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DIABETES TECHNOLOGY & THERAPEUTICS
Volume 10, Number 6, 2008
© Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/dia.2007.0284
Review
Bolus Calculator: A Review of Four “Smart” Insulin Pumps
Howard Zisser, M.D.,1,2 Lauren Robinson, B.S.,1 Wendy Bevier, Ph.D.,1 Eyal Dassau, Ph.D.,1,2,3
Christian Ellingsen, B.S.,1,2 Francis J. Doyle III, Ph.D.,1,2,3 and Lois Jovanovic, M.D.1,2,3
Abstract
The use of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) pumps has been gaining popularity since 1979, when
the first research report on insulin pumps was published. Insulin pumps—small medical devices that are programmed to infuse insulin through a catheter placed under the skin—are a replacement for multiple daily injections of insulin. They are currently being used by 375,000 people with type 1 diabetes, many of whom prefer CSII to multiple daily injections because of the increased flexibility of diet and exercise, increased convenience
and precision when dosing, and better predictability of blood glucose levels that insulin pumps can provide
when used correctly. Recent pump manufacturers have engineered a new feature called a bolus calculator, which
calculates bolus insulin doses based on input from the pump wearer, which functions to help patients obtain
optimum control over blood glucose levels. The bolus calculator takes into account the patient’s current blood
glucose, target blood glucose, amount of carbohydrate consumed, and other factors such as insulin sensitivity
and insulin-to-carbohydrate ratio as well as duration of insulin action (“insulin on board”). Each pump company calculates insulin doses in a slightly different way. This article will review differences in bolus calculator
recommendations between four insulin pumps, as well as errors that may occur when using bolus calculators.
It will also include an in silico simulation of a meal followed by a snack using multiple insulin decay curves.
I
NSULIN PUMPS have become “smarter” in the past few years.
Recent models can now calculate bolus insulin doses after
receiving information from the user, which simplifies complicated calculations for the patient. Until the first “smart”
insulin pump, the Deltec Cozmo® (Smiths Medical MD, Inc.,
St. Paul, MN), was made available in December 2002, pump
users estimated insulin doses by counting carbohydrates and
using insulin-to-carbohydrate ratios (number of grams of
carbohydrate that would be covered by 1 unit of insulin)
along with correction factors (a ratio used to calculate how
much 1 unit of insulin will lower an elevated blood glucose
value). Bolus calculators are now available in almost all
pumps and are designed to make insulin-dosing calculations
easier and more accurate and predictable for pump users.
All bolus calculators take into account the amount of “insulin on board” (IOB) or the amount of insulin remaining in
the body from previous insulin boluses.
Bolus calculators can be programmed to predict or calculate an amount of insulin needed by taking into account the
patient’s current blood glucose level, target blood glucose
level, amount of carbohydrate to be consumed, insulin-tocarbohydrate ratio, and an approximation of the insulin action curve. Each pump company has a slightly different algorithm for calculating insulin doses. Gross et al.1 found that
bolus calculators reduce the number of correction boluses required to correct postprandial hyperglycemia, as well as decrease the amount of carbohydrate required to treat hypoglycemia compared to standard bolus techniques, in terms
of postprandial control.
Although bolus calculators may simplify the math required of pump users, it is still important for patients to be
well educated on the functionality of their calculator in order to avoid hyper- or hypoglycemia. Recommended calculations often need adjustment. Education is key for optimal
control and preventing dependence on the calculator. This
article reviews the differences in bolus calculators between
four insulin pumps: MiniMed Paradigm® 515/715
(Medtronic MiniMed, Northridge, CA), Animas® IR 1250
(Animas Corp., West Chester, PA), Deltec Cozmo, and Insulet Omnipod® (Insulet Corp., Bedford, MA).
1Sansum
Diabetes Research Institute, Santa Barbara, California.
of Chemical Engineering, University of California at Santa Barbara.
3Biomolecular Science & Engineering Program, University of California at Santa Barbara.
2Department
441
442
ZISSER ET AL.
All pump companies take into account the amount of IOB,
or active insulin, when recommending insulin dosages in order to keep blood glucose levels within target range. IOB is
calculated differently between the four pump companies, but
all of them are based on insulin action plots, which predict
the percentage of insulin remaining as a function of time.
Animas and MiniMed use curvilinear “active insulin curves”
(Fig. 1), whereas Deltec and Insulet use linear plots to predict the insulin on board (Fig. 2). Curvilinear plots are better approximations of the pharmacokinetic actions of insulin;
linear plots make the concept of IOB easier for patients to
understand.
Several factors are considered when duration of insulin
action is calculated, and these are shown in Table 1. Pump
users can adjust the calculation for duration of insulin action
within certain limits and increments. MiniMed and Deltec
pumps have insulin durations ranging from 2 to 8 h, Animas has insulin durations of 1.5–6.5 h, and Insulet has insulin durations ranging from 2 to 6 h. Each pump comes with
a default duration of insulin action if the pump user chooses
not to adjust the calculation.
One potential problem with setting a fixed duration of insulin action is that the absorption of insulin analogs (the
rapid-acting insulin used in external insulin pumps) can vary
10–30% within an individual and 20–50% between individuals.2 When an insulin action duration of 4 h is considered,
a 10% variability translates to 4 h 24 min. Thirty percent
variability translates to 4 h 72 min. Doctors and patients
must have a best guess on the appropriate insulin duration.
Setting the duration of insulin action time less than the actual time increases the patient’s risk of hypoglycemia since
the pump will indicate there is less IOB than what is actually there. The patient may assume that he or she no longer
has active IOB and ends up “stacking” insulin, potentially
leading to hypoglycemia. On the other hand, setting the duration longer than actual increases the risk of hyperglycemia
since the pump will say there is more IOB than there actually is. The patient will be told to take a smaller bolus than
is necessary to bring his or her blood glucose back into target range. For these reasons, and for best possible results,
FIG. 1.
Duration of insulin action: curvilinear.
FIG. 2.
Duration of insulin action: linear.
patients should test insulin action duration by administering a correction bolus when blood glucose is above 250
mg/dL, then checking glucose levels every hour (or half
hour) for the next 6 h.3 It is also important that the patient
wait 5 h since the last insulin bolus to eliminate the possibility that other insulin doses are exerting an effect on blood
glucose levels. The time it takes for the blood glucose level
to return to target level and remain steady is the correct duration of insulin action. This is similar to conducting a correction factor test and should be used for best results.
Setting insulin action durations is one way of regulating
how aggressive or conservative one’s pump therapy will be.
Another factor that makes a pump more or less aggressive
is how it calculates a suggested insulin dose. Current pumps
manufactured by MiniMed, Animas, Deltec, and Insulet all
contain “smart” features that include suggested bolus recommendations/suggestions. Although they are quite similar, each deals with the problem in a unique fashion. Deltec
is the only pump that subtracts IOB from meal boluses from
subsequent meal boluses of meals eaten within the defined
duration of insulin action. When a correction bolus is calculated, all pumps subtract IOB from the amount of insulin
needed to bring blood glucose levels back to target if the IOB
resulted from a previous correction bolus. Insulet does not
currently track insulin from meal boluses, so any correction
bolus will not take into account meal bolus insulin. The manufacturers will continue to refine these algorithms as time
goes by.
When it comes to calculating meal boluses, different rules
come into play. If a blood glucose level within target range
is entered into the calculator, MiniMed, Animas, and Insulet
recommend the full meal dosage of insulin. Deltec, on the
other hand, subtracts all of the IOB from the meal bolus and
suggests the difference between the two to cover the meal.
All four pumps will recommend the full meal insulin dose
if no blood glucose reading is entered.
The amount of IOB when using extended boluses also
varies across pumps. An extended bolus is a bolus given over
a prolonged period of time, anywhere from 15 min to 8 h,
and are used for a high fat or protein-rich meal, for a very
slowly eaten meal, or for patients with gastroparesis. Insulet
does not consider extended boluses when calculating new
BOLUS CALCULATOR REVIEW
TABLE 1.
443
FACTORS USED
FOR
CALCULATING DURATION
OF INSULIN
ACTION
Insulin pump manufacturer
Pump model
Range of insulin action
Default insulin action
Shape of insulin action plot
Increment adjustment
MiniMed
Deltec
Animas
Insulet
Paradigm 515/715
2–8 h
6h
Curvilinear
Cozmo
2–8 h
6h
Linear; simply to make graph
more convenient to understand
15 min
IR 1250
1.5–6.5 h
4h
Curvilinear
Omnipod
2–6 h
3h
Linear
30 min
30 min
1h
insulin dosages since it is assumed that extended boluses are
used only for covering meals. MiniMed, Animas, and Deltec track insulin once it has been delivered in small increments; thus the pump user knows how much insulin is active whether it properly covers the meal or not.
An example of an in silico simulation demonstrating how
decisions related to how smart pumps are set up is presented
here. The idea of dosing insulin based on the use of IOB
curves is demonstrated by a simulation model based on a
modification of the oral glucose meal simulation model of
Dalla Man et al.4 The simulated subject’s body weight is 51.8
kg. The insulin-to-carbohydrate ratio for meals is 1 unit of
insulin for every 24 g of carbohydrate, and the correction factor is 1 unit of insulin for 80 mg/dL.
A steady-state value of 120 mg/dL is defined as the target glucose and the initial condition for the simulation. One
hour into the simulation a 60-g carbohydrate meal is consumed with an optimal bolus of 2.6 U to cover the meal.
Three hours post-meal the subject consumes a 20-g carbohydrate snack when the glucose measurement is 212 mg/dL.
To cover the snack and to correct to the target value the patient will need a total of 1.97 U of insulin (0.82 U for the snack
and 1.15 U as a correction to the current glucose level).
Figure 3 shows the result of the simulation when different IOB curves are selected. If the subject is using a 2-h curve,
FIG. 3. Results of an in silico simulation using multiple IOB
decay curves for a 20-g carbohydrate snack, 3 h after a 60-g
carbohydrate meal.
the bolus calculator will suggest that the subject take the full
amount for the snack and for the correction for hyperglycemia, since it thinks that there is no residual IOB, resulting in a glucose level below target. If the subject is using
an 8-h curve, the bolus calculator will suggest that the subject take only 0.25 U (total calculated insulin [1.97 U] minus
IOB [1.72 U]), resulting in hyperglycemia. A wise selection
of the appropriate curve is needed by the patient in order to
prevent over- and undercorrection for meals and high blood
glucose. Note that the simulated results are only for one in
silico subject using these parameters and this model. Results
will vary depending on insulin sensitivity. Also, these results
are only representative of bolus calculators that carry mealrelated insulin forward.
Other possible errors associated with bolus calculators
arise because the calculators do not take into account bolus
size, exercise, or heat; these variables can influence the
amount of insulin on board. Larger boluses remain in one’s
system longer than small boluses, and will lower blood glucose levels for extended periods of time.2 Exercise and heat
decrease the time it takes to absorb insulin. An ambient temperature of 30°C causes insulin to be absorbed three to five
times faster than at a temperature of 10°C, indicating that
temperature can significantly influence blood glucose levels.
Exercise increases insulin absorption and decreases its duration of action. In cool weather, exercise can increase absorption by 22%; this is increased to 28% in warm weather.5
These factors are not considered when calculating IOB. Thus,
the boluses recommended could be higher or lower than
what is needed. It is therefore important for pump users to
be well-educated and take extra precaution when using their
bolus calculators under these conditions.
Transcription errors can occur when the pump user enters
his or her own blood glucose value into the pump, rather
than using automatic meter–pump communication. The
MiniMed Paradigm 515/715 is supplied with a meter that
communicates with the pump via radio waves. The Deltec
Cozmo can have a small meter attached to the pump. The
Animas IR 1250 does not have a meter–pump communication system, but the user is able to dial his or her blood glucose level into the pump. The Insulet Omnipod comes with
a Personal Diabetes Manager containing a Freestyle® meter
(Abbott Diabetes Care, Alameda, CA), which calculates insulin dosages and sends information to the pump. When the
automatic meter–pump communication system is used, less
potential error will arise than when glucose values are manually entered.
444
Lastly, it is important to note that pump users should not
become entirely dependent on their bolus calculators. Sometimes patients forget how to calculate manual boluses if they
are not able to use the calculator. Thus, basal rates, insulinto-carbohydrate ratios, and correction factors should be
memorized and written down so that patients do not become dependent on the bolus calculator. Since bolus calculators are still subject to error and the suggested boluses calculated are not always appropriate, patients must be
educated on the functionality of their pump so they know
when and if they should adjust the bolus calculator recommendations.
Author Disclosure Statement
Drs. Zisser, Bevier, Dassau, Doyle, and Jovanovic receive
support from Insulet Corp., Medtronic Diabetes, Smiths
Medical, and Animas Corp. Dr. Jovanovic sits on the advisory boards at Insulet and Medtronic.
References
1. Gross T, Kayne D, King A, Rother C, Juth S: A bolus calculator is an effective means of controlling postprandial
ZISSER ET AL.
2.
3.
4.
5.
glycemia in patients on insulin pump therapy. Diabetes
Technol Ther 2003;5:365–369.
Heinemann L, Weyer C, Rauhaus M, Heinrichs S, Heise T:
Variability of the metabolic effect of soluble insulin and the
rapid-acting insulin analog insulin aspart. Diabetes Care
1998;11:1910–1914.
Walsh J, Roberts R: Pumping Insulin—Everything You Need
for Success on a Smart Insulin Pump, 4th ed. San Diego, CA:
Torrey Pines Press, 2006.
Dalla Man C, Rizza RA, Cobelli C: Meal simulation model of
the glucose-insulin system. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2007;54:
1740–1749.
Ronnemaa T, Koivisto VA: Combined effect of exercise and
ambient temperature on insulin absorption and postprandial
glycemia in type I patients. Diabetes Care 1988;11:769–773.
Address reprint requests to:
Howard Zisser, M.D.
Director of Clinical Research
Sansum Diabetes Research Institute
2219 Bath Street
Santa Barbara, CA 93105
E-mail: hzisser@sansum.org
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