THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Jean Piaget Jerome Bruner Lev Vygotsky JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980) Jean Piaget was one of the 20th century's most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology. He was originally trained in the areas of biology and philosophy and considered himself a "Genetic Epistemologist". Piaget's theory of infant development was based on the observations of his own three children. WHAT IS COGNITION? Cognition is the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. The term cognition is derived from the Latin word cognoscere which means “to know”, “to recognize” or “to conceptualize”. WHAT IS COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT? The emergence of the ability to think and understand. The acquisition of the ability to think, reason and problem solve. It is the process by which people's thinking changes across life span. HOW COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OCCURS? It is a gradual mental process which orderly changes and becomes more complex and sophisticated. The essential development of cognition is the establishment of new schemas. Assimilation and Accommodation are both essential processes. Equilibration is the representation of a new stage of Cognitive Development. KEY CONCEPTS Schema It is an internal representation of the world. It helps an individual understand the world they inhabit. They are cognitive structures that represent a certain aspect of the world, and can be seen as categories which have certain pre-conceived ideas in them. For example, my schema for Christmas includes: Christmas trees, presents, giving, green, red, gold, winter, Santa Claus, money, etc. Someone else may have an entirely different schema, such as Jesus, birth, Church, holiday, Christianity, etc. Assimilation Using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation. So, the learner fits the new idea into what he already knows. In Assimilation, the schema is not changed, it is only modified. For example: A two-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown” Accommodation This happens when the existing schema (previous knowledge) does not work and needs to be adapted to deal with a new object or situation. During the accommodation process, the schema is altered and a new schema may be developed. For example : In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny costume and wasn’t doing silly things to make people laugh. With this new information, the boy was able to adapt his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit better to a standard concept of “clown”. Equilibration Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. As a child progresses through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and adjusting behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibrium helps explain how children move from one stage of thought to the next. STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEIR NEEDS & DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES Age plays a crucial role in what we teach and how we teach it, since a young learner class is different from an adult and/or a teenager class in terms of the learners’ language learning needs, the language competences emphasized, and the cognitive skills addressed. That’s why, it is highly important to show the differences of these three learner groups keeping in mind the fact that every learner is unique and such lists can only reflect generalizations (Harmer, 2007) SENSORIMOTOR STAGE 0-2 Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (seeing, hearing) with motor actions (reaching, touching). Develop Object Permanence (memory) - Realize that objects exist even if they are out of sight. Infants progress from reflexive, instinctual actions at birth to the beginning of problem solving (intellectual) and symbolic abilities (language) toward the end of this stage. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE 2-7 During this stage, the child begins to develop: Ability to represent objects with images and words. (the child is capable of more complex mental representations). Language skills: the child starts to use symbols and language. This is a period of developing language and concepts. *Preconceptual Stage (2-4) : use of verbal representation but speech is egocentric. The child uses symbols to stand for actions; a toy doll stands for a real baby or the child role plays mummy or daddy. *Intuitive Stage (4-7): Speech becomes more social, less egocentric. Children base their knowledge on what they feel or sense to be true, yet they cannot explain the underlying principles behind what they feel/sense. Imagination Children learn through imitation and play during this stage. They begin to use reasoning, however it is mainly intuitive, instead of logical. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE 0-2 SENSORIMOTOR STAGE 0-2 PREOPERATIONAL STAGE 2-7 PREOPERATIONAL STAGE 2-7 CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE 7-11 The concrete operational stage is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. During this stage, the child begins to develop: • The fundamentals of logic. Ability to sort objects. Ability to classify objects. Understanding of conservation (physical quantities do not change based on the arrangement and/or appearance of the object). FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE + 11 The thought becomes increasingly flexible and abstract, i.e, can carry out systematic experiments. During this stage, the child begins to develop: Ability to hypothesize, test and reevaluate hypotheses. Abstract thinking. Ability to think in a formal systematic way when solving problems. Develops skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning as well as inductive reasoning and sytematic planning etc. The operational stage doesn’t really end, as we continue to gain new knowledge and experience long into adulthood. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS • Emphasis on discovery approach in learning. • Curriculum should provide specific educational experience based on children's developmental level. • Arrange classroom activities so that they assist and encourage self learning. • Social interactions have a great educational value for Piaget. Positive social actions, therefore should be encouraged. • As the level of the child changes at each stage, the level of instruction or exploratory activities should also change. • Simple to Complex and Project method of teaching. • Co-curricular activities have equal importance as that of curricular experiences in the cognitive development of children. • Major goals in education are critical and creative thinking. CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION Piaget's theory helped educators, parents and investigators to comprehend the capacity of children in their different stages. • He made us conscious about the way children think. JEROME BRUNER (1915-2016) According to Bruner: *the outcome of cognitive development is thinking. *effective learning occurs when students acquire a general understanding of a subject; that, when they understand the structure of a subject, they see it as a related whole. *our mind organizes knowledge in a hierarchical fashion, with the more general, all encompassing ideas at the top of hierarchy, and the more concrete, factorial ideas toward the bottom. *important outcomes of learning include not only just the concepts, categories, and problemsolving procedures invented previously in the culture, but also the ability to “invent” these things for one’s self. Bruner is considered the advocate of learning by discovery. The intelligent mind creates from experience “generic coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions” (Bruner, 1957) As children grow, they must acquire a way of representing the “recurrent regularities” in their environment. Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and “culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities”. The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners (learning to learn). According to Bruner, one’s intellectual ability evolves as a result of maturation, training and experiences through a series of three sequential modes of representation – enactive, iconic and symbolic. Enactive Stage Knowledge is primarily stored in the form of motor responses. This is not just limited to children. A baby represents the world through actions - Our knowledge for motor skills (riding a bike) are represented in the enactive mode. They become automatic through repetition. Motor tasks: typing, driving, sewing, etc. Iconic Stage Knowledge is stored primarily in the form of visual images. knowledge is represented through visual or auditory images – icons. This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal information. Symbolic Stage Knowledge is stored primarily as words, maths symbols, or other symbol systems. Major changes at 6/7 years – language starts to influence thought. This representation is characterized by the use of words and other symbols to describe experiences. BRUNER'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE GROWTH Bruner believes that cognitive development takes into account the following key ideas: INDEPENDENCE OF RESPONSE FROM STIMULUS: As children grow and acquire language ability, they respond to different situations in varied ways which are independent of the presence of stimuli. MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS: of the outside reality through internal information processing and storage system. These mental representations may be verbal, visual, mathematical or musical. Language helps a child form mental representations of the realities outside. SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS: Intellectual development involves an increasing capacity to say to ourselves and others, in words or with symbols, what we have done and what we will do. This point deals with self consciousness. (Gage and Berliner, 1984). TUTOR-LEARNER INTERACTIONS: Cognitive growth, according to Bruner, depends on constant interactions between tutor and learners. A tutor can be teacher, mother, father, friend or any other person who can teach a child. LANGUAGE AS THE KEY: Language is a key symbol, which plays an important role in cognitive development. It helps a child to communicate her conceptions of the world. It mediates various events occurring in the world. SIMULTANEITY IN COGNITION: Cognitive growth in children is characterized by their ability to engage in simultaneous cognition. They can perform concurrent activities and pay attention to various learning situations. DISCOVERY LEARNING Teacher plans and arranges activities in such a way that students search, manipulate, explore, and investigate. Students learn new knowledge relevant to the domain and such general problem-solving skills as formulating rules, testing and gathering information. Most discovery does not happen by chance. Students require background preparation. Once students possess prerequisite knowledge careful structuring of material allows them to discover important principles. SPIRAL CURRICULUM Involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first, then re-visited at more complex levels later on. Therefore, subjects would be taught at levels of gradually increasing difficulty. This provides linkages between each lesson as student spirals upwards in a course of a study. As new knowledge and skills are introduced, they reinforce what is already learned and become related to previously learned information. KEY CONCEPTS The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning but to facilitate the learning process. A good teacher designs lessons that can help students discover the relationship between bits of information. The teacher must give the information students need but without organizing it for them. LEV VYGOTSKY (1896-1934) Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist/developmentalist. Began seriously studying psychology at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow in 1924; became researcher there. Worked the same time as Piaget (20’s - 30’s). Focused on child development and education; also language development. His theories are very popular today; large influence on schools. BIG IDEAS FROM VYGOTSKY’S THEORY All learning is social Knowledge is always socially constructed Culture shapes our learning & cognitive development Culture ensures each new generation learns from the previous Provides lens through which we see and make sense of world What is valued in one culture may not be in another Learning is tied to the culture and situation where it was learned Challenge is important to learning Learning happens best within our ZPD A more knowledgeable other knows what will challenge us Learning leads development Learning pushes us towards more advanced cognitive development VYGOTSKY’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS Adults convey to children (formally & informally) the ways their culture sees the world: Adults share meanings they attach to objects, events (culture). Adults should describe discoveries of previous generations, help connect children to their history. Culture “shapes” our learning and development. Learning is both social and culturally based and tied to the situation where it was learned. Thought & language become increasingly interdependent in first few years of life For adults and older children, thought & language are closely connected. Separate functions for babies/toddlers. Thought and language intertwine around 2 (think in words) and self-talk emerges to guide child through a task. Self-talk turns into inner Speech – mentally guiding oneself. A culture’s language is a tool passed on to new generation (cultural and historical connection) Every culture passes down physical and cognitive tools to make learning and development easier. MKO Complex mental processes begin as social activities, gradually evolve into independent, internal mental activities. As children discuss events/objects with a “more knowledgeable other”, begin to incorporate this talk into their own thinking. Internalization – process through which social activities evolve into internal mental activities (ex: self-talk to inner speech). Peers and older children can also be “more knowledgeable others”. Discussions, debates, arguments teach children that there are multiple ways to see same situation; process becomes internalized. All learning is social. MKO Children can perform more challenging tasks when helped by “more knowledgeable other” Child’s actual development level – upper limits of tasks that learner can successfully perform alone Child’s level of potential development – upper limits of tasks that learner can successfully perform with help from more knowledgeable other Learning is a social process. ZPD Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth Child’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) – range of tasks a learner can perform with help, but not alone. Children learn little by performing tasks they can already do alone. Develop by trying tasks they can do only with help – within their ZPD In teaching: some tasks should require a more knowledgeable other, some should be worked on together by students of equal ability. Each child has unique ZPD. PLAY Play allows children to cognitively “stretch” themselves “In play a child always behaves beyond his average age, above his daily behavior” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 102). Play is valuable training for adult world and culture. Play is often social in nature and each culture determines what is acceptable play. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION Social Construction of Meaning – adults help children attach meaning to object/events. Mediated Learning Experience – discussion between adult/child where adult helps child make sense of event they both experienced; helps child learn more than would alone. Child can accomplish more with help from others. Also happens with peers, but may serve different functions. “Two heads are better than one”. All learning is social. SCAFFOLDING Guidance or structure the more knowledgeable other provides to help the learner perform tasks in his/her ZPD Scaffolds should be used until leaner has internalized behavior. Examples of scaffolding in school: Outlines, guidelines, checklist Hints, guiding questions, reminders Strategies, plans Modeling, demonstrating Tools: calculator, technology Feedback Attempts to focus attention and motivate GUIDED PARTICIPATION When a child, through support and guidance, participates in adult activities Gradual entry into adult world: begins with child on fringe of activity until eventually child plays more central role. Think of young child helping adult cook: allowed to stir and measure at first; as child gets older he is gradually allowed to do more Participation is mediated, scaffolded, modeled, and supervised by adult Guided Participation in classroom: Scientific experiments Writing letters to local paper, government, etc. Search the internet Any activity which is beyond the child’s world EXAMPLES OF GUIDED PARTICIPATION A mother sitting with her toddler singing: “Baa, baa black sheep have you any wool, yes sir, yes sir ….” at this point the mother pauses… and… the child sings loudly, “THREE BAGS FULL!”. How is this Guided Participation? HOW IS THIS GUIDED PARTICIPATION? Mother guided the child through song, aware of the child’s ZPD Mother knew the child can’t sing the song by himself, so she provided a scaffold by starting the song for him Mother modeled how the song should be sung Eventually, the child will internalize the process and be able to sign whole song alone A 5-year old lost her security blanket & asks her father for help. The father asks her where she last saw the blanket; the child says , “I can’t remember.” The father then asks a series of questions – “Did you have it in your room? Outside?” To each question the child answers “No”. When he asks, “In the car?”, she says “I think so” and finds the blanket in the car. How is this Guided Participation? HOW IS THIS GUIDED PARTICIPATION? Father guided child through process, aware of her ZPD Father modeled the thinking process of an adult Each question the father asked was a scaffold Eventually the child will internalize this behavior, at first through self-talk, and then inner speech. VYGOTSKY’S WORDS “It is through others that we become ourselves” “What a child can do in co-operation today he can do alone tomorrow”