Future prospects for tissue engineered lung transplantation

Organogenesis
ISSN: 1547-6278 (Print) 1555-8592 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/kogg20
Future prospects for tissue engineered lung
transplantation
Decellularization and recellularization-based whole lung regeneration
Tomoshi Tsuchiya, Amogh Sivarapatna, Kevin Rocco, Atsushi Nanashima,
Takeshi Nagayasu & Laura E Niklason
To cite this article: Tomoshi Tsuchiya, Amogh Sivarapatna, Kevin Rocco, Atsushi Nanashima,
Takeshi Nagayasu & Laura E Niklason (2014) Future prospects for tissue engineered lung
transplantation, Organogenesis, 10:2, 196-207, DOI: 10.4161/org.27846
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.4161/org.27846
Published online: 31 Jan 2014.
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ReviewReview
Organogenesis 10:2, 196–207; April/May/June 2014; © 2014 Landes Bioscience
Future prospects for tissue engineered
lung transplantation
Decellularization and recellularization-based whole
lung regeneration
Tomoshi Tsuchiya1,*, Amogh Sivarapatna2, Kevin Rocco2, Atsushi Nanashima1, Takeshi Nagayasu1, and Laura E Niklason2
Division of Surgical Oncology; Department of Surgery; Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences; Nagasaki, Japan;
2
Departments of Anesthesia and Biomedical Engineering; Yale University; New Haven, CT USA
Keywords: lung transplantation, decellularization, recellularization, extracellular matrix, stem/progenitor cells,
induced pluripotent stem cells
The shortage of donor lungs for transplantation causes a
significant number of patient deaths. The availability of laboratory engineered, functional organs would be a major advance
in meeting the demand for organs for transplantation. The
accumulation of information on biological scaffolds and an
increased understanding of stem/progenitor cell behavior has
led to the idea of generating transplantable organs by decellularizing an organ and recellularizing using appropriate cells.
Recellularized solid organs can perform organ-specific functions for short periods of time, which indicates the potential
for the clinical use of engineered solid organs in the future.
The present review provides an overview of progress and
recent knowledge about decellularization and recellularization-based approaches for generating tissue engineered
lungs. Methods to improve decellularization, maturation of
recellularized lung, candidate species for transplantation and
future prospects of lung bioengineering are also discussed.
Introduction
Lung transplantation is the last option for the treatment of
terminal lung disorders such as chronic obstructive pulmonary
disorder (COPD), which is the third leading cause of death
in the United States.1,2 More than 2000 lung transplants are
performed annually in the United States.3 Whereas lung transplantation is recognized as an established therapy that improves
survival and provides an improved quality of life for transplant
recipients,4 there are several hurdles that make the transplantation of donor lungs a challenging endeavor.
One critical issue is the condition of the donor lungs. Donor
lungs often suffer edema, atelectasis, or pneumonia originating
from donor systemic problems or preoperative systemic control.5
The long ischemic time also causes donor lung damage, which
directly correlates with primary graft failure.6 Another disadvantage of a lung transplant is the need for life-long administration of immunosuppression drugs in the recipients, which
increases the risks of infections and cancer.7 The biggest problem, however, is the acute shortage of transplantable organs. In
2011, there were 2280 patients waiting for lung transplantation
in the US alone with the average waiting time of about 1 y.8 The
mortality for patients on the wait list is 15.7 per 100 wait-list
years in the US.8 In Japan, the situation is worse. The average waiting time in Japan is about 2 y and 9 mo and the waiting mortality is 43 per 100 wait-list years.9 Thus, the demand
of lungs greatly exceeds the supply. Further, a longer recipient
waiting time for a suitable organ results in the deterioration
of the patient’s condition and increases operational risk. Given
such unresolved problems, lung transplantation is seen as a necessary but currently imperfect treatment for lung disease.
In order to address the problem of organ shortage, several approaches for making transplantable lungs have been
attempted, including: biomaterial improvement, 3-dimensional
(3D) cell cultures, and ex vivo bioengineering.10-12 Based on the
progress of regenerative medicine and the development of recent
stem cell advances, investigators have also begun to explore the
idea of using decellularized native scaffolds for autologous cell
recellularization to generate transplantable bioengineered lungs
(Fig. 1).13,14
This review describes the recent developments in using decellularization and recellularization strategies for generating functional lungs for transplantation. We will begin by introducing
the concepts of decellularization and recellularization followed
by the current status of the cell replacement approach for ex vivo
whole lung regeneration, including the use of stem/progenitor
cells and studies of extracellular matrix (ECM) preservation.
Finally, we address other important aspects of the methodology,
such as protocols for organ maturation, the choice of candidate
species, operation procedures and the prospect of clinical application of recellularized lung transplantation.
*Correspondence to: Tomoshi Tsuchiya; Email:tomoshi@nagasaki-u.ac.jp
Submitted: 11/29/2013; Revised: 01/13/2014; Accepted: 01/13/2014;
Published Online: 01/31/2014; http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/org.27846
196
OrganogenesisVolume 10 Issue 2
©2014 Landes Bioscience. Do not distribute.
1
The Concept of Decellularization and Clinical Usage
The ultimate goal of tissue engineering is to generate functional human tissue in vitro or ex vivo that has preserved organ
architecture and is non-immunogenic to prevent organ rejection.
Decellularized organs appear to be the ideal biomaterial for tissue
engineering to achieve these two goals. Decellularized biological
scaffolds preserve the 3D organ structure, while removing cells
by treatment with detergent, resulting in an acellular and nonantigenic matrix, thus obviating the need for immunosuppression.15 A method for decellularizing tissue, for example, would
include extensive rinsing in hypotonic saline, treatment with
dilute (0.1%) peracetic acid or incubation in Triton 100X and 0.1
M ammonium hydroxide and a terminal sterilization step with
either ethylene oxide, gamma irradiation or E-beam irradiation.16
Such methods have been shown to eliminate all intact cells (i.e.,
decellularize) and degrade any nucleic acid remnants to less than
200 base pairs with less than 50 ng of dsDNA per 1 mg dry
weight of the extracellular matrix scaffold while leaving intact
the constituent growth factors such as fibroblast growth factor
(FGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), bone morphogenic protein (BMP) and vascular endothelial growth factor
(VEGF).17,18
ECM scaffolds are currently used for arterial grafts, heart
valves, urinary tract reconstitution, skin reconstruction, dura
mater grafts following intracranial surgery, and orthopedic
applications. Some of the scaffolds are available commercially
including: porcine heart valve (Hancock II®), bovine pericardium heart valve (PERIMOUNT Magna®), human heart
valve (Synegraft®), human dermis (Alloderm®), porcine small
www.landesbioscience.com
intestinal scaffold (OaSIS®), and decellularized bone (Allograft
c-ring®).
The Concept of Recellularization and Clinical Usage
The idea of recellularization of the acellular scaffold originally
arose from the clinical usage of acellular matrices and studies
of acellular organs.19,20 In the field of cardiovascular surgery, for
example, a glutaraldehyde treatment is used to eliminate immunogenicity, provide sterility and induce collagen cross-linking
which increases tissue strength and flexibility in xenogeneic or
allogeneic heart valves.21 However, the degeneration of glutaraldehyde-fixed valves, with subsequent calcification and tissue
failure, was proving to be a major disadvantage of these valvular
prostheses.22 Thus, the idea was conceived of covering the surface
of porcine glutaraldehyde-fixed valve prostheses with autologous
endothelial cells of the recipient in order to delay or eliminate
valve degeneration and further reduce thromboembolic events.23
As such, the concept of recellularization involves reseeding of
cells into the matrix, where they can attach, migrate, proliferate
and perform specialized functions as they would in native tissue
so as to recapitulate organ function.
There is clinical and practical evidence that native cells can
attach or migrate into a decellularized scaffold.24,25 In animal
studies, transplanted decellularized aortic valves or great vessel
scaffolds were endothelialized and recellularized by the migration of recipient cells throughout the matrix in a time-dependent
manner.25,26 Several cases of these approaches have been successfully utilized in clinical trials including trachea, bladder, and
heart valve.27-30
Organogenesis
197
©2014 Landes Bioscience. Do not distribute.
Figure 1. Schematic of decellularization and recellularization based whole lung regeneration for transplantation. Harvested human or animal lungs are
decellularized by detergents such as SDS, CHAPS, or Triton-X. The decellularized lung is recellularized by the recipient’s own stem/progenitor cells or
iPSCs.
Unlike simple organs such as skin, heart valve or bone, the
lung has a complex 3D structure and therefore decellularized
lung by itself cannot be used clinically. However, decellularized
lung has been used as a scaffold in studies to elucidate the differentiation and behavior of stem/progenitor cells. Most recellularization studies have been performed using mouse lungs (Table 1),
and the recellularization routes were limited to trachea or direct
seeding on lung slices. The focus of most recellularizaion strategies has been on epithelial cells and few reports have described
the complete endothelialization of decellularized lung scaffolds
to date. Thus, the discussion described in the following sections
will mainly focus on recellularization strategies using epithelial
cells and stem/progenitor cell behavior on acellular lung scaffolds, with some discussion about endothelial cell re-seeding in
the lung.
Epithelial cells
The alveolar epithelium consists of two major specialized epithelial cell types: the terminally differentiated squamous alveolar
epithelial type I (AETI) cells, which constitute approximately
93% of the alveolar surface area, and the surfactant producing
cuboidal alveolar epithelial type II (AETII) cells. While AETII
cells only cover 7% of the alveolar surface area, they constitute
67% of the epithelial cell population within the alveoli, indicating their biochemical importance.31
In 1986, Jamson and colleagues succeeded in transforming
AETII cells into AETI cells by directly seeding adult rat AETII
cells onto 150 µm thick fragments of acellular human alveolar
matrix.32 Several groups have tried seeding fetal alveolar epithelial cells into decellularized lung via the trachea.33-35 Price and
colleagues demonstrated that the decellularized lung matrix
bioreactor was capable of supporting the growth of fetal AETII
cells.33 Analysis of cryosections taken seven days after injection of
fetal cells into lung matrices showed pro-SP-C, cytokeratin 18,
and 40,6- diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI)-positive cells lining alveolar areas and the cells appeared to be attached to the
matrix.33 This indicates that the decellularized scaffold retains
the components necessary to direct the differentiation of progenitor cells into cells appropriate for that organ. A proteomic
analysis showed a significantly different composition for decellularized lung scaffold compared with liver scaffold.35 Alveolar
progenitor cells administrated to the liver failed to transcribe
lung specific proteins of surfactant protein such as C (SP-C),
an AETII cell marker, and aquaporin-5 (AQO-5), an AETI cell
marker. Therefore, the ECM itself can affect alveolar epithelial
cell behavior and differentiation depending on the organ from
which it was derived, and thus is critical for controlling cell fate.
Endothelial cells
Like the epithelium, the endothelium exhibits significant functional heterogeneity. Proper function of the endothelium in the
lung is critical for a variety of processes, including gas exchange
and regulation of fluid and solute passage between blood and
interstitial compartments (barrier function), supporting normal
198
epithelial cell and progenitor cell behavior and function as well as
non-respiratory metabolic processes.
Endothelial seeding in the vascular compartment of decellularized rat lung scaffolds showed uneven distribution and incomplete coverage using rat lung microvascular endothelial cells13 and
HUVECs.14,34 For these reasons, thrombosis and ultimate failure
of the organ occurred. Given their important role in the lung, the
use of endothelial cells for recellularization needs to be examined
more closely, including specific cell type, scale up potential and
route of administration.
Embryonic stem cells (ESCs)
ESCs are derived from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst-stage
embryo and can differentiate into any type of cell of ectodermal,
endodermal or mesodermal origin.36 For example, human ESCs
can differentiate into AETII and bronchial epithelial cells.37,38
Cortelia and colleagues immunohistologically confirmed that
decellularized lung promoted differentiation of mouse ESCs
into epithelial and endothelial lineages.39 Jensen and colleagues
seeded pre-differentiated murine ESCs with phenotypic characteristics of AETII cells into decellularized lungs and found that
neovascularization developed in scaffolds that were subcutaneously implanted for 14 d.40 Similarly, Longmire and colleagues
demonstrated the step-wise derivation, purification, and culture
of primordial lung and thyroid endodermal progenitors and purified Nkx2–1+ endodermal progenitors that differentiate into
thyroid and lung lineages.41 These reports demonstrate that the
decellularized scaffold also supports the differentiation of ESCs
into lung-specific lineages and that the scaffold can also be recellularized by ESC-derived lung epithelial cells.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)
MSCs are known to have a capacity for self-renewal and an
ability to differentiate into cells of the mesenchymal lineage,
including adipocytes and osteocytes.42 MSCs can be derived
from different tissues, including adipose and bone marrow,
which is the main source of exogenous stem cells. Bone marrowderived MSCs (BM-MSCs) are released into circulation upon
inflammatory stimuli and facilitate recovery and repair in the
inflammatory process.43,44 A club cell secretary protein (CCSP)
-expressing progenitor population in the bone marrow and its
role in bronchial repair has also been reported.45 Interestingly,
an increase in bone marrow-derived endothelial cells within the
lung capillary walls was observed during alveologenesis in mouse
models of lung regeneration. This was achieved by treatment
with granulocyte colony stimulating factor (GCSF),46 hepatocyte
growth factor (HGF)47,48 or adrenomedullin.49
However, it is unknown whether MSCs can differentiate into
lung epithelial cells in a decellularized scaffold. Daly and colleagues demonstrated that BM-MSCs administrated into the trachea initially target a region of the trachea, become established,
and subsequently proliferate and migrate toward regions enriched
in types I and IV collagen and laminin.50 However, BM-MSCs
predominantly express genes consistent with a mesenchymal and
osteoblast phenotype suggesting that MSCs cannot differentiate
into AETII cells in basal medium or small airway growth media
(SAGM). Bonvillain and colleagues seeded adipose tissue derived
MSCs onto decellularized lung49 ; while they attached and could
OrganogenesisVolume 10 Issue 2
©2014 Landes Bioscience. Do not distribute.
Lung Recellularization Studies
Using Decellularized Scaffolds
Author
Article
Year
Species of
the scaffold
Detergents used
Cell
sources for
re-seeding
Route of
administration
Differentiated
phenotype
Institution
Lwega-Mukasa
et al.32
Exp Lung Res
1986
Human
0.1%Triton X-100,
2% SDS
Rat AETII
cells
Direct seeding
AETI cells
Yale Univ.
2010
Rat (Fisher
344)
8mM CHAPS
A549 cells,
HUVECs, Rat
neonatal
lung cells
and RMECs
Trachea and
pulmonary
artery
N/A
(Transplantable
lung)
Yale Univ.
0.1% SDS,
0.1%Triton X-100
A549 cells,
rat fetal lung
cells and
HUVECs
Trachea and
pulmonary
artery
N/A
(Transplantable
lung)
Harvard Med
School
Petersen et al.13
Science
Ott et al.
Nature Med
2010
Rat
(Sprague
Dawley)
Price et al.33
Tissue Eng
Part A
2010
Mouse
(C57BL/6)
0.1% Triton X-100,
2% SDC
Mouse fetal
lung cells
Trachea
Epithelial (AETII
cell-like)
Univ. of
Minnesota
Cortiella et al.39
Tissue Eng
Part A
2010
Rat
(Sprague
Dawley)
1% SDS
Mouse ESCs
Trachea
Epithelial (AETII
cell-like)
Univ. of Texas
Medical Branch
Song et al.34
Ann Thoracic
Surg
2011
Rat
(Sprague
Dawley)
0.1% SDS,
0.1%Triton X-100
Rat fetal lung
cells and
HUVECs
Trachea and
pulmonary
artery
N/A
(Transplantable
lung)
Harvard Med
School
Shamis et al.35
Tissue Eng
Part C
2011
Rat (Lewis)
0.5% Triton X-100
Mouse AETII
cells
Direct seeding
Epithelial (AETII
cell-like)
Hebrew Univ.
Daly et al.50
Tissue Eng
Part A
2011
Mouse
(C57BL/6,
BALB/C)
0.1% Triton X-100,
2% SDC
Mouse
BM-MSCs
and C10
epithelial
cells
Trachea
Mesenchymal
and osteoblast
from BM-MSCs
Univ. of Vermont
3 different
protocols; (1) 0.1%
Triton X-100, 2%
SDC. (2) 0.1% SDS,
0.1%Triton X-100.
(3) 8mMCHAPS.
Mouse
BM-MSCs
and C10
epithelial
cells
Trachea
N/A (Distributed
on scaffold)
Univ. of Vermont
14
Wallis et al.51
Tissue Eng
Part C
2011
Mouse
(BALB/C)
Jensen et al.40
Tissue Eng
Part C
2012
Mouse
(C57BL/6)
0.1% Triton X-100,
2% SDC
Mouse ESCs
Trachea
Epithelial (AETII
cell-like)
Univ. of
Connecticut
Health Center
Longmire et al.41
Cell stem cell
2012
Mouse
(C57BL/6)
0.1% Triton X-100,
2% SDC
Mouse ESCs
Trachea
Epithelial
Boston Univ.
Bonvillain et al.77
Tissue Eng
Part A
2012
Rhesus
macaque
0.1% Triton X-100,
2% SDC
Rhesus
BM-MSCs
and AD-MSCs
Bronchioles
N/A (Distributed
on scaffold)
Tulane Univ.
Booth et al.78
Am J Resp
Crit Care
2012
Human
0.1% Triton X-100,
2% SDC
Human lung
fibroblasts
Airway and
vascular
N/A (Distributed
on scaffold)
Univ. of Michigan
2013
Mouse
(C57BL/6)
0.1% Triton X-100,
2% SDC
Mouse
BM-MSCs
and C10
epithelial
cells
Trachea
N/A (Distributed
on scaffold)
Univ. of Vermont
Sokocevic et al.52
Biomaterials
Triton X-100, Nonionic detergent used to solubilize proteins; mild non-denaturing detergent. SDC, Sodium deoxycholate; Water soluble ionic detergent
used for disrupting and dissociated protein interaction. SDS, Sodium dodecyl sulfate; Anionic surfactant used for lysing cells and unraveling proteins.
CHAPS, 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate; Non-denaturing zwitterionic detergent used to solubilize proteins. AETII;
alveolar epithelial type II. AETI; alveolar epithelial type I. HUVECs; human umbilical vein endothelial cells. RMECs; Rat lung microvascular endothelial
cells. ESCs; Embryonic stem cells. AECII; Alveolar epithelial cell. BM-MSCs; Bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells. AD-MSCs; Adipose derived
mesenchymal stem cells. SP-B; surfactant protein B. iPSC; induced pluripotent stem cell
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Organogenesis
199
©2014 Landes Bioscience. Do not distribute.
Table 1. Detergents and sources of cells for recellularization in the lung (continued)
Author
Article
Bonenfant et al.53
Tissue Eng
Part A
Nichols et al.79
Nakayama et al.
Biomaterials
80
O’Neill et al.81
PLOS one
Ann Thoracic
Surg
Year
2013
Species of
the scaffold
Mouse
(C57BL/6)
Detergents used
Cell
sources for
re-seeding
Route of
administration
Differentiated
phenotype
Institution
0.1% Triton X-100,
2% SDC
Mouse
BM-MSCs
and C10
epithelial
cells
Trachea
N/A (Distributed
on scaffold)
Univ. of Vermont
Mouse ESCs,
human fetal
lung cells,
pig BM-MSCs
and human
AETII cells
Direct seeding
N/A (Distributed
on scaffold)
Univ. of Texas
Medical Branch
Univ. California
Davis
2013
Human and
Pig
2% SDS, 1% SDS
2013
Rhesus
monkey
0.1% SDS,
0.01%Triton X-100
Human ESCs
Direct seeding
N/A (Upregulate
lung associated
gene
expression)
2013
Human and
Pig
3 different
protocols; (1)
1.8mM SDS. (2)
8mM CHAPS. (3)
3% Tween 20, 4%
SDC.
Human
small airway
epithelial
cells and
AD-MSCs
Direct seeding
N/A (Distributed
on scaffold)
Columba Univ.
(1) 0.1% Triton
X-100, 2% SDC for
human lung. (2)
8mM CHAPS for rat
lung.
Human AETII
and iPSCAETII cells
(1) Direct
seeding for
human lung.
(2)Trachea for
rat lung
AETI cells
Yale Univ.
Ghaedi et al.56
J Clin Invest
2013
Human and
Rat (Fisher
344 or SD)
Sun et al.82
Am J Physiol
Lung Cell
Mol Physiol
2013
Mouse
8mM CHAPS
Mouse
fibroblast A9
cells
Direct seeding
N/A (Distributed
on scaffold)
Yale Univ.
Rat, Human
and Pig
For rat; 3 different
protocols; .(1) 0.1%
SDS, 1% Triton-X
(2) 0.1% Triton X,
2% SDC2. (3) 8mM
CHAPS. For human;
1% Triton-X
Human
small airway
epithelial
cells,
pulmonary
epithelial
cells and
HUVECs
Direct seeding
for slice. Via
bronchus for
human lung
lobe.
N/A (Distributed
on scaffold)
Harvard Med
School
Elizabeth-Gilpin
et al.83
J Heart Lung
Transplant
2013
Triton X-100, Nonionic detergent used to solubilize proteins; mild non-denaturing detergent. SDC, Sodium deoxycholate; Water soluble ionic detergent
used for disrupting and dissociated protein interaction. SDS, Sodium dodecyl sulfate; Anionic surfactant used for lysing cells and unraveling proteins.
CHAPS, 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate; Non-denaturing zwitterionic detergent used to solubilize proteins. AETII;
alveolar epithelial type II. AETI; alveolar epithelial type I. HUVECs; human umbilical vein endothelial cells. RMECs; Rat lung microvascular endothelial
cells. ESCs; Embryonic stem cells. AECII; Alveolar epithelial cell. BM-MSCs; Bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells. AD-MSCs; Adipose derived
mesenchymal stem cells. SP-B; surfactant protein B. iPSC; induced pluripotent stem cell
be maintained in vitro, there is no evidence that MSCs could differentiate into lung epithelial-specific lineages in decellularized
lung.51-53
Induced pluripotent stems cells (iPSCs)
iPSCs have been generated from several somatic cell types
by the forced expression of Oct3/4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc (and
recently Glis192), commonly known as the Yamanaka factors.54,55 iPSCs, similar to ESCs, can differentiate into virtually
any cell type in the body, but have the advantage that they do not
require the destruction of an embryo. Additionally, a significant
200
advantage of iPSCs is the ability to obtain autologous differentiated cells for clinical therapy since they are patient-specific.
Recently, Ghaedi and colleagues generated a homogeneous
population of AETII and AETI cells from human iPSCs (iPSCAETII) using step-wise derivation, purification, and culture
expansion.56 Since embryonic lung arises from definitive endoderm (DE), the first step requires saturating concentrations of
activin A exposure for generating DE from iPSCs. For generating
anterior foregut endoderm (AFE) from DE cells, NOGGIN and
SB-431524 are then used, followed by the addition of a cocktail
of trophic factors containing EGF/BMP4/Wnt3a/FGF10/KGF
OrganogenesisVolume 10 Issue 2
©2014 Landes Bioscience. Do not distribute.
Table 1. Detergents and sources of cells for recellularization in the lung (continued)
Current Status of Recellularized Lung
Transplantation
Two institutions in the US reported the first recellularized
tissue engineered lung in 2010.13,14 Using a bioreactor, they cultured pulmonary epithelium (whole cell suspension) and vascular
endothelium in the acellular lung matrix. They then transplanted
the engineered lungs into rats, which participated in gas exchange
for 120 min in one case and 30 min in the other. Physiological
treatment, including dry ventilation with positive end-expiratory
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pressure (PEEP), hyperosmolar perfusion before transplantation,
conservative weaning and frequent suctioning through an endotracheal tube, could prolong the oxygenation for as long as 7 d at
levels comparable to cadaveric lung transplants.34
Though demonstrating proof of concept, graft longevity and
homeostasis are still limited. Three day air-ventilated lungs show
greatly dilated airways with cell debris evident. Overall, it appears
that ventilation with air in the bioreactor causes some destruction
of the airway epithelium and dilation of peripheral airspaces.62
This epithelial damage due to ventilation means that the recellularized lung has incomplete architecture. Technical hurdles still
need to be addressed to optimally ventilate lungs in bioreactors to
mimic physiological conditions.
The Role of ECM in the Lung
Transplantation studies of recellularized lung reveal that the
alveolar structure of the bioengineered lung is fragile and the histological integrity of the recellularized lung seems to be determined by damage to the ECM at the thin barrier of the alveoli.63
On the other hand, although cytokines and growth factors are
present within ECM in very small quantities, they modulate
cell proliferation and proper differentiation.16,64 For this reason,
investigators have focused on the ECM of the lung.
Collagen is the most abundant protein within the mammalian
ECM. Greater than 90% of the dry weight of the ECM from
most tissues and organs consists of collagen.65 The main subtypes
that make up the lung’s structure are collagens I, III, IV, and
V. Type I collagen is the major structural protein present in tissues. Type IV collagen forms a complex branch network and is
largely present within the basement membrane of most vascular
structures and within tissues that contain an epithelial cell component.64 In nature, collagen is closely associated with glycosylated proteins, growth factors and other structural proteins such
as elastin and laminin, which provide unique tissue properties.
The non-collagenous glycoproteins of fibronectin and laminin are both important ECM basement membrane proteins for
cell adhesion.64,66-68 They have important biological functions in
the lung, including formation and maintenance of the vasculature.69 Integrins are the major cell surface receptors for laminin.70
The crucial role of the β-1 integrin chain in mediating hematopoietic stem cell interactions with fibronectin and laminin has
been firmly established.71
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are found on cell surfaces, within
intracellular vesicles, and are incorporated into the ECM.72 They
bind growth factors and cytokines, help control macromolecular
and cellular movement across the basal lamina, and contribute
to the properties of the ECM by using negatively charged ‘tails’
to sequester water.16 Because GAGS are intrinsically part of the
cell surface, removal of cells and cell components will ultimately
cause the depletion of cell-bound GAGs.
Elastic fibers are constructed with elastin and microfibrils,
such as fibrillin. Elastin contributes to tissue elasticity, stretch,
and the intrinsic tissue recoil property essential for breathing.73
Additionally, elastic fibers provide the pulmonary vasculature
Organogenesis
201
©2014 Landes Bioscience. Do not distribute.
for generating alveolar progenitors.56 Interestingly, an air–liquid
interface provided by a rotating bioreactor culture system was
a potent inducer of AETI phenotype from iPSC-AETII cells.57
These techniques provide a method for large-scale production of
alveolar epithelium for tissue engineering, providing an important stepping stone toward the ultimate goal of ex vivo lung
regeneration from autologous cells.
Stem/progenitor cells and mixed cell repopulation
Other candidate stem/progenitor cells have been used for
recellularization. Alveolar progenitor cells (AEPCs) isolated from
human lungs, c-kit-positive cells, and E-Cadherin and leucinerich repeat-containing G-protein-coupled receptor 6 double
positive (E-Cad/Lgr6 +) cells might have the potential for differentiation into lung specific lineages.58,59 Fujino and colleagues
demonstrated that AEPCs have an epithelial phenotype with an
MSC character. According to microarray analysis, AEPCs share
many genes with AETII cells and mesenchymal stem cells, which
suggests an overlapping phenotype with both the alveolar epithelium and the mesenchyme in these cells.58 Kajstura and colleagues
isolated c-kit-positive cells from adult human lungs and when
the cell population was injected into injured lungs of C57BL/6
mice, the cells differentiated not only into epithelial cells, but
also into mesenchymal and endothelial cells without rejection.59
Oeztuerk-Winder and colleagues identified E-Cad/Lgr6 + cells
as a distinct population of human alveolar stem cells. E-Cad/
Lgr6 + single-cell injection in the kidney capsule produce differentiated bronchioalveolar tissue, while retaining self-renewal.60
These cells may potentially act as endogenous lung stem cells.
However, the use of both cells for lung recellularization has not
been reported yet.
In contrast to the stem/progenitor cell seeding studies, fetal or
neonatal lung cells were used for re-seeding decellularized lung
with the goal of achieving total organ regeneration rather than
as a system for studying the behavior of stem/progenitor cells in
the scaffold.13,14 Because the lung has two divaricate systems of
airway and vessels, regenerated lung was seeded with pulmonary
epithelial cells from airways (via trachea) and vessel endothelial
cells from the pulmonary artery in addition to cells derived from
fetal or neonatal whole lung. In this system, the administrated
mixture of lung cell types migrated to and attached to the appropriate sites and displayed remarkable hierarchical organization.
Recent studies support this homing and engrafting phenomenon;
endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) utilize adhesion molecules for
homing to sites of neovascularization similar to the leukocytes.61
The Effect of Decellularization on ECM
and Cell Components
The challenge for any decellularization protocol is the effective removal of all cellular and
nuclear material while retaining ECM structure and composition. Previous work has shown
that detergent based decellularization can damage ECMs, with decreases in collagen, elastin,
and GAG content of 0–30%, 60% and almost
90% compared with the native lung, respectively
(Fig. 2A).13,63 Histological and immnohistochemical studies also reveal extreme reduction of other
matrix components including elastic fibers, fibronectin, and laminin (Fig. 2B).63,76 Consequently,
the preservation of the ECM during the decellularization process is critical for producing a suitable scaffold for recellularization and whole lung
engineering.
Considerable effort has gone into determining
the best protocols for decellularization.69,76 The
most commonly used detergents are Triton-X
100/sodium deoxycholate (Triton/SDC), sodium
Figure 2. (A) Comparison of Collagen, GAG, and DNA content in untreated control lung
dodecyl sulfate (SDS), or 3-[(3-cholamidoprovs. decellularized lung. Asterisk indicates a significant difference between the groups (*P
pyl)
dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate
< 0.05, **P < 0.005). Data are expressed as mean values ±SD, n = 5. (B) Histological and
(CHAPS) (Table 1). There are few direct comimmunohistochemical comparison of the ECM in untreated control lung vs. decellularized
lung. Scale bar = 100 µm
parisons of various protocols utilizing different
detergents, but Weiss et al. reported Triton/SDC
is less disruptive to native ECM when compared
with CHAPS and SDS approaches.63,76 However, when cells were to be present in the lungs, despite reports of effective decellularintratracheally inoculated into the various decellularized lungs, ization.50-53 A recipient of such a material would be expected to
the results were comparable for initial binding and short-term (2 mount an immune response to the foreign remnants in the ECM
wk) proliferation of two different cell types, a stromal progenitor graft, yet it is unclear that such remnants have a negative effect
cell and a mouse lung epithelial cell line.76
on immunoreaction.85 A preliminary study of BALB/c mice
Cellular and nuclear remnants from the decellularization pro- implanted with porcine-derived ECM of the small intestinal
cess can elicit an immune response. However, the complete elimi- submucosa showed that all animals elicited a Th2-type response,
nation of all cell membrane and nuclear materials is very difficult which is correlated with transplant acceptance.86 Interestingly,
(Fig. 2A).18 In one study of commercially available ECM scaf- recipient cells produced inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α
fold materials, remnant DNA fragments were common, but do and IL-1 and are decreased in the surrounding tissue, while antinot appear to present significant risk, suggesting some amount inflammatory cytokines such as IL-5 and IL-10 are increased.
of remnant nuclear material is acceptable.84 Furthermore, pro- In a clinical trial, a transplanted recellularized trachea had remteomic analysis utilizing mass spectrometry has revealed a wide nant donor cellular elements in cartilaginous areas, yet it avoided
range of residual nuclear, intracellular and cytoskeletal proteins rejection without the use of immunosuppressive drugs.27 On the
202
OrganogenesisVolume 10 Issue 2
©2014 Landes Bioscience. Do not distribute.
with resilience and are critical to the function
of arteries.74 Elastic fibers are highly stable constructs; however, elastin can be degraded by elastases, such as metalloproteinases.16 The de novo
synthesis of elastin is difficult to achieve because
of low post-natal production and slow turnover. In addition, without sufficient elastin content, tissue degradation and calcification could
occur upon implantation.75 Therefore, it would
be highly desirable to preserve elastin during
decellularization.
basis of results obtained with other engineered tissues, retained
ECM elements and remnants of cell components might provide
helpful signals to both graft and host cells as well as reduce the
inflammatory response. It is also possible that a weak immunoreaction mainly induces a Th-2 type response, which might induce
graft acceptance or activate remodeling processes.86
Methods for Improving Decellularized Matrix
Integrity
Because detergent-based decellularization has been shown
to cause some damage to lung barrier function, there is much
interest in protocols that preserve or strengthen the ECM while
still achieving complete decellularization. One approach is to
vary the pH of the CHAPS-based methods. Our results suggest
that lower pH solutions (less basic) might reduce ECM damage.
Most notably, more neutral pH detergents decreased the loss of
GAG and elastin content, but did not effectively remove all DNA
(unpublished data). Another method is to coat the decellularized
scaffold with either collagen or Matrigel via the trachea in order
to enhance cell adhesion and preserve the mechanics of the scaffold.40 This might repair the damage to the microarchitecture of
the recellularized lung following decellularization, however there
was no obvious improvement in lung architecture, cellular adhesion, or phenotypic expression of reseeded alveolar epithelial type
II cells.40
The route by which the detergents are administered also
affects lung microarchitecture integrity. Original decellularization methods utilized vascular perfusion of detergents but were
found to cause barrier damage that resulted with blood in the
www.landesbioscience.com
airways upon implantation after reseeding.11,12 Decellularization
via the airway might be more effective than vasculature perfusion because total surface area of the respiratory field is extremely
large (100 to 140 m2) and more easily accessed.87 Maghsoudlou
et al. reported a method of intermittent breathing of detergent
to produce an acellular scaffold with improved preservation of
pulmonary microarchitecture, including basement membranes.88
In a preliminary pathological and immunohistochemical study,
however, airway-based decellularization decreased ECM retention, including proteoglycans, elastic fibers, fibronectin and laminin more than our perfusion-based method (unpublished data).
Maturation of Recellularized Lung
In order to make a more complete and functional engineered
lung, a variety of physiological and external factors are necessary (Fig. 3). The stepwise differentiation method of iPSCs gives
us much information on generating definitive endoderm (DE),
anterior foregut endoderm (AFE) and subsequently, a homogeneous population of human AETII and AETI cells from stem
cells.56 The process of organogenesis during fetal development
also gives us insight into what is necessary for lung maturation.89,90 During early gestation, glucocorticoids have several
effects. They stimulate cell maturation and differentiation,
while inhibiting DNA synthesis. They also stimulate antioxidant
enzymes, increase phospholipid synthesis, and regulate pulmonary liquid metabolism, which produce surfactant associated.91
Lung organogenesis is also controlled by mediators including
Nkx2–1 and growth factors, such as PDGFs, FGFs (FGF 10/7/2)
and insulin-like growth factors (IGFs).92 Retinoic acid accelerates
Organogenesis
203
©2014 Landes Bioscience. Do not distribute.
Figure 3. Possible approaches for recellularization and maturation of decellularized lung. Harvested stem cells can be matured and differentiated in
vitro or left in the progenitor cell state using trophic factors and re-seeded into decellularized lung scaffolds. Mediators can then be used to support
maturation, followed by bioreactor culture using intermittent mechanical stretch to simulate fetal breathing. Length and extent of organ maturation
ex vivo can vary.
Candidate Species for Decellularized Scaffolds
and Transplantation
In order to generate enough transplantable lungs using recellularization approaches, the selection of a donor source for generating decellularized scaffolds is an important consideration.
Given the issue of immunogenicity, human organs are the most
favorable candidates. However, structural lung diseases such as
emphysema or pulmonary fibrosis are often present in donor
organs from older people. Using immunohistochemistry and
mass spectrometry, it has been shown that age, lung condition,
and the cell type used for recellularization may significantly
impact the usefulness of decellularized whole lungs for ex vivo
lung tissue regeneration.52 Therefore, the ability to use donated
human lungs might be limited because of the necessity of harvesting young and healthy lungs.
As a potential solution to the limited availability of healthy
human lung tissue, animals may offer an ample supply of lungs.
Among candidate species, concordant animals such as baboons
would be ideal but are not viable candidates due to ethical concerns, limited populations, and the possibility of an unknown
zoonosis. Among discordant animals, porcine lung might be suitable due to similarity in organ shape and size, availability in large
numbers, and affordability. In addition, there is already extensive
clinical experience using porcine organs and tissues. Components
of the ECM may differ between human and pig, but that has not
204
yet been demonstrated to be a problem. Many components of
the ECM, such as collagen, are highly conserved across species.65
This high degree of sequence homology is one reason that xenogeneic ECM can function as a suitable scaffold in mammalian
recipients.
It has been shown that ECM derived from porcine tissues
contains small amounts of the α-galactosyl epitope (gal epitope),
which causes a hyperacute type of rejection via a complement
response.103 However, whereas the gal epitope has been shown
to be present in the acellular matrix scaffold material,104 most
preclinical studies using acellular matrix scaffolds have failed to
show convincing evidence of an adverse immunologic response
and tissue remodeling.105-107 Additionally, pigs have now been
created with genetic modifications to reduce xenogenic rejection
in humans.108-110 For example, the alpha1,3-galactosyltransferase
gene-knockout pig has been engineered to ensure more complete
immunogenicity-deleted lungs.111 The development of these
gene-knockout animals may solve the potential danger of tissue
rejection and coagulopathy in xenotransplantation between pigs
and mammals.112
The operational procedures of engineered lung transplantation will be the final major issue. The standard technique of
lung transplantation includes anastomosing the main bronchus,
the pulmonary vein, and the pulmonary artery trunk. Until
ECM components can be better preserved during decellularization, engineered lung remains at a mechanical disadvantage and
surgical techniques must be developed to prevent tissue damage
and rupture of the anastomoses. When xenogeneic engineered
lungs are used, tissue trimming might also be needed (Fig. 3).
For example, the porcine right lung has a specific tracheal bronchus with cranial lobe,113 which will be sacrificed in the right
lung transplantation. The shape of the lung is different between
the species due to the difference in the thoracic cavity. Further
animal transplantation studies focusing on pig lung into primate recipients are necessary to establish an optimized surgical
technique for xenogeneic engineered lungs.114
Conclusion
To address the shortage of organs for lung transplantation,
many approaches have been tried. Significant progress has been
made using cellular therapies for lung regeneration, including
recent advances using iPSCs that can be differentiated into lung
epithelium. While still in the early stages, these patient specific
cells can be derived in unlimited quantities and don’t pose a risk
of rejection in a transplant setting. Decellularized lung, which
can maintain a near intact ECM and the complex microarchitecture of the lung, has been shown to be an ideal scaffold for
reseeding with cells. Thus, recellularization based lung regeneration may prove to be an effective clinical therapy for future
treatment of lung diseases.
However, there are still many issues that remain to be resolved
before such bioengineered lungs become available for clinical
use. Issues still to be resolved include: the ideal decellularization method, the ideal duration for whole lung recellularization
OrganogenesisVolume 10 Issue 2
©2014 Landes Bioscience. Do not distribute.
fetal lung branching, leading to the development of the alveolar
tree.93 Therefore, treatment with combinations of growth factors
or hormones, with appropriate timing, might facilitate maturation and establishment of the epithelial and endothelial interactions during recellularization.
Fetal breathing movements (FBMs) play an important role in
regulating fetal lung growth and maturation.92,94 During gestation, FBMs are detected at embryonic day (E) 14.5 in the mouse
and at 10 wk gestation in human embryos.92 FBMs cause lung
cells to function biochemically as well as mechanically. Clinical
reports and laboratory experiments have revealed that the absence
of FBMs in the embryo leads to such conditions as pulmonary
hypoplasia and akinesia.
In vitro, intermittent mechanical stretch (IMS) has been used
to simulate FBMs.95 In the 3D- cell culture model, IMS stimulated DNA synthesis and cell division of fetal lung fibroblasts
and epithelial cells.95,96 Accordingly, in rat models, IMS increases
SP-C gene expression97 and stimulates the secretion of lung surfactant lipids from AETII cells.98,99 Furthermore, mechanical
stretching has a significant impact on the synthesis and secretion of several of these ECM molecules in 3D culture or fetal rat
lung cells including type I and type IV collagens, fibronectin,
proteoglycans, and GAGs.100-102 At the same time, IMS does not
affect gene expression and activities of several matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs).102 Because the ECM structure depends on
a balance between ECM synthesis and its destruction by proteolytic enzymes, mechanical stretching might only affect synthesis
resulting in ECM maturation.
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