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Artificial intelligence (1)

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Artificial intelligence
Index
Introduction
Content
Artificial intelligence (AI), the ability of a digital computer or
computer-controlled robot to perform tasks commonly associated with
intelligent beings. The term is frequently applied to the project of
developing systems endowed with the intellectual processes
characteristic of humans, such as the ability to reason, discover
meaning, generalize, or learn from past experience. Since the
development of the digital computer in the 1940s, it has been
demonstrated that computers can be programmed to carry out very
complex tasks, for example, discovering proofs for mathematical
theorems or playing chess with great proficiency. Still, despite
continuing advances in computer processing speed and memory capacity,
there are as yet no programs that can match human flexibility over
wider domains or in tasks requiring much everyday knowledge. On the
other hand, some programs have attained the performance levels of
human experts and professionals in performing certain specific tasks,
so that artificial intelligence in this limited sense is found in
applications as diverse as medical diagnosis, computer search engines,
and voice or handwriting recognition.
What is intelligence?
All but the simplest human behaviour is ascribed to intelligence,
while even the most complicated insect behaviour is never taken as an
indication of intelligence. What is the difference? Consider the
behaviour of the digger wasp, Sphex ichneumoneus. When the female wasp
returns to her burrow with food, she first deposits it on the
threshold, checks for intruders inside her burrow, and only then, if
the coast is clear, carries her food inside. The real nature of the
wasp’s instinctual behaviour is revealed if the food is moved a few
inches away from the entrance to her burrow while she is inside: on
emerging, she will repeat the whole procedure as often as the food is
displaced. Intelligence conspicuously absent in the case of Sphex must
include the ability to adapt to new circumstances.
Psychologists generally do not characterize human intelligence by just
one trait but by the combination of many diverse abilities. Research
in AI has focused chiefly on the following components of intelligence:
learning, reasoning, problem solving, perception, and using language.
The Four Types of Artificial Intelligence
Reactive Machines
A reactive machine follows the most basic of AI principles and, as its
name implies, is capable of only using its intelligence to perceive
and react to the world in front of it. A reactive machine cannot store
a memory and as a result cannot rely on past experiences to inform
decision making in real-time.
Perceiving the world directly means that reactive machines are
designed to complete only a limited number of specialized duties.
Intentionally narrowing a reactive machine’s worldview is not any sort
of cost-cutting measure, however, and instead means that this type of
AI will be more trustworthy and reliable — it will react the same way
to the same stimuli every time.
A famous example of a reactive machine is Deep Blue, which was
designed by IBM in the 1990’s as a chess-playing supercomputer and
defeated international grandmaster Gary Kasparov in a game. Deep Blue
was only capable of identifying the pieces on a chess board and
knowing how each moves based on the rules of chess, acknowledging each
piece’s present position, and determining what the most logical move
would be at that moment. The computer was not pursuing future
potential moves by its opponent or trying to put its own pieces in
better position. Every turn was viewed as its own reality, separate
from any other movement that was made beforehand.
Another example of a game-playing reactive machine is Google’s AlphaGo.
AlphaGo is also incapable of evaluating future moves but relies on its
own neural network to evaluate developments of the present game,
giving it an edge over Deep Blue in a more complex game. AlphaGo also
bested world-class competitors of the game, defeating champion Go
player Lee Sedol in 2016.
Though limited in scope and not easily altered, reactive machine
artificial intelligence can attain a level of complexity, and offers
reliability when created to fulfill repeatable tasks.
Limited Memory
Limited memory artificial intelligence has the ability to store
previous data and predictions when gathering information and weighing
potential decisions — essentially looking into the past for clues on
what may come next. Limited memory artificial intelligence is more
complex and presents greater possibilities than reactive machines.
Limited memory AI is created when a team continuously trains a model
in how to analyze and utilize new data or an AI environment is built
so models can be automatically trained and renewed. When utilizing
limited memory AI in machine learning, six steps must be followed:
Training data must be created, the machine learning model must be
created, the model must be able to make predictions, the model must be
able to receive human or environmental feedback, that feedback must be
stored as data, and these these steps must be reiterated as a cycle.
There are three major machine learning models that utilize limited
memory artificial intelligence:
Reinforcement learning, which learns to make better predictions
through repeated trial-and-error.
Long Short Term Memory (LSTM), which utilizes past data to help
predict the next item in a sequence. LTSMs view more recent
information as most important when making predictions and discounts
data from further in the past, though still utilizing it to form
conclusions
Evolutionary Generative Adversarial Networks (E-GAN), which evolves
over time, growing to explore slightly modified paths based off of
previous experiences with every new decision. This model is constantly
in pursuit of a better path and utilizes simulations and statistics,
or chance, to predict outcomes throughout its evolutionary mutation
cycle.
Theory of Mind
Theory of Mind is just that theoretical. We have not yet achieved the
technological and scientific capabilities necessary to reach this next
level of artificial intelligence.
The concept is based on the psychological premise of understanding
that other living things have thoughts and emotions that affect the
behavior of one’s self. In terms of AI machines, this would mean that
AI could comprehend how humans, animals and other machines feel and
make decisions through self-reflection and determination, and then
will utilize that information to make decisions of their own.
Essentially, machines would have to be able to grasp and process the
concept of “mind,” the fluctuations of emotions in decision making and
a litany of other psychological concepts in real time, creating a twoway relationship between people and artificial intelligence.
Self-awareness
Once Theory of Mind can be established in artificial intelligence,
sometime well into the future, the final step will be for AI to become
self-aware. This kind of artificial intelligence possesses human-level
consciousness and understands its own existence in the world, as well
as the presence and emotional state of others. It would be able to
understand what others may need based on not just what they
communicate to them but how they communicate it.
Self-awareness in artificial intelligence relies both on human
researchers understanding the premise of consciousness and then
learning how to replicate that so it can be built into machines.
Machine Learning & Deep Learning
Much of Narrow AI is powered by breakthroughs in machine learning and
deep learning. Understanding the difference between artificial
intelligence, machine learning and deep learning can be confusing.
Venture capitalist Frank Chen provides a good overview of how to
distinguish between them, noting:
Simply put, machine learning feeds a computer data and uses
statistical techniques to help it "learn" how to get progressively
better at a task, without having been specifically programmed for that
task, eliminating the need for millions of lines of written code.
Machine learning consists of both supervised learning (using labeled
data sets) and unsupervised learning (using unlabeled data sets).
Deep learning is a type of machine learning that runs inputs through a
biologically-inspired neural network architecture. The neural networks
contain a number of hidden layers through which the data is processed,
allowing the machine to go "deep" in its learning, making connections
and weighting input for the best results.
What is a Drone?
Outer space. Hurricane disaster zones. Antarctica. Your front door.
One of these destinations is a little less extreme than the others,
but that’s the point for drones. Drones, sometimes referred to as
“Unmanned Aerial Vehicles” (UAVs) are meant to carry out tasks that
range from the mundane to the ultra-dangerous. These robot-like
vehicles can be found assisting the rescue of avalanche victims in the
Swiss Alps, at your front doorstep dropping off your groceries and
almost everywhere in between.
Originally developed for the military and aerospace industries, drones
have found their way into the mainstream because of the enhanced
levels of safety and efficiency they bring. These robotic UAVs operate
without a pilot on board and with different levels of autonomy. A
drone’s autonomy level can range from remotely piloted (a human
controls its movements) to advanced autonomy, which means that it
relies on a system of sensors and LIDAR detectors to calculate its
movement.
Because drones can be controlled remotely and can be flown at varying
distances and heights, they make perfect candidates to take on some of
the toughest jobs in the world. They can be found assisting in a
search for survivors after a hurricane, giving law enforcement and
military an eye-in-the-sky during terrorist situations and advancing
scientific research in some of the most extreme climates on the
planet. Drones have even made their way into our homes and serve as
entertainment for hobbyists and a vital tool for photographers.
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Drone Powered Inspections Monitoring Bridge Safety
Safir Project Aims to Harmonize Rules for Drone Use in Europe
Drones Spot Protected Bird Species in Tall Grass
How do drones work?
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
Drones are commonly referred to as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAV)whereas the entire system that allows a drone to function is a
UAS (Unmanned Aerial System.) The UAV is the heart of the UAS and
possesses fixed wings or either a single or multi-rotary build for
flight. Lighter-than-air UAVs, such as blimps and balloons, and small
“Flapping Wing” UAVs also exist.
Ground Control Station (GCS)
Ground Control Stations are the central control unit that allows a UAV
to fly and a UAS to operate. These stations can be as large as a desk
with multiple views to as small as a handheld controller or even an
app. The GCS can be user controlled or operated via satellites and is
capable of controlling flight, controlling payload sensors, providing
status readouts, mission planning and tethering the data link system.
Payloads
Drones, UAVs specifically, come in a variety of sizes and are capable
of carrying payloads of equally variable sized payloads. From life
saving medication to packages and more, drones provide an efficient
method of delivery but must be built to handle the job at hand. Many
drones are capable of rapid flight across oceans while others may be
restricted to just a few thousand feet. Some drones may be capable of
carrying hundreds of pounds while others can only manage under ten. It
is crucial for operators to choose the right drone to help them
complete the job at hand.
Data Links
Data Links act as the transmission center that allow the drone to
communicate with the ground operator while in flight. Typically
utilizing radio frequency technology to communicate, the data link
provides the operator with crucial data like remaining flight time,
distance from the operator, distance from target, airspeed altitude
and more.
Humans as Robots
Humanoid robots are expected to exist and work in a close relationship
with human beings in the everyday world and to serve the needs of
physically handicapped people. These robots must be able to cope with
the wide variety of tasks and objects encountered in dynamic
unstructured environments. Humanoid robots for personal use for
elderly and disabled people must be safe and easy to use. Therefore,
humanoid robots need a lightweight body, high flexibility, many kinds
of sensors and high intelligence. The successful introduction of these
robots into human environments will rely on the development of human
friendly components.
The ideal end-effector for an artificial arm or a humanoid would be
able to use the tools and objects that a person uses when working in
the same environment. The modeling of a sophisticated hand is one of
the challenges in the design of humanoid robots and artificial arms. A
lot of research activities have been carried out to develop artificial
robot hands with capabilities similar to the human hand. The hands
require many actuators to be dexterously moved. However, the control
system of the humanoid robot becomes more complicated if more
actuators are additionally used for the hand design. This is a key
aspect for the artificial arm because a handicapped person might not
be able to control a complex hand mechanism with many actuators. For
this reason, we propose to develop a lightweight hand driven by a
single actuator. To this end we adopted a new mechanism for the
cooperative movement of finger and palm joints.
What is a mobil robot?
A mobile robot is a machine controlled by software that use sensors
and other technology to identify its surroundings and move around its
environment. Mobile robots function using a combination of artificial
intelligence (AI) and physical robotic elements, such as wheels,
tracks and legs. Mobile robots are becoming increasingly popular
across different business sectors. They are used to assist with work
processes and even accomplish tasks that are impossible or dangerous
for human workers.
Mobile robotics is the specific industry related to creating these
locomotive robot systems.
Uses and functions of mobile robots
The basic functions of a mobile robot include the ability to move and
explore, transport payloads, or revenue producing cargo, and complete
complex tasks using an onboard system, like robotic arms. While the
industrial use of mobile robots is popular, especially in warehouses
and distribution centers, its functions can also be applied to the
medicine, surgery, personal assistance and security. Ocean and space
exploration and navigation are also amongst the most common uses of
mobile robots.
Mobile robots are being used to access areas, such as nuclear power
plants, where factors, like high radiation, make the area too
dangerous for humans to inspect and monitor themselves. However,
current mobile robotics is not designing robots that can tolerate high
radiation without their electronic circuitry being impacted. Attempts
to invent mobile robots to deal specifically with these situations are
currently being made.
Other uses of mobile robots include:
shoreline exploration of mines;
repairing ships; a robotic pack dog or exoskeleton to carry heavy
loads for military troopers;
painting and stripping machines or other structures;
robotic arms to assist doctors in surgery;
manufacturing automated prosthetics that imitate the body's natural
functions and patrolling and monitoring applications, such as
surveilling thermal and other environmental conditions.
Advantages and disadvantages of mobile robots
One major advantage of mobile robots is their computer vision
capabilities. The complex array of sensors used by mobile robots to
detect their surroundings allows them to accurately observe their
environment in real time. This is valuable especially in industrial
settings that are constantly changing and shifting.
The onboard intelligence system and AI used by AMRs creates another
advantage. The autonomy provided by the mobile robots' ability to
learn their surroundings through either an uploaded blueprint or by
driving around and developing a map, enables the quick adaption to new
environments and assists in the continued pursuit of industrial
productivity.
Furthermore, mobile robots are flexible and quick to implement -since they can create their own pathways and easily adapt -- possible
to break up the implementation into different installations with a
modular deployment system and capable of removing the potential for
human error by performing easily repeatable tasks, thus improving the
safety of a facility or area.
Disadvantages of mobile robots are the limitations on the size of the
load that can be carried; requiring large amounts of SKUs to operate
at the highest level and continued challenges with wireless
connections between the robot and information endpoint.
NASA and robots
NASA tests robots for exploration in areas called analogs. Analogs are
places where the environment is similar to locations like Mars or the
moon, where a robot may be used. One NASA analog is in the Arizona
desert. NASA robotics experts conduct field tests in the desert to
assess new ideas for rovers, spacewalks and ground support. Some of
these tests are conducted by a team called Desert RATS, which stands
for Desert Research And Technology Studies.
Curiosity is not your ordinary rover. It's bigger than a small car.
The rover comes equipped "standard" with six-wheel rocker-bogie
suspension and multiple camera systems, and its power supply doesn't
rely on solar panels. Curiosity uses a radioisotope power generator so
that it can roam longer and farther, traveling to more interesting
places than previous missions. It has an expansive suite of science
instruments named Sample Analysis at Mars, designed to analyze samples
of material collected and delivered by the rover's arm.
Why Do We Send Robots To Space?
We can send robots to explore space without having to worry so much
about their safety. Of course, we want these carefully built robots to
last. We need them to stick around long enough to investigate and send
us information about their destinations. But even if a robotic mission
fails, the humans involved with the mission stay safe.
Sending a robot to space is also much cheaper than sending a human.
Robots don’t need to eat or sleep or go to the bathroom. They can
survive in space for many years and can be left out there no need for a
return trip!
Plus, robots can do lots of things that humans can’t. Some can
withstand harsh conditions, like extreme temperatures or high levels
of radiation. Robots can also be built to do things that would be too
risky or impossible for astronauts.
Medical Robotics
Surgical Robots
Surgical robots refer to medical robots that are routinely used in
surgery and used as medical equipment in integrated disciplines such
as medicine, mechanics, biomechanics, and computer science. The
existing surgical robots offer increased dexterity to surgeons.
With the evolution of medical techniques and instrumentation, AI
technologies such as computer vision technology, speech recognition
technology, long-distance communication technology, and threedimensional imaging technology are gradually being incorporated into
the surgical robot system. Surgical robots that have emerged over
recent years have reached a high level of accuracy and feasibility in
minimally invasive surgery but have aroused widespread concern in the
academic community [40][41][42]. At present, the main characteristics
of surgical robots are as follows:
(a) Minimal invasion: The less invasive the surgical intervention, the
greater the role of AI and the performance of specific tasks by
medical robots [43]. Compared with traditional open surgery, one of
the most significant advantages of surgical robots is fewer traumas,
which can greatly reduce surgical wounds, shorten the recovery period
of patients, and reduce the pain of patients.
(b) High precision: Generally, surgical robots are provided to serve
surgeons and patients. As one of the most prominent factors, the
accuracy of surgical robots will directly affect the health and safety
of humans. In the clinic, it is imperative that the safety and
stability of the surgical robot can be guaranteed. Compared with
traditional surgery, surgical robots have improved accuracy.
(c) Wide range of surgical applications: due to the continuous
optimization of driving and controlling manner, surgical robots are
being selected by more and more departments in the hospital to perform
surgical operations, resulting in an extensive increase of their
application fields.
(d) High sensitivity: As an important index affecting the working
range, the sensitivity of medical robots is selected to characterize
the working ability. By integrating sensors at proper positions, the
sensitivity of surgical robots would be improved.
Rehabilitation Robots
Rehabilitation robots refer to the devices that can automatically
perform tasks to replace or assist certain functions of the human
body, thereby playing a role in the rehabilitation process.
Rehabilitation robots currently play an important role in the
functional reorganization and restoration, as well as metabolic
compensation, of the nervous system, and the remission of muscle
atrophy and joint atrophy. With the rapid expansion of intelligent
control technology, network technology, simulation technology, and new
material technology, the research and application of rehabilitation
robots has increased the speed of the evolution process and
accelerated the progress of related fields.
Rehabilitation robots need to be modified and optimized constantly to
better meet the needs of patients. Compared with traditional methods,
rehabilitation robots can drive patients for rehabilitation training
with several advantages as follows:
(a) Single operation and strong repeatability: Rehabilitation robots
(e.g., intelligent wheelchair, exoskeleton device, and training
device) are often used to provide auxiliary services for disabled
people. It is necessary for these processes to consume a large amount
of time to execute simple and repetitive tasks and perform the set
functions. Rehabilitation robots provide perfect training and service
functions for strength, accuracy, and consistency in sports.
(b) Personalized training: taking into consideration the severity of
the injury and duration required for the recovery process,
personalized training can be performed, and individual features,
modes, and structures of rehabilitation robots are required.
(c) High integration: A variety of sensors are usually integrated into
rehabilitation robots with powerful information processing
capabilities. By integrating sensors, kinematic and physiological data
from patients can be recorded and measured during the process of
rehabilitation training, and these data can be fed back to the robots
in real-time so that the rehabilitation and training progress of
patients can be quantitatively evaluated to provide the basis for
surgeons to improve the treatment plan.
Medical Assistant Robots
Medical assistant robots are defined as robotic equipment, with
patients as their service objects. They are used to substitute or
support the hospital staff to perform medical transactions including
examination, diagnosis, guidance, and disease analysis. The most
prominent feature of medical assistant robots is that they replace
nurses and physicians to provide diagnostic and treatment-related
services to patients. Throughout the detection of disease and
treatment, almost all operations related to medical procedures can be
performed by medical assisted robots. Their use is not limited to
hospitals, as they also have applications in daily life. At present,
automatic medical diagnosis, monitor, health examinations, and other
medical auxiliary work can be performed at home.
Medical assistant robots have been used to assist medical staff, and
in aspects of diagnosis and examination, automatic diagnosis robots
are popular. As a symbol of technological progress, capsule robots
have revolutionized diagnostic procedures in the gastrointestinal
tract by minimizing discomfort and trauma. A capsule endoscope robot
called NaviCam™ has been used in many medical examination centers.
Previous research proposed a magnetically actuated soft robotic
capsule robot to improve their diagnostic accuracy for submucosal
tumors or diseases. Another study designed a novel capsule robot with
the ability to move forward and backward, as well as turn, achieving
the rendezvous and separation action through the three-dimensional
rotating magnetic field.
During the outbreak of COVID-19, some hospitals recognized the
significance of robots. Medical assistant robots were used to provide
hospital guidance, intelligent triage, automatic diagnosis, business
consultation, and other services.
With an increasing range of applications, the main characteristics of
medical assistant robots used at medical institutions are reflected as
follows:
(a) Professionalization: To perform specific medical operations, such
as disease diagnosis, prediction, parametric analysis, and inspection,
medical assistant robots are equipped with expertise and endowed with
high accuracy to perform specific procedures. This means medical
assistance robots can be designed to perform purpose-specific tasks to
achieve assistance in various medical environments.
(b) Timeliness: During interactions with patients and doctors, it is
necessary to quickly and accurately feedback the information required
to improve the application experience. In the process of diagnosis and
testing, a timely response can help patients and doctors get results
as soon as possible, which reduces time costs, and means relevant
treatment can be performed when necessary to avoid delays during
illness.
(c) A rich library of experts: With their high degree of AI
technology, medical assistant robots can detect health parameters,
diagnose diseases, and provide rationalized suggestions by detecting
the biological characteristics of patients. These all require the
support of a strong expert database to provide intelligent diagnosis
and treatment programs. During the application process, the
professional knowledge and experience of the robot are also constantly
being optimized and enriched.
Hospital Service Robots
Hospital service robots are robotic devices used in hospitals or other
medical institutions to provide services unrelated to medical
operations. Controlled by a particular person in medical institutions,
hospital service robots are used to carry out ancillary tasks
unrelated to medical operations such as transportation, disinfection,
transfer, and cleaning. The usage of hospital service robots greatly
enhances the service quality for patients and reduces costs for
medical institutions.
The usage of hospital service robots can effectively relieve staff
pressure and provide constant service on all days .Besides, hospital
service robots also help patients to take medicines by delivering
medicines and supplies only at the assigned location. The HelpMate,
which was developed by the American Transportation Association, can
transport food and medicine in hospitals. The TimRob , developed by
Shanghai TimRob Technology Co. Ltd. (Shanghai, China), provides
services in nuclear medicine wards such as propaganda and education,
physical examination, radiation measurement, item distribution, remote
video, and environmental monitoring, etc.
Hospital service robots provide great assistance for medical staff and
patients alike, and they generally have the following characteristics:
(a) Anthropomorphic appearance: to improve interactions with humans,
hospital service robots are mostly designed as anthropomorphic
structures, on the assumption that an attractive appearance will be
favored by the public.
(b) Convenient movement: These robots must be developed to move in
most scenarios while cleaning, disinfecting, transporting and
transmitting. Flexible mobility is, therefore, a common characteristic
of hospital service robots. Moreover, the easy-to-move feature can
reduce the limitations of robot application scenarios.
(c) Easy to operate: The simple and convenient operation method
reduces the learning time and adaptation time of the operator, and it
makes it easier to be promoted and applied.
Both medical assistant robots and hospital service robots provide
convenience to patients and medical staff. The significant difference
between them lies in the usage purpose and the person who operates the
robots. Medical assistant robots are used to provide auxiliary tools
for medical processes, and the operators are professionals, such as
surgeons and nurses in hospitals, or patients themselves. However,
hospital service robots perform work unrelated to the medical process,
and the operator is the specific staff member.
Conclusion
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