approach does not obviate the requirement for a micro-analysis of the bus priority treatments being contemplated for a specific road link. Bus priority treatments are often used as a tool for driving public transport efficiency rather than as a part of an overall transport strategy that - 15 - 11/11/20052491.doc considers the wider transport planning objectives and the local impacts of these measures. This paper suggests an approach that considers all of these issues will result in more suitable applications of bus priority treatments. In this regard, a methodology for identifying the travel time benefits to buses and any associated impacts for the remainder of the traffic, is identified in this work. 4. METHODOLOGY TO EVALUATE DIRECT TRAVEL TIME IMPACTS 4.1 Analysis Techniques The analysis here examines the bus priority measures available and identifies conditions where each of the treatments may be suitable. The effect on travel time for buses and general traffic from bus priority measures was undertaken using a mix of analysis techniques. The delay analysis tools used involved separate methodology for individual approaches, signalised intersections and networks of signalised intersections. The focus of the investigation was the passenger travel time and this was determined using computer simulation and traffic flow analysis. The computer simulation was undertaken using SIDRA version 4.5 and TRANSYT version 8. SIDRA is an intersection simulation package that was used to obtain indicative delays and queues of individual signalised intersections. TRANSYT is a traffic signal network analysis and is used to assess the impact of traffic signal progression over a route. Whilst the computer packages allow a detailed analysis of various conditions, a basic delay relationship was used to allow detailed analysis of individual intersection approaches. The relationship adopted by Austroads (1991) to approximate the total approach delay was considered appropriate for this work for Australian conditions. The delay at an individual intersection is given by Equation (1). This relationship is used to - 16 - 11/11/20052491.doc determine the effects of average delay for an isolated intersection approach with uniform traffic arrival patterns. D= qc (1-u)2 + n(o)x ..................................................(1) 2(1-y) where: D: Total delay in vehicle-hours per hour q: flow in vehicles per second c: cycle time in seconds u: green time ratio = g / c y: flow ratio = q / s n(o) : the average overflow queue in vehicles. An integral part of this work is the development of guidelines for suitable conditions where the various bus priority measures may be justified. The break-even analysis is undertaken for situations with and without bus priority treatments, to identify the minimum number of bus passengers needed justify each treatment. 4.2 Evaluation of Bus Priority Treatments The current analysis focuses on the impacts on overall journey time. Other impacts, such as vehicle operating costs and environmental effects are not dealt with here. The base route layout examined is shown in Figure 2. This is a typical 4-lane divided arterial road with traffic signals at 250 metre spacing. Various bus priority treatments were considered for this route to enable the conditions to be identified where these treatments are suitable. - 17 - 11/11/20052491.doc For each set of traffic conditions, the minimum number of bus passengers to justify a bus priority treatment is given by: Min.( bus) = ( dcar1 * Vcar * OCCcar) - ( dcar2 * Vcar * OCCcar) ……………………….(2) ___________________________________________ Vbus * (dbus2 - dbus1) Where :Min (Bus) = Minimum number of bus passengers to justify bus priority dcar1 = Average delay to cars without bus priority Vcar = Volume of general purpose vehicles excluding buses OCCcar = Average occupancy of general purpose vehicles excluding buses dbus1 = Average delay to buses without bus priority Vbus = Volume of buses OCCbus = Average number of passengers in buses dbus2 = Average delay to buses with a bus priority dcar2 = Average delay to cars with bus priority Bus Lanes The impacts of bus lanes on buses and the remainder of the traffic may be assessed by considering the performance of the route with and without these lanes. The calculations are based on an extra lane added to an approach designated either as a bus lane or as a general purpose lane. It is assumed that an extra lane may be effectively used either as a bus lane or a general purpose lane. Figure 3 shows the alternative options for adding extra lanes to the base - 18 - 11/11/20052491.doc case. The approach used here determines the total person delay for both options to identify the lane arrangement that minimises this parameter. In some instances, the use of bus lane ‘set-backs’ may assist in maximising the benefits of the bus lanes. This is demonstrated in Figure 3 with the bus lane set-back added to the base case. The method of investigating both bus lanes extended through the intersection and where the bus lanes are set-back from the stop line are considered separately. Active Priority at Signals The various strategies to be assessed could include dedicated bus phases, bus phase queue jump, absolute bus priority, selective bus priority. Typical phasing associated with each of these methods of priority are shown in Table 1. The use of active bus priority was modelled using SIDRA to assess the effects of changing the traffic signal phase times. The average vehicle delay was determined for the base case (no active signal priority) and for the case where the signals are modified to give priority for buses. This assessment adopted random arrivals of vehicles on the side street and random arrivals of buses. 4.3 Transit lanes on Arterial Roads The person throughput may be analysed by comparing the operating conditions with a transit lane and the case of the same lane being dedicated to general traffic. The analysis was undertaken using equation (3). This approach allows the sensitivity of the results to be assessed with the different conditions. Min. number of = ( dNTV1 * VNTV * Cocc) - ( dNTV2 * VNTV * Cocc) passengers in _____________________________________ - 19 - ....………...(3) 11/11/20052491.doc transit lanes (dTV2 - dTV1 )* VTV1 Where :dNTV1 = Average delay to cars without transit lane VNTV = Volume of general purpose vehicles excluding transit vehicles Ccar = Average occupancy of general purpose vehicles excluding transit vehicles dNTV1 = Average delay to high occupancy vehicles without bus priority VTV1 = Volume of vehicles eligible for transit lane Tocc = Average number of people in high occupancy vehicles dTV1 = Average delay to high occupancy vehicles with no transit lane dTV2 = Average delay to vehicles in transit lane 5. SUMMARY RESULTS This analysis investigated the various types of bus priority treatments and their suitability of use in various situations using the methodology described in section 4. Jepson and Ferreira (1998) provide detailed results from that work. The analysis focussed on a typical four lane arterial route with signalised intersections at 250 metre spacing. The calculations were undertaken on a detailed micro-analysis of specific road links. Table 4 summarises the conditions for use of the various bus priority treatments. These results were compiled to identify those locations where the various bus priority measures may be considered, and they depict the minimum bus patronage required to consider each of these measures. - 20 - 11/11/20052491.doc The number of persons required to justify each treatment within the guidelines shown here, would, in the first instance, be based on actual passenger numbers. However, it is acknowledged that the bus priority treatment may be part of an overall strategy to increase the patronage of buses. Using marketing tools such as advertising, improving comfort levels and fare re-structuring, coupled with the bus priority treatment, there may be a significant increase in patronage for buses. In these circumstances, the appropriate bus priority treatment may be analysed using the predicted traffic conditions and bus patronage levels. 6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS There have been a variety of bus priority systems used for at least 25 years in various areas throughout the world. European countries, particularly England, have pioneered many of the bus priority systems on arterial streets. Many of the systems associated with freeway operations have been developed United States of America. Bus lanes and traffic signal priority are the most common forms of bus priority and these systems provide significant travel time savings in congested arterial roads. Table 2 shows the treatments to improve bus priority that were reviewed here. Table 3 summarises the applications of the treatments under study. The results shown in Table 4 give ‘ball - park’ indications of operating conditions needed to justify each priority treatment. It is acknowledged however, when assessing the need for bus priority treatments, a detailed investigation of each route needs to be undertaken. Thus these results may be used as a filter type mechanism to assist in identifying the selection of bus - 21 - 11/11/20052491.doc priority treatments for particular locations. Whilst these results may assist in assessing bus priority treatments, they should only be used as a guide. The above analysis does not take into account a number of factors. The inclusion of car and bus operating costs reduces the minimum number of buses required due to the higher relative operating costs of buses. The environmental savings will also have an effect on this analysis. In addition, the desirability to promote buses to improve the overall efficiency of the transport network provides benefits in favour of this form of public transport. This work serves to highlight the issues involved in the assessment of bus priority treatments. The selection of these treatments must be consistent with the traffic management strategy for a route. As the traffic management strategy is linked to the transportation demand and supply issues in an urban area, bus priority should be assessed as part of an overall management approach. The route layout and hierarchy, land use planning, availability and integration of alternative transportation modes are some of the issues that would influence a transport strategy. Furthermore, bus priority may provide substantial savings to bus journey times and if correctly located will have a manageable impact on the general purpose traffic. This paper suggests that bus priority treatments should be treated in this manner rather than as a panacea to solve all congestion problems on urban arterials REFERENCES Akcelik, R. (1991) Travel Time Functions for Transport Planning Purposes : Davidson’s Function, its Time-Dependent Form and an Alternative Travel Time Function. 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Report for Institute of Transportation Engineers : 1990 Past President’s Award. - 33 - 11/11/20052491.doc LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Table 1. Strategies For Active Bus Priority At Traffic Signals Table 2. Summary of Bus Priority Treatments Reviewed Table 3. Summary of Guidelines for Use of Bus Priority Treatments Table 4: Summary of Justification for Bus Priority Treatments Figure 1. Assessment of Bus Operating Enhancements Figure 2 : Base Route Layout for Analysis of Bus Priority Treatments Figure 3. Bus Lane Extended Through Intersection and Extra Lane Designated for General Purpose - 34 - 11/11/20052491.doc Table 1. Strategies For Active Bus Priority At Traffic Signals Bus Arrival Period Bus Phase Bus arrives during green phase of intersection. No change in phasing Bus Phase Queue Jump No change in phasing. Absolute Bus Priority Selective Bus Priority No change in phasing. No change in phasing. Bus arrives 0 to 13 seconds from the end of the green phase. Phasing is modified to provide a green light for bus Bus receives a 5 s green phase prior to start of next green Extend green phase to accommodate the bus. Extend green phase to accommodate the bus. Bus arrives between 13 seconds from the end of the green phase and 13 seconds from the start of the next green phase. Phasing is modified to provide a green light for bus Bus receives a 5 s green phase prior to start of next green Cut off opposing green phase and return the green phase for the approach with the bus arriving. The modifications to the opposing phases must be made with a minimum green time of 6 seconds. Cut off opposing green phase and return the green phase for the approach with the bus arriving 13 seconds early. A bus that arrives during the red phase will have to wait until the start of the next green phase. Bus arrives 0 to 13 seconds from the start of the green phase for the approach the bus is travelling. Phasing is modified to provide a green light for bus Bus receives a 5 s green phase prior to start of next green Cut-off the green phase for opposing approaches and start the green phase for the bus approach early by the required time to allow the bus to receive a green light. Cut-off the green phase for opposing approaches and start the green phase for the bus approach early by the required time to allow the bus to receive a green light. - 35 - 11/11/20052491.doc Table 2. Summary of Bus Priority Treatments Reviewed Arterial Road Treatment Description Treatments to Address Bus Travel Time General Arterial Road M’ment ‘With-flow’ bus lanes Median bus lanes Bus streets / bus malls Bus Lane Set-Back Active Priority for Buses at Signals Passive Priority at Traffic Signals Adjustment of Signal Phasing or area-wide timing plans Gating (Metering Vehicles) Turn prohibition Transit lanes on Arterial Roads Transit Facilities on Freeways Busways Bus Priority to Access Freeways Measures To Provide Priority by Investigation of Bus Stops Bus Stop Relocation Increase Bus Stop Spacing Create Lay-bys. Addressing Delays due to Passengers Boarding and Alighting Reduce time Spent at Bus Stops Bus Convoys Examination of techniques for improving travel time for buses and general traffic (ie. review of signal spacing, median break policy etc.) Extensively used throughout the world by redesignating a kerb-side lane for buses during peak hours. Locations with line-haul bus routes and restricted right turns. High numbers of buses and passengers (ie. CBD area). Widespread use in the UK. Set-back of bus lane from signals to maintain capacity of intersection. Selective detection and priority to buses is used throughout the world. Developments in technology has renewed interest. Design signals to suit requirements of bus routes. This is a common approach that may produce modest improvements. This technique meters flow into an area to reduce the congestion over a section of an arterial road. Several examples in the UK. May allow buses priority around congested areas without unduly changing operations for cars. If turning vehicles cause congestion, the banning of particular movements will reduce congestion and favour bus operations. May be used in lieu of bus lanes where bus numbers are low to encourage use of car-pooling. Encourages car-pooling on freeways. Common in the USA and provide high level of service for buses and HOVs into and out of the CBD on the freeway system. May be barrier separated or have flows concurrent with general traffic. Busways are a premium facility providing a separate right of way for buses. Several examples are located throughout world. Systems to improve bus or hov access to the freeway using either queue bypass of ramp metering or exclusive ramps. Consider most appropriate site for individual bus stops. Consider most appropriate spacing for bus stops. Indented bays to separate stationary buses from traffic stream. Using improved information or ticketing to improve the boarding time of buses. Used in several locations to facilitate bus loading - 36 - 11/11/20052491.doc Table 3. Summary of Guidelines for Use of Bus Priority Treatments Bus Priority Treatment Bus Lanes ‘With-flow’ bus lanes Typical Guidelines for Use Key References General Guidelines : Often used for peak hours only. Moderate - high bus numbers United Kingdom : Used warrants that depend on the level of congestion and numbers of buses such as: Congestion(D.of S.) Minumum No.Buses 0.7 65/hr 0.8 60/hr 0.9 50/hr 0.95 20/hr 0.97 5/hr Recently have assessed bus lanes using simulation models as part of larger schemes. United States : Use criteria of number of buses/hour and passengers/hour. Minumum 30 - 40 buses & 1200 passengers / hour. Australia : Use criteria developed in the United States to maximise person throughput which equates to the equation as shown : Min. Bus Flow = No. of cars x ratio of car & bus occupancy Total number of lanes - 1 Median bus lanes General guidelines : High numbers of buses Line - haul bus routes Limited right turns United States : Minimum bus flow : 60 -90 /hr. & 2400 - 3600 passengers/hr. & ability to separate turning traffic from buses. Australian Applications : Sydney Harbour Bridge : 165 buses /hr (7000 passengers) Bus streets / bus malls General guidelines : High numbers of buses & passengers Applicable for CBD areas Bus Lane Set-Back General guidelines : Bus lane ends a set distance from traffic signals to retain capacity of intersection. United Kingdom : Depends on congestion & bus numbers. Optimum set-back 2.5 m/s at 95 % of saturation & 1 m/s at 70 % of saturation. Congestion (Deg. of Sat.) 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.95 0.97 Minumum No.Buses (Optimum Setback) 65/hr 60/hr 50/hr 20/hr 5/hr Priority to Buses at Signals - 37 - Minimum No. Buses (No Set-back) 105/hr 120/hr 120/hr 100/hr 85/hr Oldfield,R.H. (1978) Bly, P.H. (1978) Robertson, G.D. (1985) Transportation Research Board (1994) Taylor, M.A.P. (1996) Vuchic, V.R. (1981) Levinson, H.S. (1987) Quail, D.J. & West, R.P. (1987) Oldfield, R.H (1977) Bly, P.H. (1978) 11/11/20052491.doc Active Priority for Buses Passive Priority at Traffic Signals Adjustment of Signal Phasing or area-wide timing plans Gating (Metering Vehicles) Turn prohibition Transit lane on Arterial Roads Transit Facilities on Freeways Busways General Guidelines : Assessed on the basis of benefits vs costs. No typical guidelines developed yet. Various cities are using bus priority as part of traffic management scheme. Significant Users United Kingdom : Selknet, Leeds Europe : Turin, Golthenburg, Stuttgart United States :Minneapolis, Portland Australia : Brisbane General Guidelines : Assesses priority based on weighting of buses (1 bus = 10 - 20 cars) No warrants for implementation available. General Guidelines : Used to relocate queues to the benefit of a bus route. Significant Example : Uxbridge Road (West London) General Guidelines : Used to improve capacity without affecting bus operations. General Guidelines : Improve capacity of arterial by increasing the person throughput General Guidelines : Improve capacity of arterial by increasing the person throughput. Effective if has min. travel time saving of 1 min./mile & total saving of 7 mins. Capacity should be less than 1000 vehs/hr General Guidelines : Carriageway dedicated for buses Requires large numbers of buses to justify Significant Examples : Pittsburg Ottawa General Guidelines : Enhances buses entry to freeways Bus Priority to Access Freeways - 38 - Hounsell, N.B. Holzworth, Fox, Batz, T.M. (1986) Kloos, (1994) Boje, (1996) Miorandi, J. & Campbell, J. (1997) Oakes, J. (1995) Turnbull, KF (1992b) Transportation Res. Board (1994) Nurworsoo,C.K. (1988) Hardy, T.C. (1987) Bonsall, J.A. (1987) Batz, T.M. (1986a) 11/11/20052491.doc Table 4: Summary of Justification for Bus Priority Treatments Bus Lane Treatments Main Approach Volume (veh/h) 2000 2000 2000 2000 1500 1500 1500 1500 1000 1000 1000 1000 Active Bus Priority at traffic signals Minor Bus Lane Bus Lane Dedicated Queue Approach Extended set - back Bus Jump Volume to stop line from stop Phase Bus Phase (veh/h) (1) (1) (1) (1) 100 300 500 700 100 300 500 700 100 300 500 700 Notes : (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) n/a n/a n/a n/a 1550 1550 1550 1550 850 850 850 850 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 >10000 >10000 >10000 >10000 1755 1901 3006 >10000 860 1040 2400 >10000 60 240 1600 >10000 49 195 1300 >10000 14 57 378 >10000 Absolute Bus Priority (1) 100 100 1539 4479 100 100 >10000 >10000 100 285 >10000 >10000 Selected Bus Priority (1) 100 100 100 2334 100 100 >10000 >10000 100 100 4014 >10000 Passive priority at traffic signals Design of Restriction signals for bus of right turn travel time buses of 30 km/h excepted (1) (1) 2500 (2) 2500 (2) 2500 (2) 2500 (2) 1900 (5) 1900 (5) 1900 (5) 1900 (5) 1400 (5) 1400 (5) 1400 (5) 1400 (5) This column depicts the minimum number of bus passengers/hour required for each of the bus priority treatments to be justified to maximise the person throughput. This indicates that this form of bus priority may be considered further for this situation. This column depicts the minimum number of passengers / hour eligible for the transit lane to maximise the person throughput. This indicates the analysis was not undertaken for this situation This indicates that this form of bus priority is not appropriate for these traffic conditions - 39 - Metering of flows Transit Lane (1) (2) (2) (2) (2) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (5) (3) 2000 2000 2000 2000 1300 1300 1300 1300 (4) (4) (4) (4) Improve d Busways Ticketing Bus Stop location review (1) (1) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (5) (2) (5) (2) (5) (2) (5) (2) (5) (2) (5) (2) (5) (2) (5) (2) 11/11/052491.doc Figure 1. Assessment of Bus Operating Enhancements Network Performance Operational Direct Impacts Economic Environmental Indirect Impacts Bus travel times Modal shifts Bus operating costs Route choice Car travel times Car operating costs Trip start times Emissions Car pooling Energy consumption - 40 - 11/11/052491.doc Side Street Side Street Side Street Figure 2 : Base Route Layout for Analysis of Bus Priority Treatments Main Arterial Main Arterial 250 metres 250 metres Base Case : Route for Analysis - 41 - 11/11/052491.doc Bus lane set - back from stop line Bus lane Bus lane Bus lane Bus lane Bus lane Side Street Main Arterial Side Street Side Street Figure 3. Bus Lane Extended Through Intersection and Extra Lane Designated for General Purpose Option A Bus lane Bus lane Bus lane Main Arterial 250 metres 250 metres Base case with bus lane set-back from intersection Bus lane Side Street Main Arterial Side Street Side Street Option B Bus lane Bus lane Bus lane Main Arterial 250 metres 250 metres Base case with bus lane extended through intersection - 42 -