Guobin Xu, Yanhui Chen, Lianhua Xu - Introduction to Western Culture-Springer Singapore Palgrave Macmillan (2018)

INTRODUCTION TO
WESTERN
C U LT U R E
C U LT U R A L H I S T O R Y
RELIGION
POLITICS
F O L K LO R E
TOURISM
EDITED BY GUOBIN XU, YANHUI CHEN, LIANHUA XU, ET AL.
T R A N S L AT E D B Y K A I J U C H E N , X I Y U A N X I O N G , W E N Q U A N W U , E T A L .
Introduction to Western Culture
Guobin Xu • Yanhui Chen • Lianhua Xu
Editors
Introduction
to Western Culture
Cultural History, Religion, Politics,
Folklore and Tourism
Editors
Guobin Xu
Guangdong University of Foreign
Studies
Guangzhou, China
Yanhui Chen
Guangdong University of Foreign
Studies
Guangzhou, China
Lianhua Xu
Guangdong University of Foreign
Studies
Guangzhou, China
Translators
Kaiju Chen
Guangdong University of Foreign
Studies
Guangzhou, China
Xiyuan Xiong
Sun Yat-sen University Press
Guangzhou, China
Wenquan Wu
Guangdong University of Foreign
Studies
Guangzhou, China
ISBN 978-981-10-8152-1 ISBN 978-981-10-8153-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8153-8
(eBook)
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018935540
© South China University of Technology Press 2018
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Acknowledgments
We were approached in 2012 by Professor Xu Guobin, Editor in Chief of
the original works Essentials of Chinese Culture and Essentials of Western
Culture, proposing that my research team translate these two books into
English and publish them in English-speaking countries. Almost at the
same time I was contacted with a publishing proposal by Alisa Pulver,
Senior Editor at Palgrave Macmillan. Without the trust and unfailing
support of these two parties over the following years, this large translation project—based on the 1.1 million Chinese characters in the original
works to be translated for a series of four books, amounting to nearly
400,000 English words—would not have happened so soon after the
publication of the original works. The copyright holder, South China
University of Technology Press, showed immediate support for our
translation project, and our particular gratitude goes to their editors and
coordinators: Ms. Qiao Li and Ms. Wu Cuiwei.
Through the six years of painstaking translation and reviewing, we owe
our sincere gratitude to the experts in the related areas, whose joint effort
has transformed this translation project into the current four books.
Professor Xu Guobin, Chief Editor of the original monographs, always
provided support at each stage. In December 2014, on completion of the
translation and the first review round, Professor Xu suggested and organized
an author–translator symposium, where associate editors Chen Yanhui and
Xu Lianhua, together with all the authors of the original works, met with the
leading translators, Professor Chen Kaiju, Professor Xiong Xiyuan and
Professor Wu Wenquan, together with all the other translators to discuss the
key problems encountered in the interpretation of the original texts. Some
v
vi
Acknowledgments
renowned professors in translation studies in Guangdong—including
Mr. Huang Guowen, Mr. Wu Jianguo and Mr. Liang Ruiqing—attended
the symposium, offering enthusiastic comment, sincere criticism, and suggestions for improvement.
Professor Mao Sihui always showed his full support for this project and
happily agreed to write the preface for the series.
At the review stage, four professors proofread and made invaluable suggestions and corrections: Professor Li Ming proofread Introduction to
Chinese Culture; Professor Chu Dongwei proofread Understanding
Chinese Culture; Professor Chen Kaiju proofread Introduction to Western
Culture; and Professor He Zhigang proofread Understanding Western
Culture.
Australian translation expert Alex Graeme-Evans reviewed Introduction
to Chinese Culture and Understanding Chinese Culture during the second
review round. The leading translators and Ms. Xue Ping carried out the
final formal review, wrote the chapter abstracts for each book, and translated all the references.
Our special thanks also go to Sara Crowley Vigneau, Senior Editor, and
Connie Li (Yue), Editorial Assistant, of Springer Nature, whose constant
help in clarifying all the problems of project management, and format and
content organization, were crucial to the finalization of this project.
Last but not least, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies offered us
the necessary funds; and many experts and leaders from the College of
Continuing Education, the School of Interpretation and Translation
Studies, and the School of English for International Business Studies of
the University also gave us help throughout the project.
However, due to the scale of the project, the need to shorten the original texts, and stylistic choices made by different translators and reviewers,
there may still be problems, which, of course, are the responsibility of the
leading translators. We sincerely welcome criticisms and suggestions from
readers, critics, and editors so that improvements can be made in later
editions.
Contents
1A Concise History of Western Cultures 1
1.1The Classical Period and the Medieval Period 1
1.1.1Western Cultures in the Classical Period 1
1.1.1.1Ancient Greek Civilization 1
1.1.1.1.1Historical Background 1
1.1.1.1.2Major Achievements of
Ancient Greek Civilization 2
1.1.1.2Ancient Roman Civilization 4
1.1.1.2.1Historical Background 4
1.1.1.2.2Major Achievements of
Ancient Roman Civilization 4
1.1.2The Middle Ages 6
1.1.2.1Historical Background 6
1.1.2.2Major Achievements in the Middle Ages 6
1.1.2.2.1Languages and Literature 8
1.1.2.2.2Theology and Philosophy 8
1.1.2.2.3The Institution of Parliament
and Education 8
1.1.2.2.4
Architecture 9
1.1.2.2.5
Art and Music 9
1.2Western Culture During the Renaissance 9
1.2.1Historical Background 9
1.2.2Major Achievements of the Renaissance Period 10
vii
viii
Contents
1.2.2.1Thought 11
1.2.2.2Literature 11
1.2.2.3Theatre 12
1.2.2.4Architecture and Sculpture 12
1.2.2.5Art 12
1.3Neoclassicism 13
1.3.1Historical Background 13
1.3.2Thought and Philosophy 14
1.3.3Literature 15
1.3.4Architecture and Art 16
1.3.5Music 17
1.4Romanticism and Modern Culture in the West 17
1.4.1Historical Background 17
1.4.2Major Achievements 18
1.4.2.1Thought and Philosophy 19
1.4.2.2Literature 19
1.4.2.3Architecture and Art 20
1.4.2.4Music 21
1.5The Modern Period 21
1.5.1Historical Background 21
1.5.2Major Achievements of the Modern Period 22
1.5.2.1Literature 23
1.5.2.2Art 23
1.6Film 24
References 24
2Music in Western Culture 25
2.1Early Development of Western Music: Music
During the Medieval and Renaissance Periods 26
2.1.1Medieval Music 26
2.1.1.1Monophony 26
2.1.1.1.1Church Music 26
2.1.1.1.2Secular Music 27
2.1.1.2Polyphony 28
2.1.1.3Instrumental Music: Organs 28
2.1.2Music During the Renaissance 29
Contents ix
2.1.2.1Development of Music Schools 29
2.1.2.1.1The British School 29
2.1.2.1.2The Burgundy School 29
2.1.2.1.3The Flemish School 30
2.1.2.1.4The Roman School 30
2.1.2.1.5The Venetian School 30
2.1.2.2Instrumental Music 31
2.2Music of the Baroque and Classical Periods 31
2.2.1Baroque Music 31
2.2.1.1Opera and Oratorio: A Dazzling Pearl
of Music 32
2.2.1.2The Increasing Popularity of Instrumental
Music 33
2.2.1.2.1Keyboard Music 33
2.2.1.2.2String Music 34
2.2.1.2.3Ensemble Music 35
2.2.1.3Great Musicians of the Baroque Period 35
2.2.2Music During the Classical Period 36
2.2.2.1Cultural Movements and Musical
Composition 36
2.2.2.2Musical Genres and Works of the Classical
Period 37
2.2.2.2.1Piano Music 37
2.2.2.2.2Instrumental Ensembles 37
2.2.2.3Musicians During the Classical Period 38
2.2.2.3.1Composers of the Pre-Classical
Period 38
2.2.2.3.2Composers of the High Classical
Period 39
2.3Booming of Western Music: Music During the Romantic
Period 41
2.3.1The Influence of Cultural Movements on Musical
Production
41
2.3.2Abundant Music Genres and Content 42
2.3.2.1Opera 42
2.3.2.1.1Italian Opera 43
2.3.2.1.2French Opera 44
2.3.2.1.3German Opera 45
x
Contents
2.3.2.2Instrumental Music 46
2.3.2.2.1The Symphony 46
2.3.2.2.2The Symphonic Poem 46
2.3.2.2.3The Concerto 46
2.3.2.3Vocal Music Works 47
2.3.2.4Solo 47
2.3.2.4.1Piano 47
2.3.2.4.2String Music 49
2.3.2.4.3String Quartets 49
2.4Diversified Development of Western Music: Music
in the Twentieth Century 50
2.4.1Era and Music 50
2.4.2Styles and Schools 51
2.4.2.1Impressionism 51
2.4.2.2Expressionist Music 52
2.4.2.3Serial Music 53
2.4.2.4Neo-Classicism 53
2.4.2.5New Nationalism 53
2.4.2.6Aleatoric Music 54
2.4.2.7Electronic Music 55
2.4.2.8World Music 55
2.4.2.9Popular Elements in Professional Art
Music 55
References 56
3Western Art 57
3.1Ideal and Reality: Ancient Greek and Roman Art 57
3.1.1Ancient Greek Art 57
3.1.2Ancient Roman Art 58
3.2God’s World: Medieval Art in Europe 59
3.2.1Byzantine Art 60
3.2.2Romanesque Art 61
3.2.3Gothic Art 62
3.3The Brilliance of Humanity: European Renaissance Art 63
3.3.1Italian Renaissance Art 64
3.3.2Netherlands Renaissance Art 66
3.3.3German Renaissance Art 67
3.3.4French Renaissance Art 69
Contents xi
3.4Passion and Motion: Seventeenth Century European
Baroque Art 70
3.4.1Characteristics of Baroque Art 70
3.4.2Baroque Art in Different Countries 71
3.4.3Evaluation of Baroque Art 73
3.5Elegance and Softness: Eighteenth Century French Rococo 74
3.5.1Characteristics of Rococo 74
3.5.2French Rococo 75
3.5.3Evaluation of Rococo 76
3.6Classicism to Impressionism: Nineteenth-­Century French
Painting 77
3.6.1Neoclassicism 78
3.6.2Romanticism 79
3.6.3Barbizon School and Realism 81
3.6.4Impressionism, Neo-Impressionism and PostImpressionism 82
3.7Diversity and Experience: Twentieth-Century Modernism
in Western Art 84
3.7.1How to Appreciate Modern Art? 85
3.7.2Significance of Modern Art 86
3.7.3Postmodern Art 87
References 89
4Tourism in Europe and America 91
4.1Tourism in Europe 91
4.1.1Nature 92
4.1.2Architecture 92
4.1.3Food and Wine 92
4.1.3.1Food 92
4.1.3.2Wine 93
4.1.4Museums 93
4.1.5Institutions of Higher Education 94
4.1.6Local Customs 94
4.1.6.1Flamenco 94
4.1.6.2Bullfighting 95
4.1.6.3Carnival of Venice 95
4.1.6.4Oktoberfest 95
4.1.6.5Edinburgh International Festival 95
xii
Contents
4.1.7Major Destinations 96
4.1.7.1East Europe 96
4.1.7.1.1Moscow, Russia 96
4.1.7.1.2St. Petersburg, Russia 97
4.1.7.2South Europe 97
4.1.7.2.1Lisbon, Portugal 97
4.1.7.2.2Madrid, Spain 98
4.1.7.2.3Barcelona, Spain 99
4.1.7.2.4Rome, Italy 100
4.1.7.2.5Venice, Italy 101
4.1.7.2.6Florence, Italy 102
4.1.7.2.7The Vatican 102
4.1.7.2.8Greece 103
4.1.7.3West Europe
104
4.1.7.3.1London, Britain 104
4.1.7.3.2Around London, Britain 106
4.1.7.3.3Edinburgh, Britain 106
4.1.7.3.4Special Small Towns, Britain 107
4.1.7.3.5The Netherlands 107
4.1.7.3.6Belgium 108
4.1.7.3.7Luxembourg 108
4.1.7.3.8Paris, France 109
4.1.7.3.9Provence, France 111
4.1.7.3.10French Riviera 111
4.1.7.4North Europe
112
4.1.7.4.1Denmark 112
4.1.7.4.2Norway 112
4.1.7.4.3Sweden 113
4.1.7.4.4Finland 114
4.1.7.4.5Iceland 115
4.1.7.5Central Europe
115
4.1.7.5.1Berlin, Germany 115
4.1.7.5.2Munich, Germany 117
4.1.7.5.3Other Cities, Germany 118
4.1.7.5.4Vienna, Austria 119
4.1.7.5.5Salzburg, Austria 120
4.1.7.5.6Bernese Oberland and Other
Ski Sites, Switzerland 120
4.1.7.5.7Geneva, Switzerland 120
Contents xiii
4.1.7.5.8Other Cities, Switzerland 121
4.1.7.5.9Czech Republic 122
4.1.7.5.10Hungary 122
4.2The USA123
4.2.1New York City123
4.2.2Washington, DC125
4.2.3Los Angeles125
4.2.4San Francisco125
4.2.5Hawaii126
4.2.6The Grand Canyon126
4.2.7Yellowstone National Park126
4.2.8Niagara Falls127
4.2.9Mount Rushmore127
References 128
5Western Etiquette 129
5.1Introduction129
5.1.1Formation and Development of Etiquette129
5.1.2Characteristics of Western Etiquette131
5.1.2.1Cultural Characteristics
132
5.1.2.2National Characteristics
132
5.1.2.3International Characteristics
133
5.1.2.4Simple Characteristics
134
5.2Etiquette in Some Western Countries134
5.2.1United Kingdom135
5.2.1.1Good Manners Manifest in Respect
for Etiquette
135
5.2.1.2Dress Etiquette: Traditional Costume
and Individuality
135
5.2.1.3Daily Greeting Etiquette: Modesty
and Sobriety
136
5.2.1.4Etiquette for Visitors and Hosts: Details
Matter
137
5.2.1.5Dining Etiquette: More Drinks and Less
Food
138
5.2.2France139
5.2.2.1Respect for Etiquette: Stressing Gentleness
and Mutual Respect
139
5.2.2.2Dress Etiquette: Neat, Elegant, Proper
140
xiv
Contents
5.2.2.3Daily Greeting Etiquette: Traditions
in a Simplifying Process
141
5.2.2.4Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
142
5.2.2.5Dining Etiquette: Food as Art
143
5.2.3Germany144
5.2.3.1Interpersonal Relations: Fixed Pattern
144
5.2.3.2Dress Etiquette
145
5.2.3.3Daily Greeting Etiquette
145
5.2.3.4Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
146
5.2.3.5Dining Etiquette
146
5.2.4Spain147
5.2.4.1Daily Communication: Traditions
Coming First
147
5.2.4.2Dress Etiquette
147
5.2.4.3Daily Greeting Etiquette
148
5.2.4.4Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
148
5.2.4.5Dining Etiquette
149
5.2.5Switzerland149
5.2.5.1Daily Communication: Self-Esteem
and Restraint
149
5.2.5.2Dress Etiquette
150
5.2.5.3Daily Greeting Etiquette
150
5.2.5.4Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
151
5.2.5.5Dining Etiquette
151
5.2.6The Netherlands151
5.2.6.1Graceful, Generous and Efficient
Interaction
151
5.2.6.2Dressing Etiquette
152
5.2.6.3Daily Greeting Etiquette
152
5.2.6.4Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
153
5.2.6.5Dining Etiquette
153
5.2.7Italy154
5.2.7.1Pleasant Interpersonal Relationships
154
5.2.7.2Dress Etiquette
154
5.2.7.3Daily Greeting Etiquette
155
5.2.7.4Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
156
5.2.7.5Dining Etiquette
156
5.2.8Belgium157
5.2.8.1Polite Society and Good Manners
157
5.2.8.2Dressing Etiquette
157
Contents xv
5.2.8.3Daily Greeting Etiquette
157
5.2.8.4Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
158
5.2.8.5Dining Etiquette
158
5.2.9Sweden158
5.2.9.1Polite Behavior and Good Manners
158
5.2.9.2Dress Etiquette
159
5.2.9.3Daily Greeting Etiquette
159
5.2.9.4Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
160
5.2.9.5Dining Etiquette
160
5.2.10Poland160
5.2.10.1Distinctive National Character
160
5.2.10.2Dress Etiquette
161
5.2.10.3Daily Greeting Etiquette
161
5.2.10.4Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
161
5.2.10.5Dining Etiquette
162
References 162
6Western Folklore 163
6.1An Overview of Western Folklore and Culture163
6.1.1Definition of Folklore163
6.1.2Formation of Folklore163
6.1.2.1Geographical Conditions
164
6.1.2.2Economic Background
164
6.1.2.3Political Changes
164
6.1.2.4Religious Beliefs
164
6.1.3Genres of Folklore164
6.2Features of Folklore in Major Western Nations165
6.2.1Collectiveness and Sociality165
6.2.2Inheritance and Communicability165
6.2.3Stability and Variability166
6.2.4Geographical and Ethnic Characteristics166
6.3Folk Cultures in Major European and American Countries167
6.3.1Folk Costume167
6.3.1.1American Costume
167
6.3.1.2English Folk Costume
167
6.3.1.3French Folk Costume
168
6.3.1.4German Folk Costume
168
6.3.1.5Russian Folk Costume
169
6.3.1.6Spanish Folk Costume
169
xvi
Contents
6.3.2Wedding and Funeral Customs170
6.3.2.1Marital Customs
170
6.3.2.1.1American Marital Customs 170
6.3.2.1.2British Marital Customs 170
6.3.2.1.3French Marital Customs 171
6.3.2.1.4German Marital Customs 171
6.3.2.1.5Russian Marital Customs 172
6.3.2.1.6Spanish Marital Customs 172
6.3.2.2Burial Customs
172
6.3.2.2.1American Burial Customs 173
6.3.2.2.2British Burial Customs 173
6.3.2.2.3French Burial Customs 173
6.3.2.2.4German Burial Customs 174
6.3.2.2.5Russian Burial Customs 174
6.3.2.2.6Spanish Burial Customs 175
6.4Food Folklore175
6.4.1American Food Folklore175
6.4.2British Food Folklore176
6.4.3French Food Folklore176
6.4.4German Food Folklore177
6.4.5Russian Food Folklore178
6.4.6Spanish Food Folklore178
6.5Traditional Festivals178
6.5.1America’s Traditional Festivals180
6.5.1.1Thanksgiving Day
180
6.5.1.2Mother’s Day
180
6.5.2Britain’s Traditional Festivals181
6.5.3Germany’s Traditional Festival Customs181
6.5.4Russian Traditional Festival Customs182
6.5.5Spain’s Traditional Festival Customs182
6.6Beliefs and Taboos183
6.6.1Taboos in the USA184
6.6.2Taboos in the UK184
6.6.3Taboos in France185
6.6.4Taboos in Germany185
6.6.5Taboos in Russia185
6.6.6Taboos in Spain186
References 186
CHAPTER 1
A Concise History of Western Cultures
1.1 The Classical Period and the Medieval Period
1.1.1 Western Cultures in the Classical Period
The Classical period (1200–476 bc) generally refers to the ancient Greek
and Roman civilizations. These were one of the major sources of Western
cultures. The period had a great impact on the evolution of Western cultures, covering their educational institutions, their way of discussing official business, their civic organizations and spiritual pursuits, and Westerners’
mindset as well. The ancient Greeks and Romans embody the richness of
Classical civilization and the Western cultural tradition, as extolled in
Edgar Allan Poe’s poem ‘To Helen’:
The glory that was Greece,
And the grandeur that was Rome!
1.1.1.1 Ancient Greek Civilization
1.1.1.1.1 Historical Background
Greece was the cradle of Western civilization. Ancient Greece is the
name given to a region rather than a country, mainly referring to the
land around the Aegean Sea, including the Greek Peninsula, islands in
the Aegean Sea and Ionian Sea, and the coastal land of what is now
southwestern Turkey, western Italy and eastern Sicily. Food provision in
© The Author(s) 2018
G. Xu et al. (eds.), K. Chen et al. (trans.), Introduction to Western
Culture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8153-8_1
1
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G. XU ET AL.
ancient Greece depended largely on imports, due to its lack of arable
land and low summer rainfall. Situated as it was on coastal land, though,
Greece was advanced in shipbuilding and commerce. Geographically and
economically favorable conditions assisted in the birth and growth of
Greek civilization.
1.1.1.1.2 Major Achievements of Ancient Greek Civilization
As the most important and direct source of Western civilization, ancient
Greek civilization had, during the 1000 years of its development, a much
more prolonged and profound influence on Western history than any
other civilization. The early Greek culture can be traced back to the
Minoan culture more than 4000 years ago, and the Mycenaean culture of
the fifteenth to thirteenth centuries BC. The recorded literature and art of
the West also originated in Greece, and the invention of written words
provided the foundation for the commencement and development of literature and other disciplines. Starting from Minoan culture, Greek civilization lasted for over 2000 years, leaving an immense cultural heritage for
later generations, primarily in poetry, mythology, philosophy and theater.
1. Poetry
The epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey, purportedly composed by
the blind poet Homer, were probably created by the Greek people collectively and spread by word of mouth. Taking the ten-year war between
Greece and Troy as the background, the Iliad gives an account of the
events which happen in the fifty days before the war ends. The Odyssey
tells the story of how the Greek hero Odysseus manages to survive and
return home after ten years of traveling on the sea, despite every obstacle being thrown at him. These two epic poems supply significant
material for the historical study of ancient Greek politics, religion, ethics, language, and so on.
Ancient Greece is also well known for its influential prose. The
famous fables of Aesop were widely circulated after being rewritten in
the form of metrical poetry by Babrius. Among these fables, “The
Farmer and the Viper” and “The Tortoise and the Hare” are the most
popular to this day for the profound meaning behind them.
2. Mythology
Mythology and religion are the most foundational aspects of culture. Ancient Greek religion was polytheistic and animistic, and is
inseparable from Greek mythology. The intrinsic feature of ancient
A CONCISE HISTORY OF WESTERN CULTURES
3
Greek mythology was that its gods resembled human beings in their
forms but were extraordinary in their powers. Greek mythology is
chiefly concerned with stories of Gaia, the goddess of the earth;
Ouranos, the god of sky; the twelve Titans; Zeus, father of gods and
men; and Zeus’ wife Hera. Hesiod rendered a complete picture of
myths about the origin of the world and the Greek pantheon, and the
relationship among these gods, in his Theogony.
3. Philosophy
Greece made the greatest achievements in philosophy. The term
‘philosophy’ originated in Greek, with some basic concepts in philosophy, such as materialism, idealism, and dialectics, also deriving from
ancient Greek culture. Greek philosophy has been seen as the precursor
of the break from the shackles of religion. Socrates’ opposition of mind
and matter, Plato’s idealism and Aristotle’s ontology were the philosophical origins of Western rationalism. Socrates, the first philosopher
who exerted an epoch-making influence on the development of
Western philosophy, focused on the relation between knowledge and
ethics, encouraged rationalism, and was well-known for his questionand-­answer (dialectical) method of philosophical study. Plato, a student of Socrates, created his famous idealism, asserting that behind the
sensible forms of the world there are real universal ideas, which are a
much higher level of reality. In his masterpiece The Republic, Plato
presented how his idea can be applied to the political field. As a student
of Plato and a polymath, Aristotle was not only a great philosopher like
his teacher, but also a scientist and logician. His doctrine of the primacy
of the objective world directly refuted Plato’s idealism, marking the
cultural turn from subjectivity and mysticism to objectivity and reasoning. Aristotle’s deductive method and use of syllogism had a significant
influence on later generations.
4. Theater
Theater was the greatest achievement of ancient Greek literary civilization. It was divided into tragedy, comedy and satyr plays. Tragedies
and comedies are formal performances with satyr plays following as an
addition. The representative dramatists of Greek theater include three
tragic poets (Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides) and three comic
poets (Cratinus, Eupolis, and Aristophanes). Aeschylus, known as the
father of tragedy, wrote The Persians and Prometheus Bound.
Aristophanes, the father of comedy, was the author of The Birds and
The Acharnians.
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1.1.1.2 Ancient Roman Civilization
1.1.1.2.1 Historical Background
Ancient Roman Civilization, another essential source of Western civilization, originated in Rome in what is now Italy. Italy is surrounded by sea in
the east, south and west, while the north is mountainous. With its moderate climate and abundant rainfall, Italy was well developed in agriculture,
and various ethnic groups inhabited the area. During their overseas expansion, the ancient Romans began to have contact with neighboring Greece
and its advanced culture. The ancient Romans gradually became the masters of the Mediterranean area through conquest and expansion; however,
they admired the splendid ancient Greek civilization and borrowed its glorious achievements.
1.1.1.2.2 Major Achievements of Ancient Roman Civilization
Western Classical culture sprang up in Greece and was carried forward in
Rome. The Romans not only adapted the Greek alphabet, created Latin,
inherited and borrowed the form and the essence of ancient Greek culture, but also made their own contributions comparable to those made by
their predecessors in politics, warfare, law, architecture, and other areas.
1. Politics and Law
The political institution for which the ancient Romans are best
remembered, the republic, was a very effective means of government in
the Classical period. The development of the Roman Empire was a history of continuous conquest and expansion. During the process, the
Roman Empire’s most impressive achievement was the founding of a
single political entity that unified different Mediterranean countries,
thereby transcending the limited authority of city-states. Though the
ancient Greek philosophers had imagined the possibility of a unified
world, Greek politics did not engender a power strong enough to realize it. Nevertheless, the Roman Empire overcame the narrow-­
mindedness that bound the life led in city-states to develop a system of
law and citizenship that was put into effect across the whole empire.
The ancient Romans devised the most comprehensive and influential legal system in the ancient world. The Law of The Twelve Tables
was the earliest law which was typically Roman, and later Roman Law
expanded gradually into the three parts of jus civil, jus genti, and jus
naturale, while the Codex Justinianus, codified in ad 529, symbolized
the completion of Roman Law.
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5
2. Alphabet and Literature
The written form of the ancient Roman language called Latin was
codified in about 600 bc. Classical Latin had an alphabet of twenty-­
three letters, but expanded to twenty-six letters in the Middle Ages.
Latin letters became the most prevalent alphabet among the various
writing systems in the world due to their simplicity and symmetry in
form, and hence their convenience for reading and writing. Latin
became a universal language in the era of the Roman Empire. Italian,
French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian and other languages that have
evolved from Latin are included under the general term of Latin dialects. Ancient Roman literature was composed of poems and theatre,
with early Roman literature taking the form of folk poetry. Lucius
Livius Andronicus was referred to as the first Roman poet and the
father of the Latin literature, whose major contribution to Roman literature lay in the translation of the Odyssey into Latin, which therefore
became the first teaching material in ancient Roman literature. Other
prominent playwrights of the period included Plautus and Terence.
Major works of the former include Miles Gloriosus, Aulularia and
Menaechmi, and of the latter Hecyra and Adelphoe.
Prose and poetry comprise a large proportion of Roman literary
works. Cicero, whose works include Against Catiline and Against
Mark Antony, was considered Rome’s greatest prose stylist, and had a
great influence on the development of the Roman arts of oration and
prose. Julius Caesar’s importance was felt not only in the political arena
but also in culture, as reflected in his works The Gallic War and The
Civil War. Virgil, Horace and Ovid were prominent poets. Virgil’s
masterpiece was the Aeneid, Horace’s the Odes, and Ovid’s
Metamorphoses. In addition, the appearance of Christian literature was
a great achievement.
3. Architecture
Ancient architecture and engineering reached their zenith in the
Roman period. Stylistically, ancient Roman architecture was embodied
by arches and domes, which combined military utility with practical
use. Aesthetically, grand arches in the middle of the building produced
a sense of grandness and vividness. According to their functions,
ancient Roman buildings were categorized as fortifications, religious
buildings, public facilities, memorial spaces, or places of public entertainment. Excellent representatives included the forums, the Pantheon,
the Colosseum, amphitheaters, temples, and so on.
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1.1.2 The Middle Ages
The Middle Ages was a period of 1000 years between the Classical period
and the Renaissance. The Germanic invasions of the fifth century and the
collapse of the Western Roman Empire marked the end of ancient Western
society and the beginning of the Middle Ages, which ended in the fifteenth century.
1.1.2.1 Historical Background
Feudalism formed during the period from the fifth century to the early
tenth century. Since the third century, Europe had witnessed enormous
ethnic migrations, as northern peoples moved westwards after the invasion
of the Roman Empire and its subsequent collapse, to protect themselves
from the Asian nomadic Tartars and to fight against each other for land.
Chaos and conquests led to cultural depression in the period. The eighth
century was of great importance in medieval history, as this was when
aristocratic magnates came to power. From the eighth century to the eleventh century, feudalism and the estate of aristocracy gradually came into
being in Europe. Self-sufficient manorial agriculture and limited local
trade constituted almost the whole European economy, with backward
agricultural production methods and low productivity precluding much
progress from being made. Europe entered a flourishing period from the
eleventh century as feudalism was consolidated. Agricultural production
methods developed rapidly, productivity improved and commerce recovered. Venice, Genoa, Pisa and other cities became important ports, and
the prosperity of commerce accelerated urban growth and the rise of the
bourgeoisie. As of the fourteenth century, Europe was plunged into an
abyss of stunted agriculture, ruinous wars and, consequently, a nearly
bankrupt economy. This period also witnessed an institutional crisis in the
Church, which in turn led to a crisis of faith.
1.1.2.2 Major Achievements in the Middle Ages
The Middle Ages has long been regarded as being barbarous, backward,
dark and retrogressive in nature. Since the third century, Germanic peoples from northern Europe had begun to migrate south and southeast,
putting pressure on the borders of the Roman Empire and eventually
attacking the empire and occupying its territories. Wars and chaos were
the keynote of the first 100 years of the Middle Ages. The Germanic invasions changed and redrew the political map of Europe, and constituted a
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7
severe blow to Western culture. In addition, the domination of the Church
smothered the rationalism of Greek civilization, and spiritual life was overshadowed by the beliefs of Christianity, whose dark side and confinement
of the mind blocked social progress. Classical humanism and rationalism
were replaced by Christian culture based on God as the first cause of the
world, and on religious and superstitious beliefs. In this sense, humanists
assert, the Greco-Roman period and the Renaissance period were two
great periods in man’s development, while the Middle Ages intervened
between these two culturally brilliant periods as a short interlude of darkness and backwardness.
However, for Western Europe, the Middle Ages, an extremely critical
period of man’s development, was the true beginning of the history of the
European continent. As a world religion that had prevailed throughout
the whole Roman Empire by the fourth century, Christianity successfully
integrated many Greco-Roman thoughts into its canon law, which not
only meant the decline of the Classical period and the rise of the Middle
Ages, but also defined the spiritual world of Westerners in the coming
1000 years. The borders and cultures of different western European countries generally formed during the period when what we now speak of as
French, English and Spanish cultures all came into being. And the traditional systems of what we refer to as Western civilization today, for instance
Greco-Roman, Christian and German cultures, all integrated to become
the sources of European civilization and a pattern of civilization recognized by all Westerners—Western civilization.
Far from being a period of degeneracy and decline, the Middle Ages
served as a necessary part of the historical process of Western civilization
that didn’t suffer so much from the destruction brought about by the
Middle Ages as it benefited from the inheritance and popularization of
cultural capital that the Middle Ages made possible. The Middle Ages
made unheard-of contributions to the process of Western civilization
because it was during this time that such innovations as universities, banks,
the parliamentary system, Gothic art and vernacular literature appeared.
In the process, the level of civilization of the ‘barbarian’ peoples, and that
of the whole of Western civilization, was raised. In time, the northern
peoples became the most important supporters and promoters of the process of Western civilization.
More importantly, the Middle Ages laid vital foundations for the
Renaissance. But for the Middle Ages, Greco-Roman civilization would
have become little more than a memory. In that sense, the Middle Ages
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created all the conditions possible to build up Europe and European ethnic groups, giving birth to and calling for the coming of the Renaissance.
1.1.2.2.1 Languages and Literature
Many European languages, especially the written forms of them, took
shape and developed in the Middle Ages. In the early Middle Ages, Latin
was the spoken and written language of Europe. While spreading over
Europe, Latin developed into varied forms in different areas, giving rise to
local languages as French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and so on.
The majority of medieval literature was religious in nature. Almost all
the content of the literary works advocated by the Church came from the
Bible, breaking down into two major genres of literature in terms of form:
prose and drama. Heroic epics were another literary genre of the period,
represented by Beowulf from England, Poem of the Cid from Spain and the
Song of the Nibelungs from Germany. Vernacular literature was part of
medieval literature as well.
The Italian poet Dante Alighieri, a distinguished representative of
medieval literature, is regarded as a genius whose status in literature is
comparable to that of Shakespeare or Goethe. His master piece, the Divine
Comedy, tells of a journey through Hell, Purgatory and Paradise. Petrarch
and Boccaccio from Italy are great literary figures as well. Petrarch is the
pioneer of the sonnet form of poetry, while Boccaccio is the forerunner of
realism in Europe. Chaucer was a founding poet of English literature. His
masterpiece The Canterbury Tales has come to be regarded as a classic.
1.1.2.2.2 Theology and Philosophy
As an era of worship, the Middle Ages was a period of great developments
in theology. Pope Gregory I was an important theologian of the period.
Taking theology as the prerequisite, medieval philosophy supported scholasticism, which refers both to a teaching and research method, and a
worldview holding that faith and rationalism are two different methods by
which to pursue the same truth.
1.1.2.2.3 The Institution of Parliament and Education
Western parliaments first came into being in the Middle Ages. Universities
appeared in this period as well. The founding of the universities affirmed
the West’s cultural dominance in science and the arts.
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9
1.1.2.2.4 Architecture
Ecclesiastical architecture is often considered the greatest achievement of
medieval art. The design of medieval churches shows great variety. Hagia
Sophia Church, in Nesebar, eastern Bulgaria an outstanding representative of the medieval church, built at the beginning of the sixth century,
employs rounded arches. After the eleventh century, the two main styles
of church buildings are Romanesque and Gothic. Romanesque churches
often adopted the shape of the Latin cross and have rounded arches in the
design of their windows, doors and other features. These arches, in the
shape of barrels and crosses, support the roofs from the inner side. Pisa
Cathedral is a typical Romanesque church building. Gothic cathedrals are
characterized by rib vaulting, flying buttresses, and pointed arches, creating a visual effect of great height and majesty. Famous churches of the
Gothic style include Chartres Cathedral and Notre Dame de Paris in
France, and Milan Cathedral in Italy.
1.1.2.2.5 Art and Music
Religion was the main subject of medieval art. Giotto, the most important
painter of the Middle Ages, produced the St. Francis fresco. Music entered
a new stage as European polyphony and music notations were invented.
Polyphony is a music style in which many lines of notes that are both parallel and complementary to each other are played or sung simultaneously to
create an overall effect of harmony. The staff, a system of music notation,
representing a sequence of pitches by writing notes between five horizontal
lines and four intermediate spaces and using letters as clefs. Its invention in
the Middle Ages made the preservation and spread of music possible.
1.2 Western Culture During the Renaissance
Renaissance was a movement of reviving Greco-Roman Classical literature
and art styles. It was driven by the burgeoning bourgeoisie from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth century.
1.2.1 Historical Background
As European feudalism was replaced by burgeoning capitalism, a cultural
movement arose which opposed a renewed interest in Classical antiquity
to the culture of the Middle Ages and, in particular, the dominance of the
Christian church. This movement, which spread from the fourteenth
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through the sixteenth century, marked the decline of feudal culture in the
Middle Ages and the commencement of modern culture.
The period between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries saw a transition within Europe from the Middle Ages to modern times. This was a
period that witnessed the greatest changes that had ever happened in
Europe. Politically, concentrated political power substituted feudal warlordism, and nations in the modern sense were fledging. Economically, the
further development of industry and commerce yielded improved productivity, which in turn promoted the appearance of capitalism. With the continuous growth of capitalism and the gradual establishment of capitalist
production relations, capitalists became an ascending power in society.
Feudalism and religious culture were gradually replaced by the bourgeois
values of the pursuit of individual dreams.
The Renaissance was closely connected to this era. Criticizing
Christianity and feudal ideology, humanists created new thoughts, morals
and cultures with the help of Greco-Roman rationalism and humanism.
Covering a period from 1350 to 1600, the Renaissance started in Italy,
and later spread to Germany, France, England, Spain and other countries.
The Renaissance became a symbol of the era by promoting every change
in politics, economy and culture.
1.2.2 Major Achievements of the Renaissance Period
As a key underlying feature of the Renaissance, humanism asserted human
rights against divine rights, advocated the human-oriented ideas existent
in ancient Greek philosophy, emphasized individuality and rationalism,
and supported science and knowledge against ignorance and superstition.
This presented a sharp contrast with medieval Christian theology, liberating people from the fetters of the mind in the Middle Ages.
The Renaissance meant the recognition and development of Classical
antiquity, yet it was not a simple return to and repetition of the latter.
Through the Renaissance, Western civilization absorbed the essence of
Classical culture and entered an unprecedented era, which became a new
starting point for western cultures. During the period, a number of outstanding figures and works emerged, for example Dante, the forerunner of
the Renaissance, and the painter Leonardo da Vinci, whose Mona Lisa
unleashed a strong flavor of realism. Tremendous creativity occurred in
the fields of literature, art, theatre, architecture and others, composing
splendid chapters in the course of western civilization.
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11
Instead of being regarded as the revival and return of Classical antiquity, the Renaissance was seen as the commencement of modern culture
because of the rise of humanism, the awakening of modern concepts of
nationalism, the emergence of utopian socialism, the appearance of literature written in dialects, the creation of art genres, the great discoveries of
geography, the development of modern natural sciences, the application
of printing skills, and so on.
1.2.2.1 Thought
A large number of humanists appeared first in Italy, the birthplace of the
Renaissance, and then in other European countries, including France,
Germany, Spain and England. The emergence and spread of humanism
greatly promoted the process of the Renaissance. Petrarch was regarded as
the first humanist of the Renaissance period. In addition, other prominent
humanists included historian Leonardo Bruni, art theorist Leon Battista
Alberti, humanist thinker Lorenzo Valla, philosopher Giovanni Pico della
Mirandola, and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli.
Bruni reestablished the historical viewpoint of treating human activities
as the subjects of history, and combined humanism with scholastic and
political activities in his major works like Panegyric to the City of Florence.
Alberti regarded humans as part of nature, having the learning and action-­
bias gifts that enable them to fight against and prevail over fate. He wrote
On the Family and other works.
1.2.2.2 Literature
As the birthplace of the Renaissance, Italy pioneered in literature. Dante,
who was still writing in the Middle Ages, was regarded as the forerunner
of humanist literature. Also living in the Middle Ages, Petrarch and
Boccaccio were early humanists. Important writers included Cervantes of
Spain; Rabelais and Montaigne of France; Erasmus, Reuchlin and Ulrich
von Hutten of Germany; and Chaucer and Thomas More of England.
Cervantes’ masterpiece Don Quixote, the representative of pastoral novels
in Spanish literature, praises humanist thoughts of pursuing individual
freedom and liberation by depicting the image of a wandering knight full
of absurd imagination and abrupt action. Employing intense political sarcasm, Rabelais criticized feudal society and hailed the rising bourgeoisie in
his Gargantua and Pantagruel. Erasmus’ main work, the Praise of Folly,
satirizes religious obscurantism. Erasmus also compiled the Greek version
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of the New Testament. In Utopia, Thomas More described an ideal society
in which no private ownership, exploitation, tyranny or religious superstition exist.
1.2.2.3 Theatre
Shakespeare, the greatest playwright and poet of the Renaissance period,
is regarded as the father of theater. His works comprise histories, comedies, tragedies, and romances, demonstrating his profound thought and
sophisticated writing skills. Henry IV is an important representative of
Shakespeare’s historical plays, and The Tempest his romances. The Merchant
of Venice, Much Ado about Nothing, All’s Well that Ends Well, and Twelfth
Night are four fine comedies. Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth are
the most famous tragedies written by Shakespeare. Hamlet, Shakespeare’s
most renowned play, reflects the situation and contradictions of his own
Elizabethan age through rendering the tragic vengeance of the Danish
prince Hamlet.
Other Renaissance dramatists included Kyd and Marlow of England,
and Lope de Vega, (known as ‘the Phoenix’) of Spain.
1.2.2.4 Architecture and Sculpture
Different from the architecture of the Middle Ages, the Romanesque style
was revived during the Renaissance period, while the Gothic style was
neglected because of the tendency against theology and religion at the
time. Embodying the architecture of the age, cathedral buildings stressed
harmony and symmetry with their cross shape formed by the transept and
the nave. Florence Cathedral, St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome and the Louvre
in France were among the best.
Sculpture became an independent, no longer subordinate to architecture. Demonstration of the beauty of the human body became an important pursuit of sculpture in the period. Italian sculptor Donatello expressed
his individuality in his bronze statue David. Michelangelo was the greatest
Renaissance sculptor, whose representative works David and Moses conveyed both idealism and humanism in art. Moses is regarded as the highest
achievement of modern sculpture.
1.2.2.5 Art
Humanism began to be integrated into art in this period, while medieval
art traditions were abandoned by painters. Most achievements in painting
were made in Italy. Each important city in Italy had its own painting style,
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13
with the Florentine School, the outstanding representative, paving the
way for European painting. Eminent figures included Masaccio and
Botticelli. Leonardo da Vinci, the greatest Renaissance artist, emphasized
humanism and the beauty of the human body. His works show analysis of
the proportions of the human body, and suggest inner psychological activity. His masterpieces, The Last Supper and the Mona Lisa, vividly depict the
features of the human form, and show great psychological awareness.
Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael are regarded as the three
giants of the Renaissance.
1.3 Neoclassicism
Emerging in France, and subsequently spreading among western European
countries during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Neoclassicism
was characterized by rationalism, which along with empiricism was the
dominant intellectual force of the period. During the Neoclassical era,
Greek and Roman style were revived in the fields of literature and art.
1.3.1 Historical Background
In the seventeenth century, the growing bourgeoisie and other estates of
Western countries began to assert their new confidence. Between the
1640s and the 1680s, England replaced the restored dynasty and feudal
monarchy with a constitutional monarchy administered by the bourgeoisie and new nobility. Since then, England has enjoyed a relatively stable
phase, as the idea of the divine right of monarchs was replaced by the
growth of rationalism. Also in the seventeenth century, Europe witnessed
significant breakthroughs in every field of science. Based on the revolutions that occurred in society, as well as the development of science and
rationalism, the era of Enlightenment, started by French intellectuals,
began to liberate people from traditional prejudices, religious superstitions
and the excesses of unrestrained authority. With its emphasis on the primacy of reason, Enlightenment ideas exerted a tremendous influence on
the whole of Western society in the latter part of the eighteenth century.
In addition, Neoclassicism prevailed in literature and art, as harmony, proportion, balance and temperance became important principles.
The appearance of rationalism and Enlightenment initiated an era of
reason in the West, marking a milestone in western civilization. It is the
second movement of the liberation of the human mind, following that of
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the Renaissance, and marks a further elevation of the Renaissance humanist tradition, whose influence surpassed that of any other movement in the
history of the West. Ideas of liberty, equality and democracy were widely
spread, and became established features of modern Western culture. In the
seventeenth century, the center of Western culture moved from Italy to
France, which became the main stage for European rationalism.
Born at the beginning of Neoclassicism, Baroque, a magnificent and
passionate style, flourished in sculpture, art, literature and music as a result
of an entwined effect of the Reformation, geographical discovery,
European expansion, success in the development of overseas market, the
emergence of new magnates and the monarchical need to interpret their
authority and greatness. In France, Baroque evolved into Rococo, a style
for aristocrats and the courts, especially in sculpture, painting and decoration. French reception of Baroque style resulted in a movement called
Classical Baroque, whose emergence was marked by innovations in painting, music and literature.
1.3.2 Thought and Philosophy
The domination of science promoted meditation on the social influence
and significance of scientific exploration. Thinkers and philosophers of science and reason criticized scholasticism and the primacy of tangible experience, and scientific reason became prevalent in philosophy. Eminent
thinkers and philosophers included Francis Bacon, Descartes, Spinoza,
and Locke, as well as French philosophers Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau
and Diderot.
Developing empirical methods, Bacon was considered one of the
founders of modern Western philosophy. He endeavored to oppose scholasticism, affirm materialism and establish new methods to understand
nature. He was the first to put forward the inductive method, and he also
asserted the benefits of scientific knowledge for human flourishing. Bacon
established scientific way of thinking and the principle of knowledge as the
universal basis of epistemology. His representative works include The
Advancement of Learning, Novum Organum, and New Atlantis.
Descartes, the father of rationalism, proposed the famous philosophical
hypothesis “I think, therefore I am,” and came to the mechanical materialist conclusion that existence and knowledge rely solely on matter. His
works include the Discourse on Method, and Meditations.
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15
Spinoza, a materialistic rationalist, held that the standard of truth did
not rely on practice but reason itself. His most well-known work is his
Ethics.
John Locke, father of British empiricism, wrote An Essay Concerning
Human Understanding and Two Treatises on Government.
Montesquieu was among the first generation of the French philosophers, who denied absolute religious authority from the perspective of
deism and advocated constitutional monarchy against feudal absolutism.
He put forward the principle of the separation of legislative, executive and
judicial powers. The Spirit of the Laws summarizes his philosophical and
political thoughts.
Voltaire asserted that all human beings were born equal, and therefore
he opposed the feudal hierarchy and its privileges. He supported empiricism and proposed his ideas in the Philosophical Letters.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a key figure of the French Revolution, wrote
The Social Contract, which holds a significant position in the history of
Western culture and thought.
Diderot stood out as the representative figure of the Encyclopaedists,
holding that science was a unity of various interconnected disciplines. He
was the editor-in-chief of the Encyclopedia, which spread advanced scientific and cultural knowledge, and defended progressive ideas of the time.
1.3.3 Literature
The seventeenth century, the first half of the Neoclassical period, saw the
emergence of bourgeois literature with a strong flavor of feudal ideology.
Literary theory and production set ancient Greek and Roman styles as
models. Classicism prevailed and had immense success in France, especially in drama. Corneille and Racine were renowned playwrights of tragedies, while Moliere was famous for his comedies. Corneille’s works are
characterized by ideal heroes and discussions of patriotism. His masterpiece Le Cid is regarded as the foundational work of French Classical tragedy. Racine, the greatest tragedian of the French Classical period, usually
arranged miserable endings for his heroes who have lost their reason to
passion, as in Andromaque and Phèdre. Moliere was the most democratic
among the French Classical writers of the seventeenth century. Most of his
works satirize aristocrats, the church and the bourgeoisie of the time, and
exhibit distinct national characteristics, as presented in Tartuffe, The
Misanthrope, and The Miser. Classicism attained success in other European
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countries as well. The Englishman Milton wrote the great epic Paradise
Lost, in which Adam and Eve are expelled from paradise for having eaten
the forbidden fruit against God’s will.
In the eighteenth century, the second half of the Neoclassical period,
Classicism still had an important role to perform. Philosophers and activists, by turning literature to good account and by involving themselves in
literary production as writers, fought against the aristocratic trend of
Classicism while emphasizing democracy. Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe marked
the birth of realistic novels in England. Swift originated the tradition of
caricature in English literature by writing Gulliver’s Travels. Fielding’s
Tom Jones is considered to be the greatest achievement in English realistic
novels of the eighteenth century. French philosophers Voltaire and
Rousseau are also considered Enlightenment writers. Rousseau’s masterpieces include Emile and Confessions. As a prominent figure of German
Enlightenment literature, Goethe, whose novel The Sorrows of Young
Werther and dramatic poem Faust became classics, was acclaimed as one of
the founders of modern German literature. Faust is considered one of the
four masterpieces of European literature along with the Iliad by Homer,
the Divine Comedy by Dante and Hamlet by Shakespeare.
1.3.4 Architecture and Art
The Neoclassical period witnessed the birth of different aesthetic trends
such as Baroque, Rococo, and Classicism. Breaking the balance between
content and form, and assuming an air of irrationality, Baroque style
stresses grand and passionate forms and visual effects. The Versailles Palace
in France and St. Peters Cathedral in Rome are typical Baroque buildings.
Italian sculptor Bernini was an outstanding exponent of Baroque, as
reflected in his design of St. Peter’s Square and St. Peter’s Basilica, and the
statue of David. In painting, Baroque was best rendered by Rubens in
significant works such as The Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus.
Rococo style highlights the grace of curves, magnificence and exquisiteness, as reflected in the Hôtel de Soubise in Paris. Practitioners of Rococo
painting include Watteau and Boucher. The Embarkation for Cythera is the
masterpiece of Watteau.
The Classical period succeeded the Baroque, and attached great importance to rationality, detail, harmony and grand order. The Versailles Palace
is a glorious model of Classicism. Masters of Classical painting included
Poussin and Chardin in France. Poussin, the founder of Classical painting,
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proposed that the painter should draw what is supposed to occur instead
of what actually occurs. His paintings stressed Classical rationalism and the
beauty of harmony in the balance of composition.
1.3.5 Music
The Baroque period was of special significance to music because it was in
this period that music became a discipline in art equal to painting and
sculpture. Opera, cantata and chorus were novel forms in vocal music. In
instrumental music, sonata, concerto and prelude were innovations. Both
Baroque and Classical styles were adopted to express magnificence and
passion. German musicians Bach and Handel were among the greatest
composers of Baroque music. Bach composed about 500 musical pieces.
Classical music is art music developed on the basis of Baroque music. It
requires uniformity, temperance, simplicity and innocence. Mainly evolving in secular music, classical music made substantial headway in opera,
chamber music and string music. The most important representatives were
the Viennese Classical School, whose members included Haydn, Mozart
and Beethoven.
1.4 Romanticism and Modern Culture in the West
The Romantic period spanned the end of the eighteenth century to the
early twentieth century, and encompassed two trends of thought:
Romanticism in the first half (from the late eighteenth century to the early
nineteenth century) and Realism in the second (from the mid-nineteenth
century).
1.4.1 Historical Background
Neoclassicism furnished the French Revolution with ideology both in
politics and in the arts. The bourgeoisie were climbing up the social ladder
and laid claim to individual freedom through the struggle with the allied
rule of feudal lords and the Christian Church. As a result, the French
Revolution broke out, while European democratic and liberation movements marched on. Nevertheless, the ideal society predicted by the French
thinkers would never come; neither would a rational and orderly country
be established, despite the emergence of capitalism after the French
Revolution. This disillusion led to prevalent sentiments of disappoint-
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ment, which in turn inspired the Romantic Movement, opposing classicism throughout Europe. Additionally, the Sturm und Drang (‘Storm and
Stress’) movement and Classical philosophy added greatly to the development of the Romantic Movement, which is regarded as the third most
influential trend of thought in European culture, after the Renaissance
and the Enlightenment.
In the latter part of Romanticism, the French capitalist revolution
paved the way for the further development of capitalism in Europe. From
the early to middle nineteenth century, the bourgeoisie grew in strength
and entered a stage of fortification and development in the major European
countries. The acceleration of the Industrial Revolution enabled the proletariat to step onto the political stage as an independent power, which in
time would lead to conflict with the bourgeoisie. The social sciences prospered unprecedentedly, as materialism and dialectics expanded their sphere
of influence. In the field of ideology, socialism developed from Utopian
Socialism to scientific theories, and Marxism was put forward for the first
time. The natural sciences achieved progress in cytology, energy conversion theory and evolutionary theory. After the prevalence of Romanticism
for almost half a century, people began to pay more attention to day-to-­
day life and the people and things around them, wishing that art would
benefit society. Under these circumstances, Romanticism was replaced by
Realism in the middle of the nineteenth century.
1.4.2 Major Achievements
During the Romantic period, Western culture developed new styles and
displayed more freedom of creation and room for development after experiencing the Renaissance and the Enlightenment periods. Writers and
­artists created novel ideas and models in different stages of Romanticism
and Realism. It was in this period that Western culture began popularizing
art and literature. The lives of the common people became important subjects for art and literature, and common people also became a new audience for artistic works. The history of the period started in Romanticism
and reached its zenith in Realism.
Romanticism refers to an ideological and cultural movement that prevailed in France, concerning various fields of philosophy, literature, and
art, from the end of the eighteenth century to the first half of the nineteenth century. As a movement of art and literature, it fought against
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19
rationalism, advocated individualism and sentimentalism, exalted nature
and exoticness, and explored the pessimism caused by disillusion.
Realism is an ideological and cultural movement that originated in
France and spread all over Europe and America in the middle of the nineteenth century. Unlike the Romanticists’ emphasis on imagination and
passion for beauty, Realism sought to depict social reality.
1.4.2.1 Thought and Philosophy
Despite its lack of normativity and systematism, the Romantic period saw
many important developments in philosophy. The earlier mechanistic
models of the universe and the primacy of religious theories were both
challenged, while new domains of philosophical endeavor included a concern for the value of individuals and an emphasis on self-fulfillment. These
ideas would come to have a strong influence on the history of Western
thought and its expression in art and literature in the days to come.
1.4.2.2 Literature
Literary geniuses of the Aesthetic Movement, who aspired to individual
liberty and endeavored to describe pure sentiment, flourished during the
Romantic period. Outstanding exponents included Wordsworth,
Coleridge, Byron, Shelley and Keats of Britain; Hugo and George Sand of
France; Heine of Germany; Manzoni of Italy, and Pushkin of Russia.
The Lake Poets were represented by Wordsworth, the writer of Lines
Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey and the Prelude, and Coleridge,
who wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Byron, Shelley and Keats
were among the second generation of Romantic poets, whose masterpieces are Don Juan, Prometheus Unbound, and Ode on a Grecian Urn
respectively. Hugo’s The Hunchback of Notre Dame and Les Misérables
defined him as both a master of Romanticism and the founder of Critical
Realism. The Jewish poet Heine wrote The Romantic School, Book of Songs
and The Silesian Weavers. Russian poet Pushkin’s masterpieces include
Eugene Onegin and The Queen of Spades.
Another literary trend was Realism, also known as Critical Realism. It
opposed over-sentimentalism explicitly, and focused on human psychological and social problems. As the birthplace of Realism, France nourished Stendhal, Honoré de Balzac, Gustave Flaubert, Émile Zola, Guy de
Maupassant, and others.
Stendhal and Balzac laid the foundation of French Critical Realism,
which was reflected in the former’s The Red and the Black, and the latter’s
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Le Père Goriot and La Comédie Humaine. Flaubert displayed Realism
entwined with Aestheticism in his Madame Bovary. Maupassant wrote
Butterball, Bel Ami, and The Necklace. Alexdandre Dumas was the writer
of The Count of Monte Cristo, while his son Dumas Fils’works include La
Dame aux Camélias.
Realism flourished in Britain and Russia. Charles Dickens and the
Brontës were of great prominence. Dickens’ major works include David
Copperfield, Hard Times and A Tale of Two Cities. The three Brontë sisters,
Charlotte, Emily and Anne, showed their talent in Jane Eyre, Wuthering
Heights and Agnes Grey respectively. Lev Tolstoy was the greatest writer of
Critical Realism in Russia. His most renowned works are War and Peace
and Anna Karenina. Anton Chekhov, a writer of short stories and a dramatist, wrote A Chameleon and The Man in a Case.
American literature also attained a high level in this period. Ralph
Waldo Emerson’s Nature, David Thoreau’s Walden and Walt Whitman’s
Leaves of Grass are among the best-known works.
1.4.2.3 Architecture and Art
Romanticism prompted the return of architecture and art to the classical
and medieval styles. The themes artists chose turned from religion and
theology to history and reality, promoting the appearance of Romanticism
and Realism in art. Originating in France in the early nineteenth century,
the Romantic school put more emphasis on emotion and fantasy, on singularity rather than uniformity, and on the importance of color rather than
of sketches. Théodore Géricault’s The Raft of Medusa established him as
the forerunner of Romantic painting. Eugène Delacroix’s masterpiece was
Liberty Leading the People. Following Romanticism, painting came increasingly under the influence of Realism. Jean-Francois Millet and Gustave
Courbet were distinguished exponents. Auguste Rodin, an outstanding
French sculptor of the late nineteenth century, composed The Thinker and
The Age of Bronze.
Impressionism, a new school of painting, appeared in the 1860s in
Europe. The Impressionists used effects of light innovatively to express
transient feelings. Claude Monet, Van Gogh, Gauguin and Cézanne were
major Impressionists. As the founder of early Impressionism in France,
Monet stressed the intricate expression of changes of light, as in Impression,
Sunrise and other paintings. Van Gogh was a late Impressionist, whose
works, including Sunflowers, are painted with great passion. Cézanne,
regarded as the father of modern art, painted The Basket of Apples.
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1.4.2.4 Music
Music in the the Romantic era advocated a return to singularity and
nature, the importance of spontaneity, and the reflection of nationalism. A
great deal of originality was achieved by loosening the conventions of
artistic form. Piano pieces and songs became the dominating form, and
numerous virtuosic musicians emerged, including Beethoven, Schumann,
Mendelssohn, Wagner and Brahms from Germany; Schubert, Strauss the
Elder and Strauss the Younger from Austria; Chopin from Poland; and
Liszt from Hungary.
Ludwig van Beethoven, the greatest German composer of the nineteenth century, who excelled in Classicism and pioneered Romanticism,
composed a considerable number of piano sonatas, symphonies, masses
and an opera. Among them, the nine symphonies, including Eroica, Fate,
Pastoral, and Moonlight Sonata, and the Missa Solemnis, represent a new
tone and power in Western musical history. Schumann primarily composed piano concertos and songs, among which Papillons and Scenes from
Childhood are best known. Mendelssohn’s masterwork was the overture to
Shakespeare’s comedy A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Richard Wagner
invented a theatrical form consisting of singing, performance and music,
and put forward a whole set of new theatrical theories.
The Austrian music genius Schubert displayed his talent in Rose on the
Heath, Spring Faith, and Death and the Maiden. Liszt was the first
Romantic music composer, as reflected in his Faust Symphony. Chopin was
known as the poet of the piano. His works were composed mainly in the
form of piano pieces that combine deep nationalistic thought and perfect
technique, pushing the art of piano to a new height. His representative
works included mazurkas, polonaises, and others.
1.5 The Modern Period
The modern period started in the twentieth century. The main cultural
and intellectual trends it experienced were Modernism in the first half of
the twentieth century and Postmodernism since the 1960s and 1970s of
the century.
1.5.1 Historical Background
Regarded as the most volatile and precarious age in human history, the
twentieth century witnessed the rapid development of Western capitalism,
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the improvement of material productivity, progress in science and technology, as well as ever-changing intellectual trends. Traditional Western values were questioned and challenged. This questioning had a significant
impact on the progression of Western civilization in the period. Modernism
was the artistic reflection of this period of questioning and change. By the
1960s, with the prosperity of multi-national capitalism and modernity, the
process of industrialization had entered a post-industrial phase. With
memories of war fading, and the improvement of material conditions,
artistic Modernism gradually disintegrated, to be replaced by
Postmodernism, which brought new trends in in philosophy, literature,
science, and the arts.
1.5.2 Major Achievements of the Modern Period
In the modern period, western civilization was dominated by Modernism
and Postmodernism. Modernism, with its intentional denial of existing
rules, traditions and customs, was reflected in Symbolism, Surrealism,
Cubism, Expressionism, Futurism, and Fauvism. It was gradually replaced
by Postmodernism. Based on deconstructionism, Postmodernism
expressed doubts about objective facts and tended to adopt a radical perspective of relativity, challenging the world of objectivity.
The basic character of Modernism was humanist and scientific, but the
movement was also characterized by irrationality. The main schools of
Modernism included intuitionism, Existentialism, psychoanalytic theory,
pragmatism, analytic philosophy and Structuralism. Henri Bergson’s intuitionism is a typical example of Western irrationalism in the early twentieth
century. Sartre, a master of Existentialism, emphasized the idea that existence precedes essence. Freud was the founder of psychoanalytic theory, in
which human consciousness is divided into consciousness, sub-­
consciousness and unconsciousness. Pragmatism, a significant contribution of American philosophy to Western culture, was created by Peirce.
Analytic philosophy and Structuralism represented key philosophical
trends of the twentieth century.
Postmodernism broke down into deconstructionism and neo-­
pragmatism. Originating in France and popularized in America, deconstructionism derived from Structuralism. Derrida, one of its most
important proponents, asserted that the meaning of language does not
come from linguistic symbols as such, but from the differences between
A CONCISE HISTORY OF WESTERN CULTURES
23
them. Neo-Pragmatism borrowed the theoretical methodology of
analytic philosophy as the basis of pragmatism. Its chief exponent was
Quine.
1.5.2.1 Literature
Literary trends turned from Critical Realism to Modernism in the early
twentieth century. The appearance of Symbolism in the nineteenth century was one of the first manifestations of Modernism. Post-symbolism,
Expressionism, the stream of consciousness novel, Surrealism and
Existentialism were schools of Modernist literature. Despite its variety
and different styles, Modernist literature had a strong flavor of irrationalism, which tends to convey the absurdity, indifference and incomprehensibility of the surrounding world, expressing emotions of disappointment
and the consciousness of crisis. Late Symbolism implied the complex and
intricate psychological activities of human beings by the use of symbols,
images and metaphors, and free association. T.S. Eliot, the major figure of
Symbolism, wrote The Waste Land. With its social criticism and intense
subjectivity, expressionist literature stressed the psychological world
instead of the real world. As the author of Metamorphosis, the AustrianCzech writer Kafka was a prominent figure of Expressionism. Stream-ofconsciousness, a term borrowed from American psychologist and
philosopher William James, compared a person’s flowing consciousness to
a stream. Marcel Proust and William Faulkner were important writers of
stream-of-consciousness novels.
Postmodernism arose in literature in the 1950s and 1960s. It inherited
and promoted the spirit of criticality and creativity of Modernism. It
tended to mock reality, laud irrationality, and pronounce the collapse of
traditional moral and aesthetic values. Theatre of the Absurd, nouveau
roman (new novel), and black humor were among various schools of
Postmodernism.
1.5.2.2 Art
The major schools of art were Fauvism, Cubism, Expressionism, and
Futurism. Fauvism was characterized by the bold use of colors. Matisse
was a typical artist of Fauvism, and his major works include Femme au
châpeau (Woman with a Hat). Cubism, a turning point of art history,
demonstrated cubic images on planes. Picasso, the founder of Cubism,
created Les demoiselles d’Avignon (The Young Ladies of Avignon) and
Guernica.
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Postmodern art can be roughly classified into abstract art and figurative
art. Specific schools include Pop Art, Op Art, Environmental Art, Earth
Art, and Body Art.
1.6 Film
Film, a new integrated element, was born in the modern period. It is
hailed as le septième art for its integration of literature, photography, music,
art and other disciplines. The Lumière Brothers were regarded as the earliest filmmakers in history. Hollywood has been the center of filmmaking
since 1913, cultivating numerous outstanding directors and movie stars
such as D.W. Griffith and Charlie Chaplin. From Realist films in the 1920s,
and the sound films of the 1930s, to later block-busters, Hollywood films
have played a significant role in Western movie history.
References
Shouming, Jiang, and Hong Xia. 2004. A History of Western Culture. Beijing: The
Science Publishing Company.
Wang, Lixin. 2005. A Brief History of Western Culture. Zhengzhou: Henan
People’s Publishing House.
Xu, Xin. 2007. A History of Western Culture. Beijing: Beijing University Press.
Ye, Shengnian. 2002. A Referential History of Western Culture. Shanghai: Shanghai
Foreign Language. Education Press.
Zhan, Limin, and Peng Jiahai. 2007. An Introduction to Western Classical Culture.
Wuhan: Wuhan University Press.
CHAPTER 2
Music in Western Culture
As with its sister arts, music in the West has undergone a millennium of
evolution, which has constructed a splendid acoustic world full of musical
masterpieces of various styles and from different schools. The source of
Western classical music can be dated back to as early as the ancient Greek
and Roman periods. Due to the absence of archeological evidence relating
to music, it is through literary references that the world of ancient music
is known. Yet, though ancient Greek and Roman culture had a considerable influence on later cultural development and the Renaissance saw it as
its mission to revive them, the direct source of Western music is the
Christian music of the Middle Ages. On the basis of Christian culture,
Western classical music, via the Renaissance, the Baroque period, the
Classical period, the Romantic period, and the twentieth century, has
undergone changes in venue from churches to concert halls, and in audience from noblemen to ordinary people. In the course of a millennium,
Western music developed certain styles to a high level of sophistication
through constant analysis, while bringing forth new musical expressions
through unceasing self-improvement.
This chapter briefly introduces the development and innovations of
Western music in the context of evolving Western thought.
© The Author(s) 2018
G. Xu et al. (eds.), K. Chen et al. (trans.), Introduction to Western
Culture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8153-8_2
25
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2.1 Early Development of Western Music: Music
During the Medieval and Renaissance Periods
2.1.1 Medieval Music
The word “medieval” was created by a group of Italian humanist scholars
who were reviewing the history of feudal society under the reign of
Western religion. Praising the achievements of the Greek and Roman culture, and those of their contemporary period of “Renaissance,” the scholars named the millennial period between these two culturally brilliant
periods “the medieval period.” Despite the label “savage, chaotic and
ignorant” that has been attached to the period, the medieval era, under
the governance of the Christian Church, witnessed great developments in
culture and the arts against the backdrop of Christian culture. It was in
Christian culture that western classical music took root and thrived. In the
meantime, other musical forms such as folk music and instrumental music
struggled to survive.
2.1.1.1 Monophony
Cultural and educational activities during the medieval period were controlled by the Christian Church, that would often simultaneously support
and thwart them. Since the clergy were in general the only intellectuals, all
aspects of culture became servants of theology. In the aspect of music, the
most predominant musical form during the period was Gregorian chant.
2.1.1.1.1 Church Music
Gregorian chant was the core of medieval Church music.
The legend goes that Gregorian chant arose when the cooing of pigeons
(which are the incarnation of the Holy Spirit in Christianity) was heard
and recorded by Pope Gregory. The truth, of course, was that Gregorian
chant was neither taught by pigeons nor created by the Pope. Gregorian
chant came from the joint efforts of generations of Church musicians during hundreds of years of composition and compiling. The Gregorian chant
of the Roman Catholic Church occupies a primary position in the history
of Western professional art music. Bible passages were sung in Latin in
monophony, without any accompaniment. Singers were male (the exclusion of females by the Church in the early ages seemed a common practice) and mainly members of Church choirs who had been trained by
special singing schools. These professional male singers breathed evenly to
MUSIC IN WESTERN CULTURE
27
chant and praise God in a monotone, since no vocal embellishments were
allowed.
The rhythms of Gregorian chant are somewhat of a mystery today, due
to the absence of explicit marks of rhythm in the hymn notation. According
to the analysis of the contemporary scholars, the hymn rhythm naturally
came into being on the basis of syllables and accents in the lyrics, and its
melodic direction and contours were designed to follow natural fluctuations of pitch. Every pause in a sung lyric occurred either according to the
lyric’s meaning or for the sake of the singer’s need to take a breath. Hence,
the rhythm of Gregorian chant was determined by both lyrical songs and
natural pitch. Later developments of Gregorian chant saw it lengthen and
become increasingly varied and complex. These changes were opposed by
the Church, which however ultimately failed to prevent them.
2.1.1.1.2 Secular Music
Secular music during the medieval period is a close combination of poetry
and music, much like China’s early Book of Songs, which also has a monophonic melody and takes verses as lyrics. As perfectly epitomized by Dante,
the concept of poetry during the medieval period was that music alone
could not be called a song, for it was just a sound. In other words, the
“song” was not a real song unless lyrics had been written for it. Compared
with Church music, secular music was chanted and sung in a more unrestrained and freer way, never straying from man’s everlasting subject: love
between men and women.
People who sang secular lyrics during the medieval period were given
titles such as traveling poet, wandering player, and troubadour. The
twelfth century saw the establishment of universities. Living an unrestrained life and spending much time on traveling, college students in
France, England and Germany became wanderers roving all over Europe
and even beyond, and thus were dubbed traveling poets. The poems sung
by them were mainly concerned with commenting on current events;
deriding the Church; eulogizing beauty, wine and other pleasures; and
advocating spontaneity of feeling and enjoyment of life. Wandering players, by contrast, lived a less casual and unconstrained life, and made a living as performers. Working in a way similar to that of professional
musicians, they performed for money or other rewards in mixed groups of
two or more members, singing, performing, or training beasts.
Troubadours came from the aristocracy or the knighthood. They sang of
honor, love, and fidelity. As the German philosopher Hegel pointed out,
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chivalry marked the necessary transition from the principle of religious
inwardness to entry into mundane spiritual life.
2.1.1.2 Polyphony
Polyphony is a musical composition in simultaneous and harmonizing but
independent melodies. The first phase of this new system appeared in the
late medieval period. Early examples of polyphony, in which two voices
sang simultaneously, were recorded around the tenth century. One of
these voices sang the plainsong melody (a Gregorian chant melody) called
the main part, while the other overlapped the main part at a perfect fifth,
fourth, or eighth beneath. This genre of music is called “Organum.” Over
subsequent centuries, the polyphonic form gradually came into being and
developed from this basis. In Europe, the center of polyphonic music creation was Notre Dame de Paris in France. The twelfth and thirteenth
centuries saw many distinguished French musicians of the time gather at
Notre Dame. They composed polyphonic music and created the new
musical genre of the motet. One of the most important polyphonic musical genres in Western religion, this ancient genre of motet is still composed
to this day.
2.1.1.3 Instrumental Music: Organs
Organs were the only musical instruments permitted by the early Church,
and as such they became almost indispensable in every European church
building. An organ has one or more keyboards (keyboard manuals), played
by the hands, and a pedalboard played by the feet. Each keyboard has its
own group of stops. The smallest portable organs may have only one or
two dozen pipes and one manual; the largest may have over 20,000 pipes
and seven manuals. The air, stored in the air reservoir and led into the bellows by pressure, pushes open the valve under the control of the keys, thus
giving the pipes a continuous supply of air by which to sustain musical
notes as the corresponding keys are pressed. The grand and powerful
sound met the requirement of the Church for instrumental music acoustics to “impassively” proclaim the unquestioned authority and majesty of
God. For that reason, the “organ” served as the best of what may have
embodied the Church’s instrumental music acoustics in the early days.
MUSIC IN WESTERN CULTURE
29
2.1.2 Music During the Renaissance
The term “Renaissance” refers to a cultural movement that swept over
Europe from the end of the fourteenth century to the end of the sixteenth
century. It was a movement that, by highlighting the great value put on
man and man’s dignity in ancient culture, advocated individual freedom
and emancipation, promoted science and rationality, and opposed the
God-centered feudal theological system so as to establish and consolidate
the bourgeoisie’s anti-feudalism and anti-clericalism. The Renaissance was
undoubtedly a bugle blown in the cultural field by the bourgeoisie,
announcing the new importance of that class on the stage of cultural history. As part of the wider influence of Renaissance ideology, Western music
was also ushered into a new era in which polyphonic music became the
dominant musical trend.
2.1.2.1 Development of Music Schools
Music during the Renaissance experienced various stages of development,
each with its respective center and representative musical forms.
2.1.2.1.1 The British School
British composers played a major role in developing European musical
style in the early stage of the Renaissance. As an insular country separate
from the European continent, England differed greatly from France and
Italy in its musical style. British style had a strong folk flavor and a preference for the third degree and the sixth degree in the longitudinal interval
of polyphony, which was rather different from the acoustic norm of the
medieval period that mainly used the first degree, the fourth degree, the
fifth degree, and the eighth degree. More importantly, British composers
started and developed a new technique of creating polyphonic music:
fauxbourdon, that is, pseudo bass in French. In fauxbourdon, the singer
improvises the melody of the fourth underneath the existing melody. This
improvised technique has also been widely used in the harmonic composition of modern pop music.
2.1.2.1.2 The Burgundy School
In the mid-fifteenth century, Burgundy in central France became the
music center where so many masterpieces of Church music and secular
music were composed that it was generally considered by academics to be
the birthplace of Renaissance music. Guillaume Dufay (1400–1474) is the
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most representative composer of the time. A composer for fifty years, he
made remarkable achievements in the creation of Church music and secular music and played an important role in the development of musical
style. Everywhere in his creative works one is able to sense the influence of
the English music of the early Renaissance, with its outstanding homophonic texture and vast third and sixth acoustics.
2.1.2.1.3 The Flemish School
In the second half of the fifteenth century, the Flemish School—the direct
successor of the Burgundy School—appeared in northern France and the
Low Countries. Over more than 100 years’ development, there emerged
numerous brilliant Renaissance composers of the Flemish School. In
Church music, the Mass became the main genre. The composers chose to
compose a complete set for multiple regular Masses. It was also during this
period that the four-part regulation in motet was established, and the
modern four-part concept of the chorus was initiated. Secular music was
increasingly thriving as well: Italian madrigal, French chanson, and German
liede were all developed into highly artistic songs with three to five parts
composed in the polyphonic technique. The most important secular music
genre in Italy, the madrigal, named after ancient Italian folk shepherd
songs, was later developed into indoor vocal pieces sung on high-level
social occasions.
2.1.2.1.4 The Roman School
The Council of Trent (an ecumenical council within the Roman Catholic
Church, held on several occasions between 1545 and 1563) reiterated
religious doctrine and launched the reform and reorganization of the
Church, which resulted in the Roman school. One of its foremost composers was Palestrina (1525–1594), honored as the greatest composer of
Church music in the sixteenth century. Conservative as his musical style
appears to be, it must be remembered that it was under the bondage of the
Church that he created his music style with its concise form, rigorous
structure, and bright acoustics.
2.1.2.1.5 The Venetian School
In Venice, where capitalist commercial activities first took place, the spirit
of worldly pleasures was advocated. In the Basilica di San Marco (Saint
Mark’s Church) in Venice, the representatives of the Venetian School,
Domenico Gabrielli and his nephew, produced the authentic “concerto”
MUSIC IN WESTERN CULTURE
31
that utilized multiple choruses that each varied within a range of the high
pitch and that alternately sang, responded to each other or competed to
play. The acoustic mode of the concerto genre exactly derived from this
school.
2.1.2.2 Instrumental Music
Renaissance instrumental music gradually achieved independence from
vocal music. Although the period was dominated by lute music, there
were many new instruments coming into being, bringing about a series of
instrumental musical genres such as the variation, pavane and allemande
from dance music, and the prelude, fantasie, and toccata from improvisational works. Each genre of instrumental music possesses its own stylistic
characteristics.
2.2 Music of the Baroque and Classical Periods
2.2.1 Baroque Music
Baroque music spanned 150 years from the appearance of opera in 1600
to the death of Bach in 1750. “Baroque” was originally a word with negative connotations, meaning of “irregular pearl.” Scholars and experts at
the time considered Baroque art unusual and without any structured or
perfect forms, and then thought of a word that could describe such a style.
“Baroque” is still used but generally without these negative connotations;
instead, Baroque style today generally refers to a synthetic artistic image
decorated magnificently and gorgeously. The Baroque period, when synthetic arts were greatly popular, gave birth to the greatest musical genre:
opera. Both noblemen and common citizens showed such high enthusiasm for operas that watching them even became one of the most important music entertainments, and the popularity of the form also promoted
developments in theatrical, Church, and indoor music.
During the Baroque years, the royalty and nobility, as the major consumers of musical art, contributed significantly to the development of the
sponsorship system for artists. Musicians, as the “craftsmen” within noble
families, though nominally in a position of servitude, lived comfortably
with a steady income and life security under the shelter of their sponsors.
Yet, as musicians were supposed to constantly create works pandering to
the sponsors’ and the audiences’ interest, taste and predilections, a great
many pieces were composed that lacked high artistic value. Baroque music
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passed through a number of stages. The first saw the co-existence of
homophonic and polyphonic textures. Then the latter gradually shifted to
the homophonic style and the music of the corresponding homophonic
texture included two layers: the layer of melody and that of harmony.
Therefore, the homophonic music generally had only one melody, which
brought about more apparent advantages in the expression of musical feelings, which differed from polyphonic music fundamentally in structure.
Polyphonic texture stressed the interwoven variation among melodies,
while homophonic music highlighted the development and change of the
melody itself, which was thus more distinct.
An aria of an opera generally has two forms: the recitative and the aria
proper. A recitative is in the style of a recitation, with a comparatively free
and irregular rhythm close to that of speech; an aria, on the other hand, is
highly singable and expresses the protagonist’s personal feelings. They co-­
exist in opera music, the recitative carrying the story-line and the aria
providing the melodic music intoned when the character expresses feelings. The performance of instrumental music’s dynamics contributes to
the uniqueness of Baroque music as well. The inability of the main Church
instrument (the pipe organs of the Baroque period) to perform crescendo
and decrescendo made contrasts of musical dynamics mostly ladder-like,
without much attention being paid to variations in volume within one
phrase.
2.2.1.1 Opera and Oratorio: A Dazzling Pearl of Music
Florence witnessed the birth of operas at the turn of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. The opera came into being when an elite circle of
literate youth (including Vincenzo Galilei, Jacopo Peri and Caccini) who
gathered as “Camerata de Bardi” and created art pieces together, attempted
to perform the story content in musical forms (such as solo and chorus)
by imitating the comprehensive art form of ancient Greek tragedies. Dafne
was the earliest opera of Camerata, of which the libretto was written by
Rinuccini with the music composed by Peri. Their later Euridice has survived. These two operas both originated in ancient Roman and Greek
myths.
Widely admired from the moment it came into being, opera became a
favorite art with the support of the nobility, who funded it and as a consequence of whose support larger-scale operatic works were composed and
performed. When its active center shifted to Rome and Venice in the
1620s, the opera started to change in style. Compared with earlier operas,
MUSIC IN WESTERN CULTURE
33
the operas of this time added ballet scenes to the splendid stage performance, thus heralding the separation of the story-telling recitation and the
self-expressive aria. The opera protagonists were all played by eunuch
singers. Castrated when very young, the eunuch singers not only maintained the high-pitched voice of children, but also possessed the male’s
vigor and broad breath. Such physically and mentally twisted victims of art
might have had something to do with the contemporary prohibition of
females from singing by the Church.
During this period, a new opera style emerged: that of opera seria. This
type of opera was quite stylized in the arrangement of drama and the
accompanying music. The story was generally divided into three acts with
short intermezzos, most of which were comedies inserted between the
second and third acts to lessen the opera’s serious atmosphere. Opera
singers had already begun to employ the Bel Canto, known today for its
mellow and smooth sound, and vigorous full toned quality. Now emerged
the form of ABA—structured “da capo aria” in aria, where the content of
the first period was repeated in the final period. The singers reached agreement that the first period should be sung basically according to the composer’s musical notation requirement and when it came to the third
period, the music began to be much interspersed so that the singers could
show off their vocal skills.
Although the opera is most associated with Italy, it also developed distinctive characteristics in England, France and Germany. For example, the
French opera contained a large number of ballet scenes in which, rather
than using eunuchs, limits were imposed on the singers’ virtuosity. The
oratorio, the outcome of religious reform and seemingly a limited imitation launched by the religious circle for the sake of protecting its own
cultural status, was themed on religion. The singers, sitting in front of the
band one by one, did not act, thereby removing the requirement to provide scenery. The oratorio is similar to the opera in musical style and form.
2.2.1.2 The Increasing Popularity of Instrumental Music
2.2.1.2.1 Keyboard Music
The leading keyboard instruments during the period were pipe organs and
clavichords. As modern pianos had not yet appeared, all the piano works
of Baroque keyboard music accessible today differ from what was originally intended in terms of their acoustic effects.
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The development and popularization of keyboard instruments created
opportunities for various styles of instrumental music. Such instrumental
music styles as toccata, fantasy and prelude are primarily improvisational.
Instrumental music styles, such as theme with variation, passacaglia, and
chaconne depended largely on variation techniques. Nicholas Slonimsky
celebrated variations as “sweet ornament[s] of melody.” Structurally,
musical compositions in this category usually started with a theme and
proceeded in the following sections to ornament and alter it in terms of
rhythm, form, and texture so that the theme was “polished.” In instrumental music, fugue was a musical composition where the theme interwove with its body and variants. Thanks to the joint efforts of Bach and
his contemporaries, fugue was pushed to its developmental peak. Suite is
dance music consisting of four movements: fast—slow—fast—slow.
Composers used dance music that was representative of all the major
European countries; for instance, allemande was from Germany, courante
from France, gigue from England, and so on. The integration of dance
music with various styles and rhythmic forms made movements contrastive
and varied.
2.2.1.2.2 String Music
Most of the musical instruments that many cellists nowadays active on the
stage play with (musical instruments are divided into those used in the
play and those for practice, and the former are far more expensive than the
latter) are valuable ancient violins, and most of which came from Cremona
in Italy during the Baroque period. Trees grown there are particularly suitable for making violins, hence the region’s association with generations of
excellent violin makers—the Amatis, the Guamefis, and the Stradivaris, to
name a few. The Chinese-American cellist Yo-Yo Ma plays the famous
violoncello “Davidoff,” made by the Stradivarius, while the violin used by
the violinist Paganini—which is held in the Italian Genoese Museum and
with which every gold-award winner in Premio Paganini can hold a concert—is the “Cannon,” made by the Guamefis. The development of violin-making has always gone hand-in-hand with developments in playing
and composition. Violin virtuosity developed late in the Baroque period.
Unique bowing, intricate double-stop, and multi-stop, along with very
fast playing, all contributed to this virtuosity.
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2.2.1.2.3 Ensemble Music
Concerto was the primary ensemble music, as symphony had not come
into existence by the Baroque period. Concerto is a style of instrumental
music which not only emphasizes the competition among performers
using various instruments but also integrates the competition into a whole
of united acoustics. The violin was the best of concerto musical instruments then. A concerto is generally composed of three fast—slow—fast
movements, with the first movement being the longest and also the most
dramatic, aiming at highlighting the confrontation, competition and reconciliation in acoustics between the solo and the band; the second movement, written in light of the opera’s aria style, is usually lyrical, mellow and
very expressive, while the third movement, usually a bright dance, is the
shortest and yet the most vigorous. When the band stops playing, the solo
part called ‘cadenza’ usually appears in the first and third movements to
ornament and develop the themes within the movements, so as to highlight the soloist’s excellent command of playing techniques.
2.2.1.3 Great Musicians of the Baroque Period
Many musicians emerged during the Baroque period, among whom the
bellwethers were Bach, Handel and Vivaldi. The Bach family was rich in
musicians, of whom Johann Sebastian Bach was the most prestigious composer in Western musical history. Bach was devoutly religious, and never
left Germany. Embracing a sincere religious faith, he industriously composed music and communicated with God. His master works were cantatas
(then the name of vocal works in the Western world), Passions (music that
describes the crucifixion of Jesus) and other works composed for musical
instruments such as the pipe organ, the clavichord, the violin and the violoncello, among which the St Matthew Passion, French Suites, English Suites,
Brandenburg Concertos, and keyboard works such as The Well-Tempered
Clavier, are most familiar. Bach’s influence on later generations has continued to modern times. The great German composer Schumann is reported
to have said that, “music owes as much to Bach as a religion to its founder.
Playing and studying Bach convinces us that we are all numskulls.”
Handel grew up in Germany, studied in Italy, and made his fame in
England. His compositions include operas, oratorios and a substantial body
of religious instrumental works. Oratorios are Handel’s most successful
works, represented by his Messiah, Saul, Samson, and Israel in Egypt, among
which Messiah, which narrates the birth, crucifixion and resurrection of
Christ, is perhaps the best known, especially for its “Hallelujah chorus.”
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Vivaldi was an Italian composer who, though adept in many musical
styles such as opera and instrumental music, gained his main fame in the
field of instrumental music. Not only did Vivaldi leave the world many
beautiful violin concertos, but he also perfected the form of the solo concerto. His violin concertos known as The Four Seasons are still renowned
today.
2.2.2 Music During the Classical Period
2.2.2.1 Cultural Movements and Musical Composition
The Enlightenment in the eighteenth century was another ideological
reform and leap after the Renaissance, and it represented another chapter
in the struggle of the bourgeoisie to achieve full equality and to break
through the existing cultural hegemony. Influenced by this ideological
movement, the whole musical culture was moving in a new direction as
well, and Sturm und Drang in particular had a significant impact on literary circles and the art world. Sturm und Drang was a large-scale bourgeois
literary movement that was prominent in Germany from the 1670s to the
1680s, being named after the German writer Friedrich Maximilian
Klinger’s play of the same name. It evolved from a claim for mild reform
to a public confrontation with society, and opposed the autocratic system,
emphasized the nationality of literature, and demanded individual freedom and freedom of creation.
The main characteristics of music in the prime of Classicism embodied
the equilibrium and rationality of Classical ideology. Homophony dominated the music of the period, with priority being given to the melody—
especially the soprano part—while the bass and the concord served as the
accompaniment. The phrases were made to match each other and to be
read clearly with pauses, manifesting the logic of rational thinking prevalent then. In terms of the rhythm, there was structured cyclic variation
with distinct and clear levels. Complicated and delicate, the concord was
logical in function as well. In that sense, Classical ideology was interpreted
marvelously in music during the Classical period. Secondly, the influence
of Sturm und Drang was reflected in the works of musicians such as
C.P.E. Bach and others. In pursuit of the dramatization of music, their
works were sharply contrastive in acoustics that made extensive use of
modulation and pauses, thus contributing a significant style—“affective
style”—to European music. During this period, musicians began to enjoy
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enhanced status. Mozart became an independent musician after breaking
with the archbishop of Salzburg whom he had worked for in his early
years, living by completing solicited works and selling his own. Beethoven,
a good music salesman as well as an independent musician, was expert in
securing a good price for his works. Beethoven’s confidence in his own
abilities is well illustrated by an apocryphal story: once, after some unpleasantness between him and a prince, Beethoven said with complete confidence: “Prince, what you are, you are by accident of birth; what I am, I am
by myself. There are and will be a thousand princes; there is only one
Beethoven!” This exchange reflected the fundamental change that composers had already broken away from the “shelter and constraints” of the
Court, the nobility, and the Church. Liberation from the fate of being
musical servants enabled them to create musical works completely in the
light of their own interests and aspirations. As the chief audience and consumers of music had now changed from the nobles to the middle class,
there appeared comic operas in the musical form, catering to middle class
tastes. Theaters and music halls grew in popularity, and music reviews and
music publications were on the rise. The music publishing business
depended on the printing and publication of music scores and music
notes, to satisfy bourgeois families’ demand for music.
Hence one can see that on every level, music development during the
Classical period combined innovations in ideology, technique, social consciousness, and class status.
2.2.2.2 Musical Genres and Works of the Classical Period
2.2.2.2.1 Piano Music
In 1709, Cristofori, an Italian, invented the piano in an attempt to better
existing keyboard instruments such as the harpsichord. The piano’s advantage lay in its ability to control different volumes. Having been improved
unceasingly since its invention, the piano gradually not only came to be
specially favored by composers, but also became an important piece of
“furniture” in ordinary European households.
2.2.2.2.2 Instrumental Ensembles
The symphony was the foremost style of instrumental music to emerge
during the Classical period. Symphony was formerly the prelude solo
played by the band at the beginning of an opera with the task of introducing the opera’s “musical emotions.” If the prelude was cheerful in tone,
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the opera must have a delightful atmosphere and end with a “happy
reunion,” while if the prelude had an atmosphere of mourning, the opera
would have a tragic tone. It was precisely upon the foundation of prelude
that the symphony gained gradual development into the song cycle composed of four movements: allegro—andante—minuet—finale. These
words indicate the speed, function or emotion of the movements, rather
than what each stands for. As the song cycle that expressed the abstract
musical content, the symphony, the “formidable giant” of instrumental
music, later turned into the best-loved musical form of many composers.
2.2.2.3 Musicians During the Classical Period
Music during the Classical period underwent two phases: the Pre-Classical
period and the High Classical period (Viennese School). Music of the
High Classical period is generally more familiar to us today.
2.2.2.3.1 Composers of the Pre-Classical Period
Composers during the period included the Italian Scarlatti and two members of the Bach family: C.P.E. Bach and J.C. Bach. Scarlatti focused on
creating works for keyboard music such as that of the harpsichord or the
clavichord. Though born in Italy, Scarlatti toured all the European courts,
which endowed his music with the mixed styles of the traditional folk
music of many European countries, as well as the comedic style of Italian
music. Short as they are, the rich textures of Scarlatti’s approximately 550
piano sonatas have gained a key place in the thousand-year history of
Western music.
Unlike their father Johann Sebastian, who had spent a lifetime in
Leipzig, C.P.E. Bach and J.C. Bach worked in Hamburg in Germany and
London in England respectively, and therefore C.P.E. Bach was also called
“Hamburg Bach” while J.C. Bach “London Bach.” Though few works by
the two composers survive, symphonies, concertos, keyboard sonatas and
other works by C.P.E. Bach had a significant impact on the development
and perfection of the classical sonata’ musical form. He was the predecessor of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, and J.C. Bach also influenced
Mozart greatly in the forming of the latter’s musical style. Their musical
works were significant during the transition from the Baroque period to
the Classical period, from which one can experience the step-by-step conversion of polyphonic music to homophonic music, and gain a clear idea
of how musical style had given rise to its new creation rules by breaking
the old principles.
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2.2.2.3.2 Composers of the High Classical Period
Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven are honored as the “Three Vienna Classical
Music Masters,” since Vienna was the place where their composition primarily took place. In their works were integrated not only the stylistic
features of the High Classical period but also a more individual and reflective sensibility.
As a lifelong servant of the wealthy Esterházy family, Haydn spent
much of his career conscientiously composing music works of various
types and genres for his aristocratic masters, and his works therefore bear
a certain link with court preferences. Haydn was very productive, and
composed in an extensive range covering opera, oratorio, cantata, symphony (104 pieces), instrumental concerto, string quartet, and other
indoor music, with his symphonies The Surprise, Farewell and The Clock,
the oratorio The Creation, and the Emperor Quartet, being the most representative. Profoundly reflecting Haydn’s simple, delightful, humorous
and upbeat musical style, the works exerted tremendous influence on later
composers and musicians. In terms of musical genre, Haydn contributed
primarily by establishing the historical role of string quartets and improving the structure of symphony.
Mozart’s music generally impressed the audience by its meticulous delicacy and elegance. As a child Mozart had already demonstrated his prodigious talent, that remains unparalleled today. At the age of three, he was
taken to travel around the European courts, which helped him accumulate
plentiful musical and cultural experiences, thus laying the foundation for
his subsequent creations. As he entered adulthood, Mozart soon ventured
alone to Vienna, the city of music, remaining there until his death at the
age of thirty-five. Although he lived less than four decades, Mozart left the
world an amazing number of masterpieces.
Mozart always wrote fluently when composing musical works, and this
naive purity constantly appears in his works. Before Mozart wrote down
the music, the overall framework and parts of the musical work had already
been worked out in his mind, so that every detail flowed effortlessly. His
last three symphonies (Nos. 39, 40, and 41), for instance, were written
within just one month.
Mozart achieved his greatest success in the composition of operas,
including many opera serias and opera buffas of different European
­countries’ styles, such as The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute and Don
Giovanni. There are many well-known arias in the opera The Marriage of
Figaro, such as: Figaro’s aria “No more gallivanting,” the footman
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Cherubino’s “I don’t know anymore what I am.” and Rosina’s “Where
are they, the beautiful moments?” Put in the Italian-style opera buffa by
Mozart, the opera in Italian had high-level classical ensembles in addition
to the light melody Mozart was versed in. The Magic Flute, on the other
hand, was a typical German opera buffa which was generally called singspiel. Mozart’s choice of themes for his compositions was linked to the
desires of European citizens who, under the influence of the French
Revolution, longed for liberty, equality and fraternity. The final victory of
light over darkness and of evil over good displayed the composers’ social
ideals. The music of these works also shows Mozart’s remarkable grasp of
German folk style, and the German folk songs and comedy pieces composed for Papageno (the bird catcher) add much appeal to the whole
opera.
Mozart devoted a great deal of energy to composing instrumental
works. Our acquaintance with such genres as symphony and concerto
would be incomplete without his works. Mozart also composed a certain
number of religious works, with his last work left to the genre of requiem
as if he had sensed the draining away of life and longed for God’s salvation
and spiritual tranquility.
Beethoven was more like an “angry lion” in both his appearance and his
musical style, both being obstinate and unruly. Growing up in the awakening years of the French Revolution, he was strictly devoted to pursuing his
musical dream for a lifetime. Extremely strict with his works, and striving
to have them measure up to perfection, he revised them constantly until
he was satisfied. His works seem fervent and inherently high-spirited and
brimming with passion, which not only embodied the change of the times
and the circumstances of the social revolution in his age but, also served as
a mirror of Beethoven’s uncompromising personality. For a composer,
nothing was crueler and harder to overcome than a hearing impairment,
yet Beethoven’s willpower succeeded in withstanding the torture that fate
brought him. Despite turning completely deaf in his later years, Beethoven
composed all the more impressive and introspective works, which led him
to new artistic heights.
Of all Beethoven’s works, his nine epic symphonies fully deserve to be
the most significant, since they stand as an insurmountable peak in the
genre of symphony; the 32 piano sonatas were universally acknowledged
as “the New Testament” in music, among which Moonlight, Pathétique,
Appassionata, and Tempest remain deeply rooted in people’s hearts; the
string quartets condenses how his productive idea evolved from “fervent
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emotion” to “extreme introspection”; the prelude of Egmont reveals his
heroism, idealism and a sense of tragedy; and the opera Fidelio echoes
directly his ideal of fraternal order. His powerful and sparking works are
full of heroic feelings and are fully worthy of the admiration and reverence
in which they continue to be held.
2.3 Booming of Western Music: Music
During the Romantic Period
2.3.1 The Influence of Cultural Movements on Musical
Production
During the Romantic period, music primarily took on the following
features.
Firstly, the thoughts and ideals of the time were reflected in the styles
and features of musical language. During the Romantic period music was
more lyrical in melody which gave a full expression to personal feelings;
the verses, out of the control of rationalism, were no longer as regulated
rhythmically and structurally as before; and they turned irregular in order
to convey rich and delicate hidden feelings; no longer was rhythm in rational circulation and it became more unconstrained and complex; the harmony of colors was put in an important position, and tonality was
increasingly novel and varied. The timbre of symphony was enriched by
the continuous expansion of new members of the family of musical
instruments.
Secondly, there appeared two types of professional musicians, embodying a reinforcement of musical professionalization. One type was professional concert performers, who spent a great deal of time improving their
playing skills so as to perfectly interpret the composers’ challenging works
and to inspire the composers to go even further. Moreover, now that they
were able to dedicate themselves to composition wholeheartedly, composers produced more exquisite works. The other type was the conductors.
Originally, the work of conducting had been done by the chief violinist,
who coordinated the music with his violin bow. To avoid multitasking and
also due to the increasing complexity of symphony performance, a
­musician was separated from the musicians to serve as the commander of
the whole band, to orchestrate every instrument and every part. In this
sense, the conductor played the world’s largest musical instrument: the
symphony orchestra.
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Another important feature of the Romantic period was that poetry and
music as sister arts were intermingled with each other. Poetry enhanced
music, as a result of which symphonic poems, songs without words, and
other genres closely related to literature came into being. Music improved
the tension of the drama, and therefore composers took delight in utilizing the themes of literary works in their musical production. Based on the
literary work Faust by Goethe, musical works appeared such as Gounod’s
Faust, Berlioz’s La Damnation de Faust, Liszt’s Faust Symphony and piano
work Mephisto Waltz, among others.
Additionally, the vanishing of the original employment system fundamentally altered musicians’ status, and “musician” turned into a seemingly
fashionable independent occupation. In Germany there were Schubert,
Mendelssohn, Schumann, Brahms, Wagner, Mahler, and Richard Strauss;
in France, Berlioz, Gounod, Bizet, Frank, Massenet, Saint-Saens, and
Faure; in Italy, Rossini, Verdi, Paganini, and Puccini; in Russia, Tchaikovsky,
Glinka, Rimsky-Korsakov, and Scriabin; in other European countries,
Chopin, Liszt, Grieg, Smetana, Dvorak, and others. Guided by the individualism advocated during the Romantic period, musicians had a greater
sense of independence. All these changes were clearly shown in their artistic production, as well as in their emphasis upon their individuality and
personal pursuits.
Lastly, public music life was enriched, which showed the improvement
of the political and economic status of the middle class and the great
increase in their demand for cultural life. Apart from the growth in the
number of concerts and bands, many musical organizations and institutes
were established in succession, and the number of music lovers rose in
proportion to the whole of the population in society.
2.3.2 Abundant Music Genres and Content
2.3.2.1 Opera
Opera remained one of the most important musical genres in the nineteenth century. Many European countries including Italy, France, and
Germany had each developed operas with characteristics and styles of their
own. Grouped by theme and the pattern, there were for example, traditional Italian opera seria and comic opera, French rescue opera, musical
tragedy and grand opera, and German rising opera and operas of nationalist style, all of which were derived from classic representative works.
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2.3.2.1.1 Italian Opera
Italian operas boasted not only serious and conventionalized opera serie,
but also comic operas which were lively and rich in manifestation. During
the early Romantic period, which witnessed the Bourbon Restoration and
that of some other royal houses in Europe, Rossini was the most prestigious opera composer. Affecting and beautiful melody flows throughout
Rossini’s operas, for which he was recognized as the indisputable “Master
of Melody.” Comic operas such as The Barber of Seville, and The Thieving
Magpie give expression to his beautiful melody and lively style. All the
stories chosen by Rossini for the opera content present European folk
customs with a naturalistic passion. The Barber of Seville and Mozart’s The
Marriage of Figaro were referred to as “Superb pair of comedy” not only
because they were adapted from the first and second parts of the plays by
the French playwright Pierre Beaumarchais (characters in The Barber of
Seville are the same as those in The Marriage of Figaro) but also in that
both works are the two composers’ best comic operas. By utilizing smooth
and beautiful decorative melodies as well as the spontaneous and lively
acoustics produced by orchestral music, Rossini presented exquisitely the
joyful plots of satire.
Verdi merits the title of one of the most influential opera composers in
the Italian opera. Representing a source of incessant melody, his music,
with its extraordinary expression, promoted the dynamic development of
the opera. His best-known work is probably La Traviata, based on Dumas
fils’ The Lady of the Camellias. This opera is a milestone in the maturity of
Verdi’s personal style. Verdi attained perfection in his later musical compositions Il Trovatore, Rigoletto, Aida, and Cavalleria Rusticana, works that
were larger in drama structure, grander in vigor and more magnificent in
tonal color. The opera Rigoletto conceives three distinct musical images:
the indecisive and changeable court jester Rigoletto; the licentious and
amorous Duke; and the innocent, beautiful yet dreamy Gilda. The drama
content, characters and their final tragic fate are well presented through
the opera’s music, with many popular arias left to the world, for instance
the flaring tone and light rhythm of the Duke’s song “Woman is fickle.”
Aida is a typical French grand opera, having a serious theme, a m
­ agnificent
scale, gorgeous scenery and an interlude of ballet performance. Conceived
gorgeously by Verdi, the opera gives a detailed delineation of the characters’ traits and psychological changes, and closely links the characterization and the unfolding of the plot. Having broken down the limits imposed
on operas such as “separate melody” (a long-established tradition under
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the principle of which operas consisted of independent pieces of music
interspersed with pauses), Verdi brought an end to the barriers to the
development of the story, and completed the integration of melody and
dramatization by turning his characters’ psychological and emotional
states into a consistent unity.
2.3.2.1.2 French Opera
French opera displayed the influence of the French Revolution and
Napoleon’s resurrection of France: there were rescue operas “struggling
for liberation, leading to salvation,” grand operas with magnificent scenes,
and melodious lyric operas such as Bizet’s Carmen and Gounod’s Faustus,
in addition to light comic operas and grand operas.
Berlioz was the most important and representative composer of the
French opera, composing works such as The Damnation of Faust, The
Trojans, and others, which were characterized by epic music and scenes,
and grand band acoustics, pushing French operas to the forefront of
Romanticism. In the case of composers who produced works based on
Faust, it was important for them to determine which segments should be
cut out of a poem which itself is very grand and rich. The Faust conceived
by Berlioz is not an opera in the strict sense. It comprises a series of dramatic scenes, and solos, choruses and the orchestra were used to parallel
these scenes in terms of the musical expression. The Trojans was based on
a libretto written by Berlioz himself. With its grand structure, complicated
plots, strong dramatization, and gorgeous acoustics, the opera seria is considered to be the greatest work of the French Classical tradition.
Bizet’s Carmen is one of the operas most frequently performed, and is
a typical lyric opera which, being based on reality, staying close to life and
expressing true feelings, makes people feel particularly comfortable.
Carmen has left us numerous beautiful melodies, such as Escamillo’s
“Toreador Song,” the heroine Carmen’s “Love Is A Rebellious Bird” and
the children’s chorus “We Are With The Soldiers,” in addition to the
beautiful tantalizing gypsy dance which elaborates the whole story and
drama strikingly. As Tchaikovsky said, “whenever seeing the last act, I
always couldn’t help shedding tears for the audience’s cheers at the sight
of toreador on the one hand and on the other hand for the awful tragic
ending of the final death of the two heroes who though having undergone
miseries are led to the inevitable ending by their unfortunate fates.”
Nevertheless, there were many voices heard from the actors in its initial
rehearsal demanding that Bizet rewrite the aria melody, and the premiere
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did not win much acclaim. Shortly afterwards, Bizet departed from the
world forever with regret, unaware of the great success that Carmen would
later enjoy.
2.3.2.1.3 German Opera
Wagner is one of the most radical composers of the nineteenth century.
He named his operas ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’ (“total works of art”). His master works include The Ring of the Nibelung, Leubald, Tannhäuser, the Song
Contest on the Wartburg, and Tristan and Isolde.
Tristan and Isolde exemplifies the successful practice of Wagner’s ideas
about music drama. The play saw Wagner’s application of the composing
technique of “leitmotifs,” by which certain characters and scenes are
referred to with certain motifs (such as those of love or an overpowering
drug) or melodies, as if the main characters and changes in their emotions
were labeled with tags so that the music and the drama can be closely
linked to one another.
Wagner’s self-composed The Ring of the Nibelung is his most magnificent and popular work. The opera is a cycle of four epic operas, The Rhine
Gold, The Valkyrie, Siegfried and Twilight of the Gods. In this opera, Wagner
preached the power of the gods and the supreme majesty of fate, and foretold the inevitable coming of doomsday, thereby making a concentrated
display of his fatalism and pessimism. Thus Wagner put his own philosophical thoughts into his productions, as well as into the many theory monographs in aesthetics and other subjects that he also wrote. Wagner had a
close and complicated relationship with the German philosopher Nietzsche.
Richard Strauss, who should not be mistaken for the “Father of Waltz”
Johann Strauss Sr. or Johann Strauss Jr., was a great German composer.
Falling into the late Romantic period, Strauss’ works extended the musical
expression of the early Romantic composers. Operatic works such as
Salome, Elektra, and The Knight of the Rose established his status in the
opera genre.
Salome embodies the opera style of the late Romantic period to the
utmost in the aspects of the play and the music. The libretto of the drama
was based on the romantic play Salome by Oscar Wilde, and the music
Strauss composed for the drama features lavish use of musical composition
techniques and of musical instruments for musical expression with intense
and full acoustics, echoing the highly exciting plot description of the eccentric and unreasonable characters in the original work. The whole work
projects Romantic themes of the pursuit of individuality and freedom.
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2.3.2.2 Instrumental Music
2.3.2.2.1 The Symphony
Symphony in the Romantic period falls into the various types. One is
abstract non-titled music, that is, works known by their serial number and
genre (such as Symphony No….). The foremost composers of this type
include Schubert, Schumann, and Brahms. Another type is the titled symphony, a quite prevalent symphony genre then. The contents of such
musical works usually show a certain relation with the titles, which sometimes even mark out the suggestive indexing words for every movement.
The outstanding works of this type are Berlioz’s Fantastic Symphony and
Liszt’s Faust Symphony. The three movements of the Faust Symphony are
named after three leading characters in Faust: Faust himself, Gretchen,
and Mephistopheles.
2.3.2.2.2 The Symphonic Poem
A new genre born in the Romantic period, the symphonic poem was pioneered by Liszt, who aimed to integrate literature with music. Albeit limited to only one movement, such a work includes many segments of music
and has concise yet grand content. Liszt contributed many masterpieces to
the genre, such as Torquato Tasso, Orpheus, and Hamlet, all of which were
paragons of interpreting literary works with acoustics. The genre has also
been popular with other composers. The Finnish composer Jean Sibelius’
Finlandia and The Swan of Tuonela, and Richard Strauss’ Death and
Transfiguration, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, and Metamorphosen are important works of the genre.
2.3.2.2.3 The Concerto
The “rivalry, competition and reconciliation” between the solo and the
band remained a very popular musical form in the period, and produced a
number of excellent concertos. Piano concerto, violin concerto, and cello
concerto played a leading role in the genre of the concerto. Composers of
concerto included Mendelssohn, Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, Brahms,
Tchaikovsky, and Grieg. Among the piano concertos, Tchaikovsky’s Piano
Concerto No.1, with its powerful, surging acoustics is full of hot-blooded
passion; Grieg’s Piano Concerto brims with pleasant Nordic feelings; and
the two piano concertos composed by the young Chopin have beautiful
melodies bearing slight traces of immaturity. Among the violin concertos,
Mendelssohn’s Violin Concerto in E minor boasts innumerable twists and
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turns in the melody, Tchaikovsky’s Violin Concerto in D major is soul-­
stirring, and Brahms’ Violin Concerto in D major is elegant and
passionate.
2.3.2.3 Vocal Music Works
Art songs as a musical genre refer primarily to the pattern of piano music
composed for poems in the Romantic period, which can be understood as
“music written for lyrics.” The composers’ favorite lyrics came mainly
from poems of the famous poets of the time or earlier, such as Schiller,
Goethe, and Shakespeare. Schubert’s more than 600 works epitomize the
art songs of the Romantic period. As Beethoven remarked, “truly, the
spark of divine genius resides in this Schubert!” The lively and amiable
music set to poems by Beethoven, with their beautiful and opulent melodies, not only lingers in the listener’s mind but adds to a sense of pictures
unfolded in the poems, creating an artistic conception. Schubert’s well-­
known works include The Trout, The Erlking, Die schöne Müllerin, and
Death and the Maiden.
Schumann made equally brilliant achievements in the field of art songs,
composing over 140 pieces. Having received an excellent education at
home, Schumann was well trained in art, and his music was delicate and
profound. He paid considerable attention to the artistry of the lyrics
themselves, and longed to make poems glow with poetic appeal to the
accompaniment of music. One can experience this poetic romance in
works such as Myrthen, and The Poet’s Love. It was likely under the influence of his teacher Schumann that Brahms devoted his whole life to creating art songs. His works directly inherited the traditions of art songs from
Schubert and Schumann: some of them express sincere and natural feelings, some are sensitive and tenuous, and some are full of the joy of life.
His best-received works are those with strong German and Austrian folk
styles such as the widely-sung Lullaby.
2.3.2.4 Solo
2.3.2.4.1 Piano
The Romantic period was undoubtedly the heyday of the piano. Many
musical genres related to the piano were produced: character piece,
moments musicaux, impromptu, ballade, scherzo, song without words,
and others. Most composers of the Romantic period created piano music.
The piano was used by a majority of composers as the best aid to their
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work. The best-known composer was Chopin, with the reputation of “the
Poet of the Piano.” All his works were piano-based, and cover nearly all
keyboard genres. The blend of the Polish feelings running in Chopin’s
blood with the French romantic complex formed a musical language that
was lyricized, refined and extremely rich in singing characteristics, giving
full play to the lyric temperament of Romantic piano. Chopin’s music
always presents different sentiments and colors: in the nocturnes, some
elegance and plaint or depression and acedia are added by the poetic melody. Revolutionary Etude and the Scherzos sparkle like “artillery in the
flowers” fully expressing the heroic spirit; the sonatas usher us into the
introspective inner world with their critical thought and profoundness;
and the Polonaises bring us to the acme of carnival. As acclaimed by Oscar
Wilde, “After playing Chopin, I feel as if I had been weeping over sins that
I had never committed, and mourning over tragedies that were not my
own.”
Liszt was not only an admirable pianist and virtuoso, but also an outstanding composer of piano music. Influenced by the virtuoso violinist
Paganini in his early years, Liszt was determined to become as great a
virtuoso on the piano as Paganini was on the violin. His works were dazzling in their skill, and far ahead of his predecessors’ in their force of
expression, as if the symphony orchestra was to be created entirely with
piano acoustics. His piano techniques, when fully combined with the
music, were given full play in his twenty pieces of Mephisto Waltz and
Hungarian Rhapsodie.
Mendelssohn had been well educated since his childhood. His father
was a banker, the son of the prominent philosopher of the Enlightenment.
Therefore, it is easy to understand why his music has such a lively and
buoyant nature, in close proximity to Mozart’s style. Mendelssohn contributed a new genre, ‘song without words’, to the piano genre, with
forty-eight piano pieces, each having its corresponding name, such as
Venetian Boat Song and Spring Song. The lyricism and delicacy of the piano
is developed to an extraordinary level by songs without words. Mendelssohn
was also a famed conductor, and organized the performances of many
forgotten masterpieces such as Bach’s St Matthew Passion, contributing
remarkably to the promotion of Bach’s and other musicians’ works.
Piano works produced by Schumann were primarily piano cycles.
Fantasiestucke, Papillons, Dances of the League of David and Carnival are
prominent examples. Compared with other composers’ musical works,
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Schumann’s had a more pronounced Romantic temperament as well as
opulent musical contrast and tension.
Though Brahms lived in the Romantic period, his musical works, delicate, meticulous and profound, embodied the remaining charm and poise
of the Classical spirit. Like his other works, Brahms’ piano music was
against the current, inheriting its passionate yet serious style from
Beethoven and other Classical composers. His dignified and symphonic
piano acoustics added to the unique color of the piano music of the
Romantic period.
Tchaikovsky’s most noted piano music is probably the Piano Concerto
No. 1 mentioned above. The Seasons (a set of twelve short musical pieces
named after the months of the year), composed with delicate and exquisite
piano techniques, conveys the wonder of natural change.
2.3.2.4.2 String Music
String music had its prime time in the early Romantic period. Popular
musicians of various schools brought a variety of styles to early nineteenth-­
century string music. Among the violin works by the Italian composer
Paganini, there were two concertos and twenty-four Caprices. Having
improved the violin play techniques and brought them up to the highest
level, Paganini established an insurmountable monument in the development of violin music. Considerable classical string musical works were also
created by string music schools such as the French-Belgian School and the
German-Austrian-Hungarian School. Wieniawski’s violin showpiece
Polonaise, Vieuxtemps’ violin concerto and Lalo’s Spanish Symphony are
classic works of the genre.
2.3.2.4.3 String Quartets
German and Austrian musicians were particularly fond of string quartets.
Schubert, Mendelssohn and Brahms all composed many renowned string
quartets, among which there was the noted Trout Quintet composed by
Schubert, referring to his own art song melody. East European composers
such as Smetana and Dvorak also included string quartets in their range of
musical production, incorporating musical traditions from their own
nations and thus contributing considerable masterpieces with special
national colors to the musical genre.
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2.4 Diversified Development of Western Music:
Music in the Twentieth Century
2.4.1 Era and Music
Twentieth-century music was called “new music,” “modern music,” or
“contemporary music” in the West, reflecting its innovations and mood of
rebellion against Western musical tradition. It contains a number of characteristic features.
Firstly, the twentieth century was an era when world politics and the
global economy changed constantly, and the development of various
musical styles and genres in the music domain reflected this perpetual flux.
More so than in earlier periods, many composers adapted to produce
musical works of different styles. Take the Russian-born American composer Stravinsky for example. In addition to establishing his status in the
school of Neoclassicism, Stravinsky stepped into the music domains of
Expressionism and serialism, becoming something of an all-rounder in the
music world.
Secondly, in the war-ridden first half and the booming second half of
the twentieth century, it was increasingly difficult for culture to remain
immune from the influence of politics and society. Expressionist music
represented the composers’ sighs and despairing appeals in the face of the
cruel wars. World music embodied non-Western countries’ self-cultural
identification and pride in the wake of the improvement in their political
and economic statuses.
Thirdly, modern professional art music’s pursuit of disharmonious
acoustics such as serial music, microtonal music, aleatoric music, and so on
increasingly intensified the conflict between the production of the musical
artist and the expectation of the ordinary audience, for whom intricate and
obscure acoustic effects were often unacceptable. Instead of the auditory
feast it had been in the past, listening to professional art music became an
all-round sensory stimulus, full of “noise” and “grotesque and gaudy”
materials, making surreal impacts on the cerebral cortex.
Fourthly, the explosive development of society and the economy
brought many new elements into musical production, particularly in the
domain of electronic music. Since the invention of computers, new production possibilities had brought about new musical concepts and tones.
The invention and development of electronic musical products such as
electroacoustic musical instruments and synthesizers became one catalyst
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51
of modern music. New musical instruments and synthesizers can change
the force, density, tone of music more freely, and the three-dimensional
sense and the ability to increase and decrease reverberation equip them
with more capacity for exaggerated expressions.
Fifthly, globalization is so irresistible that the combination of various
cultures is also reflected in the music domain. The concept of “world
music” refers exactly to the communication between Western music and
non-Western music. American jazz dates back to the days of African Black
music, but began to appeal to refined taste in the second half of the twentieth century. For example, jazz music was an indispensable part of the
compositions of American composers Gershwin and Copeland. The new
population of Asian philosophy had certain impacts on European and
American professional art music. For instance, ancient Chinese philosophy
underlies the music of John Cage. Gamelan music from East Asia has been
so wide spread in Europe and North America that Gamelan bands have
been established in many universities and colleges, popularizing this East
Asian music.
Lastly, once the new trend of thought fans out its enormous energy, it
is very well acclaimed in the music. For instance, it did not take impressionism and expressionism in the art of painting much time to dominate a
field in the musical domain. Thanks to the closer relation between music
and the other sister arts, music is bound to bring us more surprising and
desirable musical forms and contents under the guidance of the new trend
of thought.
2.4.2 Styles and Schools
2.4.2.1 Impressionism
“Impressionism” first appeared in art circles in the 1870s, and was the
counterpart “Symbolism” in literature. Though initially used ironically by
critics dismissive of the artistic works of Monet and other artists, the term
nevertheless threw light on this new style of painting. Impressionism in
the music domain appeared a little later. The composer most associated
with Impressionism in music is Debussy, again from France. Admittedly,
France has always made great achievements in the painting domain, and
France was not accidentally selected once again as the seat of Impressionism
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by history, in that Impressionist music is closely attached to impressionist
painting. Both eschew comic plots or historical topics but are proficient in
delicate, subtle and instantaneous detail description.
Debussy’s music is known for its unique structure, and sense of color
and light and shade. The orchestral composition Afternoon of a Faun was
inspired by the poem The Afternoon of a Faun by Mallarmé. The lingering
melodies, played with the flute in the medium and low voice registers, are
densely interwoven to describe the enchanted and charming mood delicately. Debussy also wrote the orchestral work The Sea, the piano piece
Images, and the opera Pelléas and Mélisande, among others. His musical
images, while as elusive as a murmuring stream, are as vivid as the gorgeous sunrise.
As an international phenomenon, Impressionism in music affected
composers in other European countries, such as the Swiss composer Ravel.
Ravel was nicknamed the “Swiss Watchmaker.” His exquisite orchestration and delicate showed his style as an Impressionist composer.
Impressionism is also manifested in the works of the Spanish composer
Manuel de Falla, the Czech composer Janacek, and many others.
2.4.2.2 Expressionist Music
Expressionism also sprang up in the painting domain in the early twentieth
century, and afterwards influenced music, poetry and other artistic forms.
What Expressionism emphasized was not any longer the change of external senses but that of internal emotions, such as fervency, wildness and
decadence, the expression of which was bound up with the World Wars of
the time.
The most important composers of Expressionist music were Schoenberg
and Berg. Schoenberg’s music was weird and twisted, exaggerated in
expression and rich in variation as, for example, his opera Expectation and
melodrama Moonstruck Pierrot, both of which put a great strain on the
audience’s senses. Applying a constant slip of voice between speaking and
singing, Moonstruck Pierrot produces strange and thrilling effects. Berg, as
the disciple of Schoenberg, followed his teacher’s technique and style with
the greatest success achieved in the field of opera. Though Wozzeck and
Lulu deserved to be modern opera classics, the “harsh” and “creepy”
acoustics was so unacceptable to most audiences that there were few
opportunities for their performance.
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2.4.2.3 Serial Music
Serialism broke the concept of tonality which had been the long-­established
principle of Western music, so that no longer was the musical scale composed by eight notes (The scale of C major, for example, comprises do, re,
mi, fa, so, la, si, do, which notes in turn are used as the absolute backbone
that inform musical sections in C major) but the twelve semitones were
treated equally and combined into various musical series for the production of musical works. This genuine musical revolution was finally developed into a quite perfect and self-contained technique of musical
composition. In terms of acoustics, music composed on the basis of serialism, nevertheless, shifted the focus from tonality to n constructing perfect
combinations of scales without regard to the audibility of the sound. Both
Schoenberg and Webern produced musical pieces based on twelve-tone
serialism. Presumably because its pursuit of music differed from the very
nature of music, such composition principles were not widely promoted or
spread but merely existed in most cases as a possibility of musical
development.
2.4.2.4 Neo-Classicism
Neo-classicism created a new music order by integrating various musical
elements and by blending modern elements and concepts on the basis of
traditional genres. Stravinsky was undoubtedly the best interpreter of the
style. His works were full of changes and innovations, and altered the
landscape of music of the time. Thanks to his catering to the culturally
pluralistic values of the twentieth century, the followers of Stravinsky were
found throughout the European and American continents.
2.4.2.5 New Nationalism
The development of new nationalism was undoubtedly another extension
of national self-awareness in the cultural forms across Russia, Hungary,
America, Spain, Finland, Scotland, and other parts of Europe.
The Central Europeans, the Hungarian composer Bartok in particular,
had the strongest consciousness to seize and then to incorporate national
musical style into their artistic production. After decades of collecting and
studying Hungarian folk music, from which he acquired valuable inspiration, Bartok incorporated musical expressions that were rich in dramatic
changes into the traditional music structure, by boldly applying the irregular rhythmic patterns of Hungarian folk music and experimenting with
atonality. His representative opera Bluebeard’s Castle, ballet music The
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Miraculous Mandarin, and piano work Microcosmos not only display the
composer’s magical imagination and creativity but also present the charm
of Hungarian folk music.
The awakening of music in the new land of America was inseparable
from the composer Aaron Copland’s artistic production. Honored as
“Father of American National Music,” Copland developed pluralistic
musical styles peculiar to the New World of immigration by summarizing
the features of Latin American music, applying cowboy songs and Foster’s
songs in music and integrating Indian folk music and jazz music on one
hand, and on the other hand utilizing old hymns and anthems and characteristics of European traditional music. Works in this vein included the
ballets Appalachian Spring, and Billy the Kid.
Gershwin absorbed jazz into American national music in his musical
production. Jazz, originally improvised and short music for leisure, suddenly became the leading musical element in many musical dramas, musicals and symphonies. In compositions such as Rhapsody in Blue and An
American in Paris, Gershwin enables his audience to experience the light
mood, the unconstrained blues melody and the charm of jazz music.
2.4.2.6 Aleatoric Music
Aleatoric music, also called indeterminate music or chance music, is music
in which some elements of the composition are left to random draw by
dicing, association, coin tossing or the computer. The term seems closely
associated with probability theory. In John Cage’s first work Music of
Changes (1951), for example, the composer first selected sixty-four possible parameters of pitch, tempo and other musical elements by using the I
Ching (an ancient Chinese book which prescribes methods for arriving at
random numbers) and then combined music by coin tossing. John Cage,
known for using this technique of musical composition, was followed successively by many European composers like Karlheinz Stockhausen, Pierre
Boulez, and others.
Another development in aleatoric music is to provide performers with
free room so that they can bring about a performance that varies from
time to time. Cage’s composition 4′33″ is performed in the absence of
deliberate sound, and the musicians who present the work do nothing
aside from being present for a duration of time as specified by the title.
This piece shows the influence of Lao-tzu’s dictum “genuine music is
hardly audible.” It is more like a perfect practice of “performance art” in
the realm of music.
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2.4.2.7 Electronic Music
Electronic music is music produced through the use of electronic musical
instruments and electronic music technology. Since the 1950s, with the
development of electronic technology, electronic music has experienced
three stages of development: tape music, synthesizer music, and computer
music. Computer music is digital music by which the composer deals with
various sounds. It has become an important means by which to compose
music.
2.4.2.8 World Music
Since the second half of the twentieth century, modern Western music has
increasingly longed for new ideas from non-Western music, such as John
Cage’s chance music produced by utilizing the Eight Diagrams of Chinese
I Ching, and Stockhausen’s Space Music, composed under the influence
of Indian philosophy. Moreover, non-Western musicians such as the
Japanese composer Toru Takemitsu, the Chinese composers Tan Dun and
Chen Qigang, and others, also spare no efforts to highlight their native
cultural features, which have been well integrated with Western music.
Tan Dun, a graduate of the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing,
is most widely known for his scores for the movies Crouching Tiger,
Hidden Dragon, Hero, and The Banquet. The professional art music composed by him, such as the cello concerto The Map, and the operas The
Classic of Tea and The First Emperor, are more inspiring, however, and
better demonstrate Tan Dun’s value as a prominent new Chinese
composer.
Chen Qigang, student of the famous French musician Messiaen, is the
composer of Iris Dévoilée, scores for the ballet Raise the Red Lantern, and
other works. Despite the good training in the production of Western
music he has received, there is a zeal for national music culture embodied
in all Chen Qigang’s music. His recent works in particular are excellent
examples of incorporating traditional musical elements into the production of modern music. With a lot of hope and expectation from his
­countrymen pinned on him, Chen assumed the musical supervision for
the opening ceremony of the Beijing Olympic Games in 2008.
2.4.2.9 Popular Elements in Professional Art Music
Interaction and integration in music are inevitable during any period, as
seen, for example, in the spontaneous mingling of secular tunes in religious music, the folk rhythms of traditional classical music and the pene-
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tration of popular music into professional art music in the twentieth
century. Jazz music, with its distinctive characteristics, was automatically
introduced into the composition of art music around the 1950s. There are
jazz-styled clips in Stravinsky’s Piano-Rag-Music and The Soldier’s Tale.
Jazz elements became the primary musical production technique of
Gershwin. Afterwards, jazz music was further combined with art music,
following “the third wave” raised by a group of composers across many
regions of the world.
The musical is perhaps the most successful and intimate unity between
classical music and popular music. Originating from a British genre in the
late nineteenth century, it is a drama form which combines dialogues and
songs. Modern musicals mix dramas, songs, and dances, which in turn
makes music therefore accessible to and well received by the public.
New York in America and the West End in London, England, are the two
places that witness the most frequent performance of musicals. West Side
Story by the American composer Bernstein enjoyed long runs. The
Englishman Lloyd-Webber had great popularity with the production of
Cats, The Phantom of the Opera, and Sunset Boulevard. The Hunchback of
Notre-Dame represents the best of French musicals.
References
Grout, D.J., and C.V. Palisca. 2009. A History of Western Music. New York: W. W.
Norton & Company.
Shen, X., et al. 2006. Guidance on Learning Western Music History. Shanghai:
Shanghai Conservatory of Music Press.
CHAPTER 3
Western Art
3.1 Ideal and Reality: Ancient Greek
and Roman Art
Ancient Greece and Rome were the cradle of European culture. The brilliant achievements they made in sculpture, architecture, pottery making,
and mural painting, among other arts, profoundly impacted the development of European culture.
3.1.1 Ancient Greek Art
Greece conjures up in people’s minds notions of Classical beauty. The
often-mentioned term “Classical” in contemporary art history means
ancient Greek and Roman culture. “Aegean culture” or “Cretan—
Mycenaean culture” was in fact the source of Greek civilization, and the
fountain of Greek art. The famous ancient Greek Homeric Hymns described
the war between Greece and Troy. The legend attracted, in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, the German archaeologist
Schliemann and British scholar Evans, who conducted archaeological
excavations in the area. They found Mycenaean cultural sites, Minoan palace ruins and a large number of cultural relics. The findings suggest that
© The Author(s) 2018
G. Xu et al. (eds.), K. Chen et al. (trans.), Introduction to Western
Culture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8153-8_3
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Cretan culture was the source of Aegean culture, that Mycenaean culture
was the cultural inheritance of Cretan culture, and that the Cyclades
(Kiklades) was the birthplace of the earliest Greek culture.
Ancient Greek art was deeply influenced by the country’s histories,
national characteristics and natural conditions. Different from countries of
the East, ancient Greece did not constitute a unified, centralized political
slavery of authoritarian rule, although in each city-state the dominant
political system was slavery-democracy. Greek mythology is an inexhaustible source for Greek art, while the anthropomorphism of the Greek pantheon was a factor in pulling art and life closer. Additionally, the mild
climate, combined with maritime trade and the quadrennial Olympic
Games, all served as a strong force behind the formation of Greek art. In
architecture, temple buildings appeared with columns built in three styles:
simple and sturdy Doric, delicate and elegant Ionic, and richly decorated
Corinthian. In sculpture, there appeared two types: First, “Stretch Style,”
in which the human arms and legs are presented outstretched; second, the
“Whole Style,” solid and closed, in which no space is left between the
hands and the body. The Greek way of showcasing the body directly influenced that of Rome, and the development of future generations of Western
art. It is regrettable that Greek paintings are mostly lost, but we can appreciate the Greek painting techniques through Greek pottery vase paintings.
The main techniques of Greek paintings were “black-figure painting technique” and “red-figure painting technique,” both popular and prevalent.
3.1.2 Ancient Roman Art
In the first century ad, Greece was annexed by the Romans. From then
on, the cultural center of the ancient world moved from Greece to Rome.
Roman history can be traced back to the eighth century BC. The time
before the fifth century BC was the tribal period of the Romans, which
was followed by the Republic period (509–30 bc), and Empire period
(27 bc–ad 476), when Roman territory at its furthest extent stretched
across Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Although they conquered Greece, the Romans, in cultural education,
were conquered by the Greeks, because the Romans were the admirers
and imitators of Greek art. Greek art had a major impact on Rome,
although due to different social orders and national characteristics, Roman
art had its unique taste that was different from Greek art. Unlike the
Greeks, the Romans, less imaginative, did not have myths like the Homeric
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Hymns that intertwines fantasy with reality. The Romans were calm and
pragmatic, thus their art was different from Greek art, which was filled
with romanticism and fantasy. Roman art, unlike its Greek counterpart,
had complicated origins, being influenced by Etruscan art, and the cultural products of Greece, Egypt and the region of the Tigris-Euphrates
river system. Different artistic styles existed in different regions of the
Roman Empire. In addition to the artistic orthodoxy of the imperial city
of Rome, within different provinces there were a variety of local styles.
Greek art, used primarily for worship, reflected the ideal that artistic
production might become part of religious ceremonies and other services
held in temples. Roman art was mostly devoted to praising emperors and
their great deeds, and to meeting the needs of the Roman nobility for living a life of extravagance. The Greeks produced the greatest sculptures,
leaving the Romans far behind, but the Romans had their unique achievement in portrait sculpture. Greek sculpture emphasized similarity and
national spirit, while the Romans preferred portraits with distinctive
personalities.
The Romans could lay claim to unique achievements in architecture,
being the first to use mortar. They used a variety of arch structures, a much
wider range than had been used in Greece in terms of structure types.
Temples and theaters were the main building types in Greece, while Rome
had, in addition to these, various types of practical and monumental buildings, such as assembly halls, amphitheaters, baths, bridges, roads, waterways, the Arc de Triomphe, villas, and so on. The Romans made valuable
explorations in the arrangement of space, material saving, durability and
aesthetic aspects, laying a foundation for future Western architecture. The
best examples of Roman painting were the mural paintings of Pompeii and
Herculaneum, both buried under volcanic lava in ad 79. What separated
ancient Roman art and ancient Greek art was that the former placed a high
value on the description of people, things, places, scene, historical events,
and the particular interest in the embodiment of space. In short, ancient
Greek art was idealistic, austere, elegant and refined; ancient Roman art
was utilitarian, hedonistic, magnificent and individualistic.
3.2 God’s World: Medieval Art in Europe
The period between the demise of the Western Roman Empire in ad 476
and the beginning of the Renaissance in the fifteenth century is known as
the Middle Ages. In medieval European culture, Christianity had absolute
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dominance, shaping the life and ideology of society. Art inevitably had
strong religious overtones, usually acting as the mouthpiece of the Church
and God. Therefore, medieval art was also known as Christian art.
However, the art of the Middle Ages was filled with colorful origins and
varied cultural sources.
Christianity originated in the Middle East, so when adopted as a form
of established culture in Europe, Christianity bore some culturally oriental
characteristics. There was a lengthy process of integration and transformation of Roman cultural traditions, especially in architecture, sculpture and
painting styles. After its settlement on the Mediterranean coast, Christianity
absorbed local elements, namely the so-called “barbarian art,” and produced new styles in the process of expansion to Western Europe. It did not
form a relatively unified Christian art style until around the tenth century.
Therefore, European medieval art cannot simply be understood as religious art, but as Christian art that had absorbed elements from oriental
culture, ancient Greek and Roman culture, and “barbarian culture.” So
brilliant was church architecture of the medieval period that Hugo commented that medieval history was written on stone. Two of the main
architectural styles were Romanesque and Gothic, while glass mosaic was
also a unique style.
3.2.1 Byzantine Art
In ad 330, Constantine the Great moved the capital of the Roman Empire
to Byzantium (Istanbul), and named it Constantinople. In the fourth century ad, the Roman Empire was divided into the Eastern and Western
Roman Empires. Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Roman
Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, which existed until 1453.
Byzantine architecture inherited the Romanesque style, so the early church
buildings followed the circular or polygonal plan featuring a Roman mausoleum or pantheon. The dome structure changed into a particular style
characterized by a vaulted interior space formed by an arrangement of
domes of different sizes. In the middle and late years of the Byzantine
Empire, the Greek cruciform plan with four interconnected apsidal parts
of the building replaced the circular, polygonal style, becoming the main
mode of church layout. The dome was used to control the interior space
and improve the external image. St. Sophia Church was a great construction, established with a grand vision that mixed the East and the West, the
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past and the future. It is necessary to enter the church to be made fully
aware of the impact made by the domes of this building.
The mosaic, a decorative painting inlaid with small pieces of colored
glass and other material, occupied a special position in Byzantine architecture, informing the interior design and decoration of church architecture.
It first appeared in the Sumerian art of 3000 bc, when small pieces of
gypsum were used, while in ancient Greece and Rome, marble was used.
In Byzantine mosaics glass was used as the main material because it can
reflect light, like small mirrors arranged together to form an immaterial
shining curtain, to achieve a fantastically surrealistic effect. The most
famous of the mosaics made during during the period were those in San
Vitale Basilica, Italy.
3.2.2 Romanesque Art
The vagueness of the concept of “Romanesque” implies that it was inextricably linked with the Renaissance and the art of the Ottomans. In addition, there were many external forces that influenced Romanesque art,
including Classical Hellenistic art, and early Christian, Islamic, Byzantine,
and Celtic-Germanic traditions. All of these external elements eventually
converged in the eleventh century. Romanesque churches served as the
representative of Romanesque art, bearing feudal city-state characteristics:
heavy walls built up with huge boulders, small windows set up high above
the ground, and bunker-like towers behind or in front of the church.
Later, the position of towers was no longer dictated by the landform of the
site, and towers were gradually built on the two sides of the west entrance,
making this one of the hallmarks of Romanesque architecture.
No better example of the localization in taste and the innovation in
spirit of Romanesque architecture can have been found than in the Basilica
of Saint-Sernin in Toulouse in southern France. The first true example of
Romanesque architecture may be Durham Cathedral, which was built in
1093 on the border between Scotland and England. Another notable feature of the re-birth of Romanesque art was the revival of stone carving.
Widespread use of sculpture is a feature of the decorated Romanesque
church buildings, and on the façade of many churches is a semi-circular
concave surface, commonly known as “the tympanum,” where was put
the biggest relief, relating the events of the “The Last Judgment.”
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3.2.3 Gothic Art
Gothic art was undoubtedly the apex of artistic development in the Middle
Ages. It first appeared in buildings, and then in sculptures and paintings.
In its development Gothic art shifted its focus from the effects Gothic
architecture had brought about to those of the paintings at the time: early
Gothic sculptures and paintings were an indispensable part of huge buildings, while in the buildings and sculptures of the late Gothic period decorative effects took precedence over sturdiness.
Gothic art began in Paris and its neighborhood or, more precisely, in
1140–1144 when the reconstruction of Saint-Denis Basilica was carried
out by Abbot Suger. The church presented a new architectural style which
was fundamentally different from Romanesque architecture: first,
Romanesque buildings had solid and thick walls, while Gothic buildings
featured a lighter and slender structure. Romanesque churches were built
with heavy vaults, so their sturdiness depended on thick walls for supporting the parts of the building, thus creating a variety of pressures and
stresses. Second, in Romanesque architecture, windows were always small,
while Gothic buildings had larger windows, allowing for the lavish use of
colored glass paintings unheard of before.
Notre Dame de Paris is the most renowned of Gothic buildings. Built
in 1163, Notre Dame de Paris is stretched out in such planes as to extend
longitudinally, bringing about a rectangle axis of symmetry which, together
with its large windows and consequent good lighting, makes it a remarkable example of Gothic style. All the details of the interior design, characterized by a multitude of lines that stretch upward, combine to leave an
impression of “soaring up,” that is typical of Gothic architecture. The
builders and designers turned to nature for the inspiration for these innovations. The best example of Gothic sculpture is the pillars of Chartres
Cathedral in France. They represented a revolutionary change, a revival of
three-dimensional round sculpture in the Classical era.
In addition to being used as Bible illustrations, Gothic paintings are a
characteristic feature of colored glass in churches. Since Suger demanded
that there should be a continuous glow of colorful lighting inside the
church, from the very beginning glass painting became an integral part of
Gothic art. The masterpieces of glass painting include a series of portraits
of the Old Testament prophets shown in Bourges Cathedral in France.
The earliest Gothic art style was just a local style in France, and then
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gradually it grew until it merged with other local styles in the thirteenth
century. Eventually, as a result of ongoing exchanges between regions, it
became a unified Gothic style.
3.3 The Brilliance of Humanity: European
Renaissance Art
Between the second half of the fourteenth century and the sixteenth century was a transitional period in Europe from a feudal society to a capitalist
one, during which the Dark Ages was collapsing while nascent capitalist
relations of production gradually were taking shape.
The new capitalist economy was germinated in the feudal system, and a
corresponding ideology had to be built up, bringing changes to ideological and cultural systems. When the emerging bourgeoisie failed to establish their own regime and hoped to get rid of both the material and
spiritual shackles of feudalism, they did so by insinuating changes into
people’s ideology and culture, and guided public opinions so that they
shook the old ideological system. This gave rise to a passionate reform
movement that came to be known as the “Renaissance.” Humanism was
one of the defining principles of the Renaissance that asserted that “man”
created and enjoyed the real life. The Renaissance advocated “humanity”
as opposed to “divinity,” proposed people’s “human rights” as against the
“divine right” of the king, and employed “humanism” to fight against the
“divinity” that buttressed the feudal system. Meanwhile, humanists in
general despised the nobility, mocked ignorant monks, and denounced
scholasticism and mysticism. They called for rationality, pursued scientific
knowledge, and demanded that literature and the arts should function to
express people’s thoughts and feelings, that sciences should bring about
human happiness, and that education should be instrumental in developing man’s individuality. In addition, they supported the centralization of
state power to facilitate economic development, opposed separatism and
external interference, and called for national independence and unity.
Under the influence of humanism, changes took place in art. Art was
no longer a servant of theology, and people used it to depict secular people
and their lives. Even in themes concerning religion and mythology, works
of art were made to address human nature and feelings, treating God as a
man. In addition, artists turned to nature to learn ways of expression.
People began to use reason to explicate nature and to apply the achievements of science to artistic creation by introducing, for instance, p
­ erspective
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and anatomy in art. Perspective and anatomy became two pillars of
Renaissance plastic art. Artists were many-sided and versatile in the sense
that they worked as craftsmen and at once they played the role of a scientist, architect, painter, or sculptor. This produced an age of great artistic
talents and personalities.
3.3.1 Italian Renaissance Art
The European Renaissance originated in Italy in the fourteenth century.
Engels said that the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern
capitalism was represented by the Italian poet Dante (Dante Alighieri
1265–1321), who was the last medieval poet and the first poet of the new
era. Italy, located in the central Mediterranean region, was the heart of the
world’s largest trading area in the Middle Ages. Florence, Milan and
Venice were transportation hubs and trade centers, where the earliest
commercial industry appeared and capitalism developed for the first time.
These cities constituted the birthplace of the Renaissance. The Italian
Renaissance can be divided into three periods: the early, middle and late
periods. The early period saw the Renaissance starting in Florence, from
Giotto (Giotto di Bondone, 1267–1337) to Botticelli (Sandro Botticelli,
1445–1510); the middle period was characterized by the artistic achievements of Da Vinci (Leonardo da Vinci, 1452–1519), Michelangelo
(1475–1554), and Raphael (Rafael Sanzo, 1483–1520); and the late
period was represented by Tiziano (Tiziano Vecellio, 1490–1576), the
master of Venetian painting.
Why did the Italian Renaissance begin in Florence? Florence, lying on
the Arno River and enjoying geographically favorable conditions, served
as a transportation hub, and had well developed commerce; next, it had
been endowed with a rich and profound source of Roman and Medieval
civilization; last, cries for artistic pursuits were issued from all social strata,
and the ruling Medici family became artistic patrons. The Renaissance’s
new emphasis on individuality led artists, from the beginning of the Giotto
era, to insinuate real life into God’s image, until they made of God a being
with secular or mundane cares who would leave the altar and join them
and give life to the artistic production of religious figures who shared the
thoughts and feelings of the common people. The artists introduced
achievements made in the sciences, such as new knowledge of anatomy,
perspective and optical principles, enabling them to produce life-like characters and realistic spatial relationships, because works of art ­emphasized
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lighting, symmetry, balance and harmony in composition. Da Vinci,
Michelangelo, and Raphael dominated painting, marking the arrival of the
peak of the Renaissance. Their works of art not only depicted ordinary
people in real lives, but also, through religious myths, revealed their social
and aesthetic ideals, thoughts and feelings.
Another Italian city on water, Venice, known as the home of the painting of the Venetian School, also prospered in the art of painting, reaching
its peak in the sixteenth century. During the Renaissance, the Florentine
School and the Venetian School were Italy’s two main centers of painting.
The former was represented by Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and others, and the latter by Tiziano Vecellio (1490–1576) and Giorgione
(1477–1510). Different from Florence and Rome, Venice was a center of
commerce and trade, where rich people gathered; it was such an earthly
paradise that the Venetians called their hometown the “world’s treasure
box.” In this luxurious, sumptuous, and brilliant metropolis, not science
but art assumed a dominant position, especially the art of painting, because
it could not only create beauty, but also eternalize real and ideal beauty.
Although they lacked important social status, painters often became guests
of Popes, kings, and nobles. In the city, the painters that had the same footing as the Florentine masters were: Giorgione, Titian, Veronese, their disciples (Paola Veronese, 1528–1588, Tintoretto, 1518–1594), and others.
Since Venice was a commercial center of maritime trade and a scenic
water city, both the content and form of its art were drastically different
from its Florentine counterpart. The Florentine School preferred biblical
themes, while the Venetian School devoted more space to stories from
ancient Greek mythology about reveling in mortal joy and pleasure, with
priority given to love, banquets, and nude goddesses. The visual images
were enlivened by full passion and imagination, as well as a lively and festive atmosphere, with little trace of sorrow and sadness left behind. These
‘goddesses’ with plump figures and fair complexions, golden hair, and
gorgeous costumes, were apparently upper-class ladies in Venice, presenting the best of what there could be in humanity. To meet the needs of
princes and nobles, artists not only depicted beautiful nude women, but
also surrounded them with beautiful natural scenery to display beauty in
the female nude forms. Painters attached great importance to colors, and
would expertly find and make use of rich and beautiful variations of color.
Florentine painters put a high value on sketches and symmetry, balance
and harmony, while their Venetian cousins painstakingly explored the
expression of the emotions in colors and through passion, laying a foundation for modern European painting.
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3.3.2 Netherlands Renaissance Art
During the Renaissance, in addition to Italy, a new dawn of culture and art
was taking place in cities to the north of the Alps. The Netherlands and
Germany became another home of European Renaissance painting.
The “Netherlands” literarily meaning ‘low-lying land’, is a region
including the Rhine, the Meuse, the lower Schilde River and areas along
the North Sea coast. It makes up today’s, Netherlands, Belgium,
Luxembourg and parts of northeastern France, facing the Great Britain to
the northwest across the Atlantic Ocean. The region is linked up by the
Rhine with the whole of Western Europe. In the Middle Ages, the
Netherlands was the major northern international trading center due to its
geographically favorable conditions. When the Italian Renaissance broke
the confinement of the Middle Ages and moved ahead in big strides, the
art of the Netherlands was still in the late stage of Gothic period. But this
tardiness did not affect Dutch national art and, especially, her contributions to European oil painting. Netherlandish artists worked at the court
of Urbino, and in churches in Florence.
In the art of the Netherlands of the fifteenth century, achievements in
painting were prominent. Artists of the Netherlandish School created a
large number of altar paintings and single woodcuts. Because Netherlandish
art grew out of Gothic art in the medieval period, early Renaissance paintings in the Netherlands carried a strong religious flavor, impressing with
their serious, solemn, quiet and subtle moods. Though most of the works
demonstrated traditionally religious themes, realistic tendencies were
reflected from time to time because the painters were more interested in
secular life and their surroundings.
The Van Eyck Brothers (Hubert Van Eyck 1370–1426, Jan Van Eyck
1385–1441) painted the Ghent Altarpiece, which can be called the world
first real oil painting (It is reported that they were the inventor of oil painting). These paintings still look bright and brilliant after several hundred
years, indicating a real leap in painting techniques. Therefore, the Ghent
Altarpiece, in terms of its significance in the history of painting, was more
than innovation in the general content and artistic form. It introduced a
whole new era in European painting.
Jan Van Eyck was a skilled portraitist. He had shed the medieval tradition of stiffness and could faithfully reproduce the subjects’ appearance
and character. Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and His Wife was his masterpiece. Arnolfini was a real figure who in 1420 was knighted by Duke Philip.
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Artists vividly depicted typical images of this merchant and his wife. In Van
Eyck’s painting, both the posture and the surroundings of the Arnolfinis
have special meanings: Giovanni Arnolfini and his wife’s gestures show the
couple’s mutual loyalty; holding his wife’s hand showed the husband as
always acting as the supporter of his wife; the wife’s upturned palm meant
that she should always be loyal to her husband. Luxurious clothing showed
the characters’ affluence; the chandelier hanging above the upper part of
the picture with a lit candle represented the light of heaven; a pair of slippers in the lower corner of the painting indicated their wedding; the dog
near their feet manifested loyalty, too; the wife’s white headscarf represented chastity and virginity; green stood for fertility; the red color of the
bed symbolized sexual harmony; the apples on the windowsill expressed
peace; the wall rosary represented piety; the scrubbing brush meant pureness; the round mirror with frame in the middle of the painting signified
heaven. In all, the painting was saturated with rich symbolism.
The Netherlandish and Italian Renaissance was pushed ahead under the
guidance of humanism, but when it comes to painting style, the regions
exhibit great differences: since Italy is located in a maritime climate, the
walls of the church buildings were large, suitable for making mural paintings. The Netherlands, however, is in an area with a wet climate, so Gothic
churches had many windows and little space. This is responsible for the
Netherlands having a lot of easel paintings (paintings on wood and other
removable graphic materials). The frame was small with a sophisticated
design, forming an exquisite style, similar to traditional Chinese elaborate-­
style painting. Some portraits were even painted on surfaces as small as a
coin. A powder painting method was initially adopted for this fine painting, but later artists, in the pursuit of better color manifestations, added oil
to paint powder. Thus, they were called powder oil paintings. The brothers Van Eyck used totally different painting materials and appropriate colors mixed with oil. The brothers are called the ancestors of oil painting.
Their material innovation was a major contribution of Netherlands artists
to the development of art in future generations.
3.3.3 German Renaissance Art
German art history took the time around 1420–1540 as the Renaissance
period. Under the shock of a social storm, Germany Renaissance art
started, and quickly reached its peak. Portraiture and landscape painting
began to emerge as an independent part, but it was its printmaking that
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reached the highest level in Europe at that time. Many outstanding artists
demonstrated the features of a new generation of the Renaissance: aggressiveness, and relentless pursuit of comprehensive development. Many were
members of local government or served as mayors. Some artists supported
religious reform, and even participated in peasant wars. They kept pace
with the times, participating in extensive social life; therefore, German
Renaissance paintings are renowned for their profoundness and
seriousness.
Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) was one of the greatest German
Renaissance artists. As a learned person with a wide range of scholarly
gifts, Dürer not only excelled in oil painting, copperplate painting, sculpture, and architecture, but wrote numerous books on architecture and
painting theories. Born into a goldsmith’s family, Dürer was apprenticed
to his father, and then began the study tour throughout Germany, two
visits to Italy, and the Netherlands in 1520. He inherited the tradition of
German national art, kept in contact with the advanced southern and the
northern European culture, so gradually his own artistic style took shape.
His works were alive with the spirit of humanism and, even in religious
paintings, were filled with love for life. Dürer’s hometown of Nuremberg
was one of the important economic and cultural centers in Germany, permeated with an active and free atmosphere. In 1509, Dürer became a
member of the city council, where he was able to exchange ideas with the
famous German humanist scholars. He venerated Martin Luther, supporting his religious reform movement. He made a few self-portraits and portraits of contemporary people in Germany. The portraits depicted
characters in the rising bourgeoisie, who were strong-willed, confident,
and resolute. Dürer’s most representative etching are Four Horsemen, and
Melancholia. Painting representatives are Self-Portrait (1498), Self-­
Portrait with Fur-Trimmed Robe (1500), Adam and Eve (1507), The
Adoration of the Trinity (1511), The Four Apostles (1526), and others.
Hans Holbein (around 1497–1543) learned painting from his father in
his early years, then went to Basel, where he joined painters’ guild in 1519,
making a lot of paintings, portraits, altarpieces, and book illustrations. In
1526 he acquainted himself with the English King Henry VIII’s Chancellor
Thomas More, and after going to London, became a court painter to the
King of England. He was then the greatest German portrait painter, whose
works depict their subjects’ nobility, serenity, and focus. Portraits of
Erasmus and Henry VIII are his masterpieces.
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German painting showed its own style in another aspect. German artists combined the art features of northern and southern Europe with
amazing creativity, and, for them, the precise observation of nature was
more important than Classical form. In portraiture, the German artists
were the masters, good at showing personality and giving accurate depiction. The German domination of printmaking affected the whole Europe.
3.3.4 French Renaissance Art
The French Renaissance did not begin until the mid-fifteenth century.
France was a unified nation state at this time, where the fledgling capitalist class had formed in the bourgeois strata since the Middle Ages, so
capitalists failed to reach the point where they were able to contend with
the feudal system. Therefore, from the fifteenth century to the sixteenth
century, the central idea that arose in the French Renaissance was to
praise kingship and unity. The French monarchs patronized art, and
eventually pushed the waves of the Renaissance in Flanders southward
down the Seine, sweeping through Dijon and Lyon, as well as Avignon.
As the birthplace of Gothic Art, France had already endowed Europe
with expressive religious architecture. At that time, fascinated by the
achievements of the Italian Renaissance, artists never forgot the old traditions. They learned from Netherlandish and Italian art to produce their
own masterpieces.
In the French Renaissance, a pioneer of painting was Jean Fouquet
(1420–1481). He created his own style after his absorption of Dutch and
Italian art. His works lent beauty and feeling to Gothic. He was the pioneer of the French national school of painting. Portrait of Charles VII and
Portrait of the Chancellor of France Guillaume Jouvenel des Ursins were his
masterpieces. The Fontainebleau School was also a representative of
French Renaissance art. Early French paintings, delicate, refined and rigorous, focused on the performance of light. Famous sculptors were
Goujon and Pilon, the former well known to the world for using smooth
lines and showing elegance in his works, and the latter for painting with a
beautiful and powerful style.
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3.4 Passion and Motion: Seventeenth Century
European Baroque Art
3.4.1 Characteristics of Baroque Art
Seventeenth-century European art was characterized by its variety styles,
of which Baroque style stood out as the representative. The so-called
“Baroque” means grotesque affectation in Italian; irregularly shaped pearls
in Portuguese. It was a derogatory term, by which people mocked its style
of art. It arose in Italy, and later prevailed in European Catholic countries.
Because its social pillar was religion, Baroque style was able to spread
wherever the religion reached.
Baroque art had the following characteristics: it served the upper
classes of the church and the nobility; large quantities of Baroque paintings and sculptures were used to decorate their manor houses and palaces to add to the grandeur and elegance of the buildings so that people
could promote the religious cause with greater ease and have their fill of
the desire for pleasure. Renaissance art emphasized rational tranquility
and harmony, while Baroque art emphasized irrational fantasy and illusion, trying to break harmony and calm; it was filled with tense dramatic
atmosphere in sculpture and painting. Baroque buildings had rich and
varied structures in which it was easy to feel passion and a strong sense
of movement. The art works at the time reflected a variety of complex
inner thoughts and feelings. The dynamic art image was the soul of
Baroque art, with its content running wild and its form filled with a
strong sense of movement. Baroque art left the impression that the
things artists produced were all moving in complicated rhythmic patterns, creating a chiaroscuro and a sense of instability. Curves and ellipses
were widely used in the process. Baroque art set large store by spatial
relations to produce three-­dimensional works of art, drawing attention
to shape with its intense engagement of light, and pursuing a sense of
spatial depth. Architecture and sculpture emphasized layers and depths,
trying to break with two-dimensional perspective. Baroque art also
stressed comprehensive artistic treatment: there was integration of architecture, sculpture, painting, modeling and environment, and integration
of its own various parts. Supported by religion, it was inevitably struck
with strong religious overtones.
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3.4.2 Baroque Art in Different Countries
Baroque style first appeared in Italy and prevailed throughout Flanders,
the Netherlands, Spain and other European countries, covering architecture, sculpture, painting and other fields. Baroque art presented different
styles in different countries and social contexts: in Italy and Flanders,
dominated by Catholicism, the Roman Baroque style prevailed; in France,
where there was absolute monarchy and royal supremacy, the Classical
style was the mainstream; while in the more developed Netherlands and
Britain, Realism was more popular.
Italy still set the standard in seventeenth-century European art. There
were two artists, Michelangelo Caravaggio (1573–1610) and Gian
Lorenzo Bernini (1598–1680), whose achievements have ever since been
unattainable in terms of the influence they brought about. Caravaggio
brought his personality to the depiction of real situations of everyday life.
He didn’t shy away from ugliness, nor did he follow the Classical model or
recognize any of the established rules. He reverently depicted the everyday life of the lower classes. Although they took religious titles, his works
portrayed the ordinary life of the early seventeenth century Italy. His
emphasis on the relationship between light and shadow had a profound
impact on future generations, and it was he who introduced chiaroscuro
to European painting. In the next few hundred years, this painting style
dominated European art, paving the way for the emergence of Baroque
style. Sculptor Bernini represented the maturity of Baroque art. Bernini’s
outstanding contribution was the combination of architecture, painting
and sculpture. He brought forth new development in the field of artistic
expression, making himself a famous Baroque master.
The Netherlands Revolution of the sixteenth century split the country,
so in the seventeenth century, the north and south had two separate painting styles. Flanders art, under the shadow of the the Spanish rule, was
influenced by the pursuit of luxury in aristocratic palaces, church groups
and the bourgeois classes. Bernini was a representative of Baroque art in
sculpture, and Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) an outstanding representative in painting. Rubens’ paintings of figures with large builds and plump
bodies created an emotive atmosphere with a background of strong light
and shadow. Rubens combined Italian gorgeousness, Flemish clarity and a
sense of light, creating a style that was buoyant, refined, and vibrant. In
the next generation, Anthony Van Dyck (1599–1614), Jacob Jordaens
(1593–1678), and the other disciples of Rubens added to the luster of
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Flemish painting. Van Dyck was known for his portraits, which had far-­
reaching influence on the development of British painting. It was in his
works that the British aristocracy’s gentle demeanor and the idealized
image of the upper class were demonstrated.
Different from Flanders, the independent Netherlands was not so susceptible to Baroque art. Princes who once led the revolutions failed to
become powerful kings. Most of the power and wealth were in the hands
of the public, and the art of painting never enjoyed strong palace protection, but rather relied on the market. Therefore, Dutch painting evolved
into a popular and realistic art. Paintings became common commodities,
a large number of which went onto the market. Frans Hals (1581–1666)
and Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606–1669) were not only experienced at single portraits but also at group portraits. As the public requirement for drawing content was multifaceted, themes of painting diversified:
Jan Vermeer’s (1632–1675) quiet lyrical painting, Claesz Heda’s
(1594–1680) vivid still life painting and Hobbema and Meindert’s
(1638–1709) small pastoral landscape paintings were all popular. The
“Dutch Small Painting” was represented by artists who depicted scenes of
everyday life in small oil paintings. Portraiture and genre paintings both
gained great development in the seventeenth century; still life painting
and landscape painting became independent subjects; the division of various genres was made much specified as there were portrait painters, genre
painters, still life painters, and landscape painters, for example. Dutch
paintings of the seventeenth century opened up a path for modern painting, playing a very important role in the history of painting. The subsequent rise of French painting, in fact, was developed from two sources:
Dutch painting and Italian painting.
There was not a continentally influential painter in Spain until the fifteenth century. Compared with contemporary Italy, the Netherlands,
Germany, and France, Spain paled in paintings. When the strong rule of
Philip II ended, what had been symbolized as the “Spanish Armada” was
defeated by the British fleet in 1588. The world empire began its downturn, while Spanish art reached the “golden age,” in which there were
abundant great painters, such as Diego Velázquez (1599–1660), José De
Ribera (1591–1652), and Francisco de Zurbarán (1598–1664). Although
seventeenth-century Spanish painting was a combination of Baroque style
and Royal style, painters planted the “seeds” of Italian Caravaggio’s
Realism and chiaroscuro in Spanish painting and produced many works
with national features. Spanish painting, after Velázquez, was silent for
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nearly a century until the debut of Francisco de Goya (1746–1828) in the
second half of the eighteenth century. Goya, from his ideology to his techniques, broke from the tradition of the seventeenth century by transcending Classical themes and composition, and depicting lives and struggles in
that era. He was a master at connecting the past and the future, a pioneer
in European Romanticism and Realism, and an influential impressionist
painter. In all, seventeenth-century European art inherited and developed
the Renaissance tradition, forming the mainstream, Baroque style. At the
same time, both Classicism and Realism were also influential.
3.4.3 Evaluation of Baroque Art
The origin of the word “Baroque” is still unclear. It may have come from
the following three words: Italian “baroco,” referring to one kind of ridiculous medieval theological discussion; Italian “baroc-chio,” referring to
suspicious trading activities; Portuguese “barocco,” meaning deformed
pearls. All three words mean something odd and strange, so since the
eighteenth century, they have often been employed sarcastically by people
prejudiced against Baroque art. This tendency was particularly evident in
Classical and Neoclassical literary theories. The pejorative appellation not
only indicated the prejudice of the Neoclassical school, but also demonstrated the fact that they knew little about Baroque art.
Since the late nineteenth century, Baroque art has also received positive
evaluations. Architectural History by the German painting art historian
W. Lübke and The Cicerone: An Art Guide to Painting in Italy by the
Swiss historian J. Burckhardt both praised the beauty of Baroque architecture. There were famous buildings put up in Baroque style, such as the
Paris Opera. In the academic field, The Renaissance and the Baroque, written in 1888 by German art historian H. Wolfflin, determined the important position of Baroque style. He pointed out that after the Renaissance,
Baroque art was the second major genre that characterized historical
research at the time. After him, the Italian scholar E. Nencioni said in
1895 that the characteristic of seventeenth-century civilization could be
summarized by one word: Baroque. The idea that the seventeenth century
was an age of Baroque art gradually formed in academia, so even Baroque
music, Baroque literature, Baroque philosophy, and other forms appeared.
In addition to confirming the historical status of Baroque art, Western
academia made progress in the research of related issues, namely seeing
the features of Baroque that were related to Renaissance as an art
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­ evelopment model with universal significance and believing that art in
d
other eras and other ethnic groups also had the same Renaissance-toBaroque evolution mode. They even believed that it was an independent
law of art or of visual form, irrespective of social contents. This was first
proposed in Wolfflin’s Principles of Art History (1915). He conceived
Classicism, represented by Renaissance and Baroque, as two poles of artistic expression, each with a series of corresponding features. The art of
painting in different eras had its Classical stages and Baroque stages. Greek
art of the fifth and the fourth centuries BC was in the Classical phase, and
the Hellenistic period the Baroque stage; Gothic art of the thirteenth century was in the Classical phase, while in the fourteenth and the fifteenth
centuries, it was the Baroque stage; even Japanese art can be divided
accordingly. Wolfflin’s doctrine opened the School of Formalism, which
had a great impact in the West. Many scholars believe that Baroque can be
seen as the late-stage characteristic of every culture or civilization.
3.5 Elegance and Softness: Eighteenth Century
French Rococo
3.5.1 Characteristics of Rococo
The eighteenth century is seen as the “Age of Reason” or the
“Enlightenment” era, when philosophers no longer considered everything
just by referring to the assumption of the existence of God, but turned to
experimentation and observation and aimed to remove theology from philosophy. They tended to follow the secular route, their interests shifting
from a focus on seeking noble enlightenment to frivolous pleasure. The
prevailing artistic style had a common theme among musicians like Mozart
and Haydn; of writers like Pope, Addison and Voltaire; and of painters like
Watteau and Gainsborough. This was Rococo, a style that coordinated
reason and elegance with well-ordered materials.
Rococo, originating in the era of the late Louis XIV (1643–1715),
became popular in the time of Louis XV (1715–1774). It was flashy, complicated, and also known as “Louis XV style,” which was soon accepted by
France and all other European countries. It was used in craft decoration,
interior decoration, painting, music and other art forms. Rococo was considered to be different from the Classicism of Louis XIV times, which was
grand and solemn. The change was triggered by the decline of the French
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aristocracy, the freedom to explore the spirit of the Enlightenment, and
the growing prosperity of the middle class.
Rococo was also influenced by Chinese art, especially in the fields of
garden design and interior design, and in its use of silk, porcelain, and
lacquer. French art was then of core status in Europe, so the Rococo style
influenced the whole Europe. The complexity of Rococo was the same as
Chinese art under the reign of the Qing dynasty. In brief, the features of
Rococo style were as follows: curve, C-shape and S-shape, swirl-shape,
asymmetric composition, soft and bright colors. It emphasized ease and
elegance in imagery portrayal, showing a variety of types of love, such as
romantic love, erotic love, maternal love, and so on.
3.5.2 French Rococo
In the eighteenth century, French painting acquired a leading position in
European art, and Rococo style dominated art. Prosperous Europe was
then in need of courteous relations with others, and witty conversation
was an important part of social contact. The mistress of Louis XV, Madame
de Pompadour, determined the artistic taste of the palace. Painting followed the Rococo trend to show the frolicking of the upper class. Painting
works depicted the pleasures of men and women of the upper class, presenting nude or semi-nude women and ornate decor with heavenly natural
beauty or a foreign landscape (such as Venice, Rome), or other objects
(sunflowers, corn, etc.). On the one hand, French Rococo seemed flashy,
lacking the feeling of divine power; on the other hand, discarded religious
themes with French-style ease and elegance. Pleasant, warm, and luxurious scenes replaced portrayal of saints suffering martyrdom. There were
several famous painters: Watteau, Boucher, and Fragonard. The paintings
of Antoine Watteau (1684–1721) seemed like satisfying dreams filled up
with pleasant feelings. Ladies and gentlemen with elegant facial expressions frolicked in the forest, going out picnicking. His genre painting was
the so-called “wild dinner” and he was seen as the “Mozart of painting.”
François Boucher (1703–1770) was the king’s chief painter and Madame
de Pompadour’s painting teacher, specializing in taking “Pastoral” and
“Myth” as the theme of painting. His painting was full of aristocratic taste.
J. H. Fragonard (1732–1806), who enjoyed ornate salon life, employed
customs as the theme of painting, and finished his lyrical and elegant
seductive pictures with light strokes. In addition, Falconet (1716–1797)
was a great representative of Rococo sculpture. His lively artistic style
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­ rovided a slim and charming pattern. Augustin Pajou (1730–1809),
p
Clodion (1738–1814) and Houdon left wonderful sculptures that strike a
fantastic balance between beauty and passion. However, when Rococo
style was in full blossom, the French Revolution broke out. Jean Chardin
(1699–1779), and Jean Baptiste Greuze (1725–1805) returned to nature,
promoting the concept of rational morality, suggesting that the solemn
Revolutionary era was coming.
3.5.3 Evaluation of Rococo
Both the fun of teasing and the joy of abandonment to sensual pleasures
were perfectly expressed in the Rococo painting, because it didn’t require
the assistance of reason to delight the eyes. In the cool elegance of Rococo
painting, art was valued for itself long before the concept “Art for Art’s
Sake” was formed.
The lightheartedness was best reflected in Watteau’s paintings, and thus
earned him the title, “Romantic Celebration Master.” His work The
Pilgrimage to Cythera depicts a Greek island that worshiped the goddess
of love, Aphrodite. It resembles an unworldly performance at a garden
party, such as those that were popular among the aristocracy. Lovers move
slowly in warm saturated colors, people and nature coming together
beyond the hazy outline, embarking on a golden sail boat surrounded by
circling cupids and floating red roses. The men gracious and elegant, and
the ladies dressed in silk. There is courtship, modesty and obedience,
bringing about a quiet and poetic atmosphere. Just as the characters in the
painting were the ideals of society, the scenery was also a dreamed paradise
of warm, bright colors, where natural form lost its authenticity.
Half a century later, the never-ending love of Watteau was turned into
a plain love game by Fragonard. The lady in The Swing—said to be a
wealthy baron’s lover—represented a role that some women in the eighteenth century liked playing. In the dual performance with her passionate
lover, she played the petite, coquettish shepherdess. A wonderful view of
the park, unreal in pale shades, was where the pastoral poem set in, exuding a breath of innocence, but with stimulation. Ladies were both naïve
and sophisticated, precisely the type that Rococo advocated. They wittily
used innocence to achieve their own ends. “Swinging” made her free from
entanglement, the feeling of which encouraged her to perform as a
coquette. She does not care about letting her large skirt float in the wind,
so her lover can see the charming scene. What is less clear is who her dangling shoes are pointing at? Is it the man, or the statuette of Cupid? In the
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background there is a third character. Is he responsible for pushing the
swing, or a love triangle participant?
Rococo style, with its carefree and frivolous moves, not only won admiration and recognition, but also caused criticism, from Englishman William
Hogarth, for example. He attacked the tackiness of the era with a series of
ironic words and condemnations. Rococo was popular, though, not
because of its social criticism and moral education, but because of its realistic humor. Therefore, this kind of protest had little effect and only a
revolutionary change could judge such a condemnation.
To observe the Rococo of the eighteenth century from the modern
perspective, it can be said that Madame de Pompadour was the representative and organizer of those who preferred its pompous style. Shortly after
they appeared, the Rococo works caused “resonance” in the circle of aristocrats. The nobles’ advocacy of gorgeousness promoted Rococo. At that
time, the upper-class men and women were so enthusiastic about and personally so involved in social activities that some of the moves seemed ridiculous. In the sixteenth century, when King Charles IX of the declining
Valois dynasty promised to give the King of Spain a gun he had personally
made, the Spanish ambassador was stunned. In the eighteenth century,
Louis XVI’s wife Mary complained about her husband spending more
time in his workshop than with her. Louis XVI concentrated on the study
of the mystery of bells and locks in his workshop. In both cases, those
tragic characters were uncomfortable with the roles imposed upon them.
The people found consolation in manual work.
The fashionable and changeable Rococo style terminated with Madame
de Pompadour’s death, and was replaced by the Neoclassicism advocated
by another mistress of Louis XV, Madame Dubarry. However, the glory of
Rococo style has its enduring artistic vitality. It is recognized as the prelude to the Art Nouveau of the latter half of the nineteenth century. Its
surviving works of art still carry memory, recounting the fashion and stories of those years.
3.6 Classicism to Impressionism: Nineteenth-­
Century French Painting
With the vicissitudes of the 1789 Revolution, and changes in literary and
artistic ideas, new genres sprang up in French painting. These were
Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Critical Realism, Impressionism, and the
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influential Post-Impressionism. These styles, through their practice and
theory, produced effects that could not be ignored in other European
countries.
3.6.1 Neoclassicism
Popular in France during the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries, the Classical ideologies were called Neoclassicism. In the 1730s and
the 1740s, a massive unearthing of Roman monuments rekindled interest
in ancient Greek and Roman culture, and Neoclassicism began. With the
French Revolution approaching, the French people, craving for a change
of the status quo, felt disgusted with Rococo, which exuded a strong smell
of the aristocracy, and expected a more serious and noble art. Under these
conditions, a strong trend of Neoclassicism was formed in the center of
Europe. Jaques Louis David (1748–1825), the most celebrated French
artist and a principal exponent of Neoclassicism, made himself the founder
of the style. David was born in the time when Rococo was popular. Along
with his teacher Vian, he went to Rome to study Classical art and became
a firm believer in Classicism. In Rome, he painted Oath of the Horatii,
which was set in the great French playwright Pierre Corneille’s drama
works, where people were led back to the world of ancient Rome. In the
concise space of the painting stand heroic men of the Horatii, with a
strong line constituting the monumental feeling of the entire painting.
Three swords held by the old Horatius are the focus of attention. The
three swearing brothers’ fingertips point to them. It seemed that people
were able to hear the firm oaths echoing in the hall, so it was no wonder
that the French people appreciated it.
Another important painter of Neoclassicism was Jean Auguste
Dominique Ingres (1780–1867). Through his life, he defended
Neoclassical ideals with a stubborn attitude and superior artistic talent.
Different from David, Ingres was a tireless painter committed to purifying
art language, but his superb artistic skills were not concealed by his conservative ideas. Ingres believed that only art depicting history, mythology,
and religions could be seen as work of the highest level. But it also could
be said that without those portraits and female nudes he less valued, there
would not have been Ingres.
Ingres used lines and exquisite brushwork in a series of portraits of
elegant women of high society. La Grande Odalisque (1814) was based on
a female Parisian model. During his early years, Ingres employed the
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­ iagonal arrangement of the nude body, maintaining the traditional type
d
of painting composition pattern. A long, smooth curve extending from
the back to the foot, plus long rounded arms, vividly depicted the woman’s wonderful shape. For Ingres, faithful depiction was not the purpose:
showing beauty was more important. Although Ingres was hostile to the
Romantic painting school pioneered by Delacroix, as a member of the
later generation of Neoclassicism, he would inevitably have been influenced by the new trend, which was already strong in Europe. The title of
this female nude painting came from the East, where the romantics longed
to go. In many of his nude paintings, there is a preference for curves, and
characteristics of the unorthodox works of art of Classicism (such as
Mannerism). Nevertheless, Ingres, a pious believer in Rafael, was indeed
the last great exponent of Neoclassicism. Spring (1856) was one of his late
works, showing a slim nude girl, charming and sweet but not vulgar. It
was pure as ancient Greek statues, which might be regarded as the best
expression of his artistic ideals. Ingres deemed colors as the servant of
sketches, so in his own language of painting, the use of color had expressive force. Ingres was to some extent similar to the famous musician
Brahms, both having as many opponents as supporters.
Broadly speaking, Neoclassicism refers to the art that took ancient
Greek and Roman arts as models and developed them. It was associated
with the French Revolution, but later became a formal academic art. David
was the founder of Neoclassicism; Ingres was the great master.
3.6.2 Romanticism
Romanticism was the art school after Neoclassicism, with 1820s–1840s
being the most popular period. At that time, the majority of the French
people were deeply disappointed with the Revolution, but could not find
an alternative, so people gave hope to the “Liberty, Equality, and
Fraternity” of the Enlightenment period. This was an era when people
were dissatisfied with reality but were still full of fantasy and hope.
However, due to the lack of clear ideas for the future in Romanticism, and
also to the failure of the Revolution in 1830, the Romantic movement
faded quickly. Its standard-bearer Gericault lived for only thirty-three
years, and thereafter the banner was carried by his student Delacroix.
The painting of Theodore Gericault (1791–1824) was filled with
romantic ideas. Romantics were interested in dynamic scenarios and
unusual things. His painting Raft of Medusa (1819), known as the p
­ ainting
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that first declared French Romanticism, depicts a terrible shipwreck.
Different from the Slave Ship by the British painter Turner, Gericault’s
painting shows fate, desire for survival, and the human condition. Using a
traditional pyramidal composition, he filled this dramatic scene with
intense emotions and solemn commemorative meanings. With his use of
tense action, contrasts of light and shade, vivid style, and close-range
close-up, he made the audience feel like they were in this terrible event,
and indeed the painting was praised by ordinary people.
Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) was the most important representative
of the painters of Romanticism. He had broad taste and respected the
Classical masters, but he admired most the Baroque master Rubens. His
gorgeous colors, free composition, and vivid momentum, were similar to
Rubens’. The yearning for the sublime and the horrible in Raft of Medusa
could also be seen in the painting of Delacroix. The Massacre at Chios, a
protest against Turkish atrocities, and Death of Sardanapalus, with the
same name as the title of one of Byron’s dramas, both demonstrated bloody
killings and horrible deaths. In these scenes, full of violence, intense passion, unrestrained joy, sunlight and shade, and innovative composition,
Neoclassicism’s idealistic beauty was completely discarded. Even Delacroix’s
admirer Gros could not help but exclaim “this is a massacre of painting.”
Contemporary Romanticism could be confirmed in Delacroix’s La
Liberté guidant le peuple (Liberty Guiding the People). This painting
blended imagination and reality. Symbolized images and specific characters together rush to the front in the streets of Paris, showing the unstoppable momentum of the Revolution. The Statue of Liberty holding a
tricolor was the most touching image in the French painting. In the 1830s,
a trip to North Africa opened up Delacroix’s horizons. He drew a series of
exotic works to demonstrate a world different from Greece and Rome.
Algiers Woman, filled with serenity and magical atmosphere, was better at
showing the real life of the East than Ingres’ La Grande Odalisque. His
talent at handling color won the Impressionist’s admiration.
Delacroix’s spirit of exploration set an example for generations of
French artists. Romantic pursuit was seemingly more likely to be realized
by the most liberal painting, while in sculpture, masters of Romanticism
abounded. The sculptural frieze La Marseillaise on the Arc de Triomphe
in Paris, as famous as Liberty Guiding the People, was the work of François
Rude (1784–1855). Another famous Romantic sculptor was Antoine
Louis Barye (1795–1875). He was known as “Michelangelo of the Zoo,”
so good was he at portraying animals.
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3.6.3 Barbizon School and Realism
Nineteenth-century European capitalism and the rapid development of
industrialization brought great changes to society. City populations grew
exponentially, and workers created wealth for a small number of people.
The disparity in wealth made sensitive writers and artists distressed. They
turned to the surrounding phenomena and depicted reality in their works.
They faithfully reproduced all the contemporary social scenes, representing events that had never before been depicted in art. The theory and
practice of these writers and artists constituted the realistic trend.
Outstanding representatives, whether knowing democracy or not, used
their own works to reveal conflicts, social injustices, and the lives of ordinary people, and praised ordinary virtue. In the mid-nineteenth century,
Realism was common in Europe, marking another important trend after
Romanticism.
The first to exhibit the spirit of Realism was the Barbizon School.
Rousseau, Corot, Millet were representatives of the school. From the
1830s, they began gathering in Barbizon, a small village in the
Fontainebleau forest south of Paris, to depict rural landscapes. The leader
of the Barbizon school was Théodore Rousseau (1812–1867), who lived
in Barbizon from 1848 until his death. He focused on the morphological
analysis of nature, depicting natural scenes with wide brush strokes and
thick tints of color, including all the details of air and light. Rousseau’s
works have a static monumental effect, solemn and powerful. These can
be clearly seen in his masterpiece Oak Near Barbizon (1852). Another
rather special representative of the Barbizon School was Charles François
Dubigny (1817–1878), the one closest to the Impressionist painters.
Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot (1796–1875), who was good-natured and
calm, was the oldest of the Barbizon School painters. His works were permeated with a tranquil and lyrical atmosphere. He is well known to the
world as a landscape painter and figure painter, and all the characters were
from the real world. He travelled to Italy in his early years, where he produced his early landscape paintings. The bright, colorful works seemingly
revealed something of Post-Impressionism, and were popular among
painters. However, for ordinary people, more representative of Corot’s
style are his later lyrical landscapes, which employ pastel colors and brisk
strokes. His scenes seem to be shrouded in a layer of silvery veils, giving a
dreamlike poetic feeling. Recollection of Mortefontaine is an example of
this type of landscape painting.
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The Barbizon School was active in opposing the official academicism,
developing nineteenth-century Realism in art, and particularly in enriching French landscape painting. They walked out of the studio, deeply
affected by the “for the natural, for the scenery” painting style and related
realistic technique. The Barbizon School influenced the later rise of
Impressionist painting.
The rapid development of French Realism in art and its replacement of
Romanticism were inseparable from Gustave Courbet (1819–1877). He
saw it as his task to use his own artistic works to change the moral values
of society, advocating faithful depiction of life. He had a significant impact
on Realism in art. Another unique artist was Daumier, a political satire
painter, whose works were hard-edged, sharp and spiky, directly pointing
at the social power and the reactionary forces.
3.6.4 Impressionism, Neo-Impressionism
and Post-Impressionism
Impressionism stepped onto the French art stage in the 1870s as an innovative style. When Claude Monet’s (1840–1926) Impression, Sunrise was
exhibited, the name of “Impressionism” spread like wildfire. Although
many works on display looked quite rough and seemingly unfinished, the
freshness and stunning light were amazing. In the spring of 1874, in order
to protest against discrimination from the official Salon, Monet and a
number of artists jointly organized an independent exhibition, where
Monet exhibited Impression, Sunrise (1872), showing a new style of painting. Employing agile and accurate colors with slim strokes, Monet vividly
conveyed the sky view of the early morning sunrise. In this work, rich in
suggestive meanings, it is not difficult to find Monet’s extreme sensitivity
to all sorts of subtle changes in scenes bathed in light colors. He carefully
observed thousands of subtle colors of natural scenery bathed in light,
found their sensitivity to temperature changes, and used seemingly random but actually accurate quick strokes. He fixed the flow of light and
color on the canvas to give people the impression of an instant picture of
eternal beauty. Painting under natural light was a breakthrough by Monet
and other Impressionists. It helped in reproducing moments of protean
nature, and maintaining the vivid feeling and fresh impression of the artist.
Monet discovered colors that had long been overlooked, and changed
people’s inherent concept of color. When people said he “created” the
London fog, this is simply an affirmation of his rare visual sensibility.
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Impressionists focused on the study of external light and promoted
outdoor sketching, thus abandoning the use of brownish tints of color
that had changed little since the sixteenth century. Painters, according to
their observation and direct experience, presented the subtle changes of
light and color in nature. Meanwhile, from the beginning of Impressionism,
painters tried to rid painting of the influence of literature. Thus, they paid
more attention to the language of painting itself, a sign of modernism in
Western art. Neo-Impressionism emerged in 1880, and its representatives
included the young painters Georges Pierre Seurat (1859–1891) and Paul
Signac, (1863–1935), who were sensitive to new things. The Impressionist
analysis of light and color was more scientific and detailed than before.
Because of their stippling method of color painting, they were known as
“the Stippling School.” The history of Neo-Impressionism was very short,
for it declined shortly after Seurat’s death.
Post-Impressionism emerged in the 1890s. Members of the school
included Paul Cézanne (1839–1906), Vincent Van Gogh (1853–1890),
and Paul Gauguin (1848–1903). Most artists participated in relevant
activities or were influenced by Impressionism, but later they believed that
Impressionism (and Neo-Impressionism) focused too much on the portrayal of the light and color of scenes and objects, resulting in art that was
over objective and restrained. They advocated instead personal, spiritual,
and subjective art. Post-Impressionist painters shared no common theory,
and they had different goals, styles and techniques. Therefore, Post-­
Impressionist was no more than a name. Although the trend aroused little
attention, and their achievements are not fully valued, their artistic contributions set a milestone in the history of art. The main artistic movements
in the early twentieth century, Fauvism, Cubism, and Expressionism, were
derived from Post-Impressionism.
Since Impressionism, traditional methods of observation and aesthetic
tastes had been abandoned, and the pursuit of new arts was put into practice in sculpture. The three pillars of modern sculpture: Auguste Rodin
(1840–1917), Emile Antoine Bourdeil (1861–1929), and Aristide Maillol,
(1861–1944) were the pioneers in modernizing traditional sculpture. If
Rodin was said to have ended sculpture’s emphasis on realistic portrayal,
then Bourdeil opened an age when space expressiveness and intensity was
stressed, while Maillol directly abandoned painting and literature in
­sculpture. He used the female body as a means of expression, giving the
fullest possible play to the power and beauty of sculpture.
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3.7 Diversity and Experience: Twentieth-Century
Modernism in Western Art
The production of works of art by artists from the major art schools from
the early twentieth century onwards has often been called “ modern art.”
It covers the Western painting inspired by modernism and those painting
forms that carry the characteristics of Modernist and realistic tendencies.
Western painting immersed in Modernism refers to the output of schools
popular in Europe and America in the twentieth century. In the first half
of the twentieth century, there were Fauvism, Cubism, Futurism,
Expressionism, Dadaism, Surrealism, and abstractionism, among others.
In the early twentieth century, some artists living in Paris did not belong
to any faction, but they made an important contribution to painting. They
are referred to as the “Paris School.” After the 1950s, and especially since
the 1970s, Western art experienced a major breakthrough. The artists of
the period were drastically different from the renowned masters, and their
art forms were included in “Postmodernism.” Western art schools inspired
by Modernism shared such characteristics in theory and practice as can be
shown in the attempt to break and even completely get rid of the realistic
tradition of Western art, and a new emphasis on the artist’s subjectivity.
Tendencies of the new movement included the appearance of semi-abstract
and abstract art; the influence of sculpture and modeling on painting;
breaking boundaries between art and life; and advocating the democratization of art.
While Western modern art was generally said to have arisen from
nineteenth-­century Post-Impressionism, especially from the emergence of
its representative Paul Cézanne (1839–1906), the birth of Modernist art
was not a separate occurrence. Social and historical background, ideological roots, modern science, and the commercialization of art, all had an
impact on its occurrence and development. Modern art brought forth
diversified patterns, personalized languages, and visual changes from
expanded performance practices, all of which enriched visual aesthetic
fields. Postmodernist art popularized painting, bringing it closer to ordinary people. Of course, there were works of art that were not accepted or
could not be appreciated at that time, such was Postmodernism’s “radical
break with tradition,” extreme individualism, nihilism and sarcasm at contemporary society, and so on.
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3.7.1 How to Appreciate Modern Art?
The art of each era has its different meanings and understandings. The art
of painting today is understood differently from the time it appeared.
Primitive art was linked with people’s survival and reproduction, linked
with people’s respect for and worship of phenomena they were not able to
understand. In ancient Greece, art was linked with mythology, religion,
and so on. Renaissance art was associated with scientific discovery. In the
eighteenth century, art was associated with the imperial court and aristocracy in France, and there was the so-called refined art, which served the
court. In the French Enlightenment, people learned that art could influence the human mind, so art was separated from religion and myth for the
pursuit of harmony and aesthetics. During the Industrial Revolution in
the nineteenth century, art was divided into two major categories: aesthetic and practical. Since the twentieth century, art has been connected
with human behavior, including discordant feelings.
Modern art usually includes all contents of traditional styles and the
forms which reflect modern elements. Modernism is anti-traditional, featuring “avant-garde” art as the main artistic genre. Therefore, Modernism
was initially anti-traditional, breaking with traditional concepts and geographical boundaries, and emphasizing individual feelings and unique
expression. Once art spins off from a closed, centralized style, it becomes
a very unique form of personal expression. In this sense, Modernism was
an art of morphology, which may explain why the style of art inspired by
Modernism was diverse, and ever-changing. For the essence of modern art
does not pursue harmony, but instead emphasizes personal feelings and
unique experiences, and even illusion, imagination, or fantasy. If beauty
was the goal of Classicism, then Modernism in many cases is the expansion
of sense, because the so-called aesthetics relate not just to “beauty,” but to
human perceptual activity. In fact, ever since Baumgarten raised this concept, it has contained non-beauty or even ugliness, so the most typical
aesthetic category of Modernism was absurdity, not beauty. It reflected
people’s profound anxiety and unease about modern society.
From the perspective of artistic modernity, modern art reflected the
thinking mode of seeing Europe and America as the center. This pattern
was reflected in art: anti-traditional evolution, anti-theological
­individualism as well as the dualism in philosophical aesthetics between the
human body and the outside world. The system determined its core value
standards: the “new” and “old,” “traditional” and “anti-traditional,”
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“progress,” and “backwardness.” Progress versus backwardness became
the standard by which to judge a society’s (especially Third World societies’) modernity. This view and standard has deeply affected the modern art
history of non-Western cultures, so revolution and anti-tradition inevitably became a measurement of modernity in the areas.
Although the nature of modern art is still unclear, it is clear that it is a
kind of personal liberation movement, individual compassion and concern, and spiritual self-rescue. It is of an individual and evanescent nature,
and an artistic quest for the meaning of life. This spirit led to an ever-­
changing art, and experiments with the possibilities of the state of human
life. Modern art was not an absolute, universal concept, but diverse and
practical.
3.7.2 Significance of Modern Art
If it is easy to accept the works of Van Gogh, Cézanne, and Picasso, it is
not as easy to accept the Dadaist artist Marcel Duchamp’s (1887–1968)
production of a porcelain urinal in 1917. Interestingly, in the 1960s, people began missing this piece of art, and tried to find it. Zhu Qingsheng,
professor of art history from Peking University, believed that if one hundred paintings in the world could describe art history, then the first one
might be mural of the bison from Lascaux, the twenty-seventh the Mona
Lisa, and the ninety-second probably Duchamp’s “Fountain.”
Some Modernist artists no longer viewed art as their primary concern,
and instead set great store by their daily social behavior. That was performance art. What artists were doing was recording society. For example,
the concept of environmental protection was first put forward by German
artist Joseph Beuys (1921–1986). He swept leaves into the forest with his
students, to express the idea that the environment needed to be protected.
He then felt that we were too far away from nature, and he believed that
artists should rid nature of human traces.
At the height of the Cold War, Beuys was influenced by its two ideologies: the capitalist ideology of the United States, and the communist ideology of the Soviet Union. He was thinking about a problem. Assuming
that the earth enters an ice age, and in one of the days when we have to
take one boat to find our homes, how can there be interpersonal warmth
in the middle of the cold universe? Shall we rely on the dispute between
communism and capitalism? Performance art was not a painting, nor a
sculpture, but it reflected an attitude (concept), a comprehensive act, or a
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kind of thinking about people’s living conditions. Of course, we could
paint, or appreciate paintings, but please note that contemporary art consists in the fact that it doesn’t just mean looking at the paintings, but calls
for real appreciation of the inner spirit driven by the artist’s behaviors,
ideas, and devices. Andy Warhol’s (1928–1987) Coca-Cola was a good
example. The American artist believed that the material force of modern
capitalism was the most devastating thing, because it made people lose
their rights without knowing it, thereby revealing a crisis of the world. He
used common images to warn of potential social crises that some politicians were not clear about.
Currently, modern art has evolved into Postmodern art, which has
been the most fashionable topic in China since the 1990s. No Western
academic term like “Postmodern art” has been given such a wide range of
ambiguous meanings. Many articles and art forms use the term as if it were
an all-encompassing store. In the works of many young Chinese artists,
Postmodern art is interpreted as rogue-style cynicism, with no social
responsibility or lofty spirit. In reality, it is seen as a simple patchwork, like
the combination of the Coca-Cola trademark with Peking Opera
costumes.
3.7.3 Postmodern Art
The concept of Postmodernism, first appeared in the construction sector
in the 1970s, and was later gradually extended to other sectors. Its definition was not clearly confirmed yet, and art critics had different understandings. Postmodernism was not an art form or a school of thought that
emerged after an art genre of modern art. It was not a uniform style but
comprised diverse artistic phenomena. American scholar Frederick
Jameson outlined four basic aesthetic features of Postmodernism in
“Postmodernism and Cultural Theory”: (1) In Postmodern culture, traditional values and hierarchy were reversed; personality and style viewed
against the backdrop of modernism were eliminated; subjectivity was broken down into fragments of hallucination; (2) Modern art was always in
pursuit of Utopian ideals, with its theme being the ultimate truth;
Postmodern art, though, abandoned the in-depth mode and no longer
offered any explanations, refusing to find any meaning, but pursuing
­linguistic pleasure; (3) Modern art indulged itself in historical consciousness for depths, while in Postmodern art, history was simply nostalgia, a
phenomenon for commercial purposes; (4) For modern art, distance was
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the boundary between art and life, subject and object of art production. It
was a way of controlling the reader’s interpreting of the works. In the
Postmodern era, art works lost their depths and sense of history, having an
irritating effect on the human senses, without any function in inspiring
people. In other words, it only emphasized desire.
It is believed that modern art was about the form of art, while
Postmodern art was concerned with society, life, nature, and problems.
More phenomena indicated that modern art concerned ontology, staying
on the beat of aesthetics. Yet Postmodernists like Beuys guided art toward
the side of society, advocating the use of artistic behavior to change society, which was certainly a Utopian wish (Chinese ancestors had advocated
the Utopian idea of saving the country by aesthetics). Though opposed by
Damien Hirst’s idea of “Art is not life,” Postmodernism grew out of
Modernism, public opposition, and opposition to life, out of the elite status of super techniques, and established a foothold by concerning itself
with ordinary people and their daily life.
As a specific artistic occurrence, Postmodern art had the following
characteristics: (1) figurative image and traditional realistic approach; (2)
traditional themes, such as myths, legends, religious stories or classics to
show modern people’s feelings, or modern vision to re-examine traditional art. Association, metaphors, references, elegance, and harmony
back to art; (3) return of Classicism. Artists expressed nostalgia for idyllic
scenery, rural life, and criticism of decadence, narcissism and the pursuit of
sensory consumption in modern society; (4) obscurity. It is hard to appreciate Postmodern painting and painters, because the so-called schools
were just roughly divided; (5) fragmentation. Postmodern culture, as a
narrative discourse in art, is characterized by non-selective techniques,
with no central meaning, and no complete structure.
Formerly, the human mission was based on survival, which urged us to
be a witness of the not-seen. Neoclassical art was the idealistic domain that
touched us; modern art was a personal territory, allowing us to keep distance; Postmodern art was difficult to define—perhaps its original purpose
was to shake the order of modern civilization. Through mechanical and
simple means, the art produced a relaxed atmosphere such as a stimulant
could bring. Unfortunately, art, previously a sacred idol, ultimately stepped
into the dusk in the Postmodern era. Humans could never create a kind of
authoritative order or idol. Life was inseparable from dreams and ideal
blueprints. Human cultural behavior tried to overcome conflicts, while
constantly causing them. In other words, Postmodern art was completely
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domesticated as the business machine of contemporary capitalists, losing
the cultural function to transform history. Thus, in the contemporary context, art not only needs to bid farewell to Postmodern era, but also to call
for creativity. There will be a war on cultural thought in the future development of human history, and painting will play a role in the vanguard.
References
Baolin, Ai. 2004. European Fine Arts: From Rococo to Romanticism. Beijing: China
Renmin University Press.
Julian, B. 2007. Mirror of the World a New History of Art. New York: Thames &
Hudson.
Li, Yukun. 2000. Appreciating Foreign Fine Arts. Changsha: Hunan Fine Arts
Publishing House.
———. 2004. Appreciating Modern Western Fine Arts. Changsha: Hunan Fine
Art Publishing House.
Paul, J. 2003. Art: A New History. New York: Harper Calins Publishers.
Wang, Shouzhi. 2002. Contemporary World Fine Arts History. Beijing: China
Youth Publishing House.
Wu, Yongqiang. 2006. Western Art History. Changsha: Hunan Fine Arts Publishing
House.
Yang, Qi. 2007. Introduction to Western Art History. Beijing: China Publishing
House.
Zhu, Boxiong. 2007. Ten Lectures on Western Fine Arts. Shanghai: Shanghai
People’s Publishing House.
CHAPTER 4
Tourism in Europe and America
As Confucius says, “A kind man loves mountains; a wise man loves oceans.”
Ever since ancient times, men of insight have believed that extensive reading and traveling far and wide brings one a fountain of happiness. Traveling
abroad today is no longer a fantasy: it has become an important part of
many people’s cultural and recreational life. Millions of tourists travel to
Europe and American as their favorite and most attractive destinations,
where they can appreciate the charm of an “exotic” culture and the many
tourist sites that reflect the accumulated history of Western civilization.
This chapter gives a general introduction to the tourism attractions in
Europe and the USA.
4.1 Tourism in Europe
As the world’s second smallest continent, slightly larger than Australia,
Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometers, comprising the land
mass of the continent, near which are grouped islands such as Iceland,
Ireland, the British Isles, Cyprus, and Malta. Besides islands, the landforms in Europe include mountains, plateaus, highlands, plains, rivers, and
lakes, many demonstrating striking beauty.
Europe boasts a kaleidoscope of ancient civilizations and cultures. It is
the birthplace of democracy and an important seat of Christianity. Legends
of royal families, the works of great Renaissance artists such as Leonardo
© The Author(s) 2018
G. Xu et al. (eds.), K. Chen et al. (trans.), Introduction to Western
Culture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8153-8_4
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da Vinci and Michelangelo, fascinate people of one generation after
another with their rich cultural, historical, and artistic heritage.
4.1.1 Nature
Europe boasts many remarkable tourist destinations that offer a long list
of scenic spots for the tourist’s delight: the Aegean Islands of Greece, the
“sand and sun” on Spain’s Andalusian coasts, Tuscany in central Italy,
Provence and the French Riviera in southeastern France, the Rhine Valley
or Middle Rhine in Germany, the Alps bordering Austria and Switzerland,
the mountain lakes and ski areas in Switzerland, the rural areas of middle
England and the Scottish Highlands in the UK, the Arctic area of Denmark,
the awe-inspiring fjords leading to the Atlantic Ocean and the glaciers that
cause the formation of those fjords in middle Norway, lakes in Finland,
and the cold and uninhabitable combination of sand, mountains and lava
fields in Iceland, and so on.
4.1.2 Architecture
Aside from important ancient ruins such as the Acropolis of Athens and
the Colosseum in Rome, there are numerous world-famous palaces, castles, and churches in each corner of the continent—Buckingham Palace
and St. Paul’s Cathedral in Britain, the Palace of Versailles, the Notre
Dame de Paris, France, the New Swan Stone Castle, Cologne Cathedral,
St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican and the Moscow Kremlin, some of them
featuring Gothic architecture, Rococo style, Renaissance architecture, and
so on. Europe is also home to many celebrated modern buildings, from
Antoni Gaudí masterpieces in Barcelona, to “the “New Building” in
Vienna, Staatliches Bauhaus architecture in Germany, and modern buildings in Northern European countries like Denmark and Sweden, which
have played pivotal roles in the world’s architectural development.
4.1.3 Food and Wine
4.1.3.1 Food
Europe has long been known as a land where one can enjoy good dishes,
and of all the European countries, France and Italy stand out particularly
for their cuisine. French cuisine is famous throughout the world because of
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the innovative approach of French cooks, who add herbs, spices, butter,
cheese and wine to the foods to improve the taste. Typical dishes favored
by the French include foie gras, Périgord truffles, top-class Burgundy snails,
and seafood from the Mediterranean and the Atlantic—and these are also
renowned all over the world. Like the French people, the Italians also place
a high value on food. Yet they prefer a much more natural and mild way to
cook their foods. For instance, they regard olive oil as nutritious and healthful food, so they widely use it in cooking. Pasta can be processed in various
shapes and sizes: pasta is a staple food which, in traditional Italian cuisine,
can be made long or short, tubular or flat, wide or thin, or can be made to
take fanciful shapes, such as snail-shape and shell-shape.
The traveler to Germany will almost certainly encounter sausages in
one form or another. Almost every place in Germany has its unique traditional method for making sausages, although Germans are often made fun
of for their food.
Swiss dairy products, such as milk chocolates, are well known throughout the world. Like France and the Netherland, Switzerland claims to be
the home of the world’s best cheeses, made from sheep’s milk and cow’s
milk.
4.1.3.2 Wine
As for wine, there is famous Bordeaux wine, produced in the Bordeaux
region of France, which is a top-ranked red wine in the world. As an advertisement goes, “God shows His love for Europe by creating Bordeaux in
this continent.” Also of top quality are Champagne, Cognac, and
Burgundy (white wine) produced in the regions of Champagne, Cognac
and Burgundy of France respectively.
Red wine produced in Italy and Spain has a slightly lighter savor but has
every bit of the mellow flavor of the red wine produced in France.
Germany, regarded as the birthplace of beer, is also a prominent producer of marvelous white wines made from white varieties of grapes such
as Riesling in Rhine-Hesse, trockenbeerenauslese, and ice wine, all being
rare, fine, and very expensive wines.
4.1.4 Museums
Europe is home to some of the greatest museums in the world. The word
“museum” itself comes from Greek Μουσεῖον (Mouseion), which denotes
a place or a temple dedicated to the Muses, and hence a building set apart
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for study and the arts. The first museum in the world is often considered
to be the “Musaeum” (institute) in Alexandra built by Ptolemy I Soter in
about 280 bc. Experts believe that this “Musaeum” was used to keep the
collected remains of Aristotle’s “Lyceum.” Modern museums were
founded in Europe in the sixteenth century as an achievement of the
Renaissance and they were developed rapidly in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Varied in their use and scale, European museums cover a large number
of subjects or fields, ranging from antique paintings and sculptures to
modern fine arts (e.g., the arts of painting, sculpture, decoration, industry,
and applied arts), history (e.g., archaeology, anthropology, history of the
evolution of society, ethnology, historical events, and biography) and science and technology. Some of the museums are palace buildings which
keep and display exhibits. Others include open-air relic sites, historical
structures, and natural ecosystems.
Many European museums housing outstanding items are open to the
public, and have remarkable exhibition standards. Taking tours in these
museums is more than about appreciating historical treasures or exquisite
masterpieces: it is also about enriching people’s stock of knowledge by
heart. European countries encourage people to visit museums, which in
many countries are free of charge under certain conditions. For instance,
all museums in Athens are free on the weekends, and those in Munich on
Sundays.
4.1.5 Institutions of Higher Education
Europe is also home to a number of top-ranking universities of the world,
such as the University of Paris, Humboldt University in Berlin, Heidelberg
University, the University of Oxford, and Cambridge University.
4.1.6 Local Customs
4.1.6.1 Flamenco
Spanish Flamenco dance, a solo dance native to Andalusia, deserves high
praise. Typical Flamenco dancers wear long ruffled skirts and clench a rose
between their teeth. When the music begins, they stand motionless for the
first few moments; as their emotions build up, the dancers begin the passionate, vigorous, and rhythmic dance to the music. The dancing is char-
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acterized by graceful arm movements, intricate gesticulations and fierce
stomping, which is quite loud if there are percussion attachments on the
shoes. Sometimes the dancers hold folding fans in the hands to add to the
visual impact, and use clicking castanets for more impressive sound effects.
4.1.6.2 Bullfighting
Spanish bullfighting, originally a horseback sport practiced in medieval
times by Spanish nobles and warriors, did not become accessible to common citizens until several hundred years later. Nowadays, as both a sport
and a performing art, it is enjoyed by citizens and tourists in the bullfighting season running from Easter Day to October. In a traditional bullfighting performance, three toreros, also called matadors, appear in the
bullring, each fighting against two bulls. For the most part, bullfighting is
considered by the Spanish as a passionate and graceful sport which
demands both focused attention and bravery. On the other hand, however, there are criticisms from animal rights activists, which seem to be
having an effect on the popularity of bullfighting.
4.1.6.3 Carnival of Venice
The Carnival of Venice, founded in ad 1162 and gaining popularity by the
eighteenth century, is an annual festival that takes place between February
and March. It was strictly forbidden in the Napoleonic era and, but after a
long absence was restored in the 1980s. It is characterized by cosplays,
with participants wearing various types of costumes, masks and make-up.
4.1.6.4 Oktoberfest
Oktoberfest, a sixteen-day annual beer festival running from late September
up to the first Sunday in October, is the biggest event in Munich, held in
an area called the Theresienwiese (meadow), with giant tents crowded
with a total of 3000–10,000 participants who go around to taste the
diverse beers which are produced by the local breweries. Besides beer,
there are all kinds of snacks and folk song performances.
4.1.6.5 Edinburgh International Festival
This is a folk festival held in Edinburgh, bringing top-class performances
of music, theatre, opera and dance, and a series of visual art exhibitions,
talks and workshops. The festival lasts for over three weeks every August.
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4.1.7 Major Destinations
4.1.7.1 East Europe
4.1.7.1.1 Moscow, Russia
Moscow, as the capital city of the Russian Federation and the former
Soviet Union, is the cultural and artistic center of Russia.
The Kremlin, window and face of Russia, is located in Moscow. The
history of the Kremlin goes back to ad 1156, the same year of the founding of Moscow City. Surrounded by red walls, the palace serves as the
Russian Federation Presidential Residence, with the national flag flying on
its top. Opposite the Kremlin is the Russian Federal Parliament Building.
On the north side of the Cathedral Square of the Kremlin, there is the
Cathedral of the Dormition, built between ad 1475 and 1479, with the
inside decorations dominated by the iconostasis and more than 1000
murals and icons. This cathedral is said to be the place where the throne
of Ivan the Terrible is preserved.
The Cathedral of the Annunciation is located on the southwest side of
the Square. Built in the late years of the fifteenth century, and badly damaged in a fire in ad 1547, it was restored by Ivan the Terrible, Tsar of all
the Russians from 1547 to 1584. The staircase added to the cathedral on
its south facade is called “Grosnenski.” Named after Ivan Grozny,
Grosnenski boasts world-renowned murals and icons.
The Kremlin complex also houses the Kremlin Armory, one of the oldest and most prestigious museums in Russia. Although originally serving
as a royal arsenal, the museum stores both weapons and a staggering collection of priceless royal treasures accumulated over several centuries, such
as the crown of Catherine I, the clothes of Peter the Great, and a thirteenth- century throne studded with diamonds.
Next to the Kremlin is Red Square, which covers about 73,000 square
meters of land. During the Soviet era, the Red Square was used for official
ceremonies like the May Day Parade and the October Revolution
Anniversary. On the square stands the red granite mausoleum of Vladimir
Lenin, the great leader of the Soviet Revolution, whose embalmed body
has been kept in an underground crystal sarcophagus and is permanently
on exhibition to visitors. At the center of Red Square stands the Vasile
Assumption Cathedral, which is made up of a 57 meter-tall dome-shaped
core church building and eight other buildings around it. Despite their
different heights, the church buildings come together in harmony. A
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Russian Orthodox Church, the Vasile Assumption Cathedral presents the
world with an elegant collection of sixteenth-century fresco paintings
inside, which are recognized as cultural and religious treasures.
4.1.7.1.2 St. Petersburg, Russia
St. Petersburg is Russia’s second largest city, located on the Neva
River. Peter the Great moved the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg
in ad 1712, which is why the city center possesses its grand Baroque
architecture.
The Winter Palace is an outstanding example of Russian Baroque building from the mid-eighteenth century. The Alexander Column, 47.5 meters
in height, 600 tons in weight and 3.5 meters in diameter, marks the focus
of the Palace Square. The column is a single piece of red granite which is
set so neatly that no attachment to the base is needed.
The Hermitage Museum, another scenic site of St. Petersburg, glitters
with light green walls, white pillars and golden sculptures, reminding people of the graceful temperament and glory of Tsarist Russia.
Nevsky Prospekt has been mentioned by many litterateurs and poets.
The chief sights down the avenue include the Literary Cafe (which was the
site of Pushkin’s last meal before his fatal duel in 1837), the majestic Kazan
Cathedral, the Arts Square with its artistic museums and theaters, and the
Alexander Nevsky Lavra, where the tomb of Fyodor Dostoevsky is
preserved.
4.1.7.2 South Europe
4.1.7.2.1 Lisbon, Portugal
Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, is the smallest capital city in Europe.
Situated on the right bank of the Tagus River, it covers seven hills, with its
commanding hilltop occupied by Castle De São Jorge, which overlooks
the city and the river. The castle was originally built by the Romans and
was so well decorated that it was turned into a splendid imposing palace
by the Portuguese royal house in ad 1147. After the royal family moved to
the downstream of the Tagus River, this structure became a fortress or a
barracks.
Alfama, the oldest district of Lisbon, spreads on the steep slopes
between the Castle and the Tejo River, with alleys and old tram lines winding around the hills. Some of the alleys are so narrow that only a single
person can pass through at a time. Alfama is the seat of the Santo António
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Church and the Lisbon Cathedral. Located so high, Alfama always has a
problem of accessibility. Without the aid of stairs, cable cars or the Santa
Justa Lift, it would be impossible to reach all of the streets in Lisbon. The
Santa Justa Lift was designed by Raul Mesnier de Ponsard, a student of the
great iron craftsman Gustave Eiffel, designer of the Eiffel Tower. Another
historical building in Alfama is the Carmo Convent, which was ruined
during the sequence of earthquakes which devastated Lisbon in ad 1755.
Its damaged roof left unrepaired as the main trace of the great earthquakes
and is now a local feature. This district is famed for its nightlife and live
music.
Five kilometers away from the western end of Lisbon city center is
Belém District, where the Belém Tower rises from the flat bed of the
Tagus River. Constructed in ad 1521 as the starting point of navigation
for vessels in the Age of Discovery, the tower is now the most valuable and
oldest historical landmark in Lisbon. The National Azulejo Museum, dedicated to azulejo, is also located in the city. Azulejo is a traditional form of
Portuguese painted glazed ceramic tilework, and a typical aspect of
Portuguese culture.
4.1.7.2.2 Madrid, Spain
Madrid lies in the center of Spain, far away from the ocean. At an altitude
of 635 meters above sea level, it is one of the highest capitals in Europe.
The Royal Palace of Madrid was constructed between ad 1738 and
1764. Although it has a French style, the palace was designed by an Italian.
It is an ordinary building viewed from the outside, and yet extraordinarily
luxurious and elegant on the inside. It is no doubt one of Europe’s most
splendid palaces, and often serves as a banquet hall to serve important
guests of the country.
The oldest part of Madrid is the Plaza Mayor, surrounded by
seventeenth-­century residential buildings, revitalized with such events as
competitions, bullfights, political rallies, and so on, and flooded with street
artists and performers.
Madrid also possesses world-famous museums. By the nineteenth century, the most famous of them, the Museo del Prado, had amassed a collection of more than 6000 pieces of Neoclassical works, including the
great works of Goya and Velasquez. The Prado also contains a collection
of great works from the nineteenth century. Even Pablo Picasso’s masterpiece, Guernica, was once stored there.
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Also famous is St. Anthony of Padua Church Museum, preserving huge
quantities of Francisco de Goya’s legacies of art, and sparkling ceiling frescos by Goya.
The National Archaeological Museum is another fascinating building,
containing earlier art relics such as the renowned “Goddess Flora” (a nude
female painting from in the fourth century), the crown and scepter of the
Visigoths’ prince, and the exact replicas of Altamira’s wall paintings exhibited in the underground art galleries.
4.1.7.2.3 Barcelona, Spain
Barcelona, situated on the northeast shore of Spain’s Mediterranean coast,
was the host city of the 1992 Summer Olympic Games. The old town
district of the city, which came into being between the thirteenth and the
fifteenth centuries, is called the Gothic Quarter (el Barri Gòtic). The
fourteenth-­century Montcada Street (Carrer de Montcada) is the site of
the Picasso Museum (Museu Picasso), a very famous museum reconstructed from an old palace, storing more than 700 early artworks of the
twentieth-century Spanish artist Pablo Picasso. At the King’s Square in the
Gothic Quarter stands Saló del Tinell of the Plaza del Rey, the great hall
of a medieval palace where Columbus accepted the King’s warm welcome
after he returned from America. To show respect for the great hero, a
sixty-meter tall monument was erected at the lower end of La Rambla
Avenue in the Gothic Quarter.
Barcelona is most famous for its impressive rodeos for bullfighting.
Rodeos are structures built between the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, demonstrating a mixture of architectural features of the Moors and
Christian religion. It remains one of the most exciting and attractive programs for tourists to watch, although nowadays it is no longer so popular
as before.
The most recognizable structure in Barcelona is considered to be
Sagrada Familia, a large emblematic Roman Catholic church designed by
Antoni Gaudí, who spent forty-three years working on it. Gaudí was killed
in a tram accident when less than a quarter of the project had been completed. After his death, the Spanish government carried it on, which up to
now is still in progress. The whole project is supposed to be completed in
2026, although its first piece of stone was laid as early as ad 1882. Once
finished, it will have eighteen spires of at least 100 meters high, with the
tallest of all reaching a height of 170 meters. Unfinished masterpieces left
by Gaudí in Barcelona also include the Park Güell, where only two out of
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the intended sixty houses have been. Fortunately, some completed works
of Gaudí’s can be found in the same park, for example, the gigantic ceramic
cave and the novel stairs and fountains. Gaudí’s works exhibit an important interchange of values which is closely associated with surrealism.
None of them have vertical facades or right-angled corners.
4.1.7.2.4 Rome, Italy
Rome was once the power center of the world. With a glorious history and
brilliant culture, it has made a land sacred to many people, and a glamorous city of culture.
Starting from Piazza Venezia, the central hub of Rome, a wide ramped
stairway called “cordonata” slopes gracefully up to Rome’s City Hall on
the Capitoline Hill. The cordonata was designed by Michelangelo in
ad 1536, with the purpose to welcome Charles V. On the opposite side of
the cordonata is a 128-step stairway leading to the church of Santa Maria
of Ara Coeli. The stairway was completed in ad 1348 in celebration of the
end of plague in Rome. The two stairways are considered to be a showcase
of the conflict between the state and the church. The City Hall, formerly
the Senatorial Palace, marks the center of the Capitol Square. The palaces
that flank the square make up the Capitoline Museum, which stores
numerous invaluable historical relics of ancient Rome. A bronze wolf,
symbol of Rome, is engraved on a big pillar outside the museum.
The Colosseum, another famous site in Rome, is often mistaken for the
place where the tyrant Nero sacrificed Christians to lions. But in fact, it is
the performing stage of Gladiators, and the site of other kinds of contests
between humans and beasts. During the prime of Ancient Rome, the
Colosseum accommodated more than 50,000 spectators. Although its
tunnels and platforms have collapsed today, as a great achievement of
architecture, it is still a recognized landmark of Rome.
Not far from the Colosseum are the Arch of Constantine and Foro
Romano, the city center of ancient Rome. With nothing left except some
dilapidated stone pillars and marble sculptures, the place can be easily
ignored as an ordinary site of ruins. The gloomy red brick building on the
left side of the forum is the remains of the ancient Roman Senate.
Rome was at the center of the Italian Renaissance, the most prosperous
period in the history of Italian art, when great artists like Michelangelo,
Da Vinci, Raphael and, subsequently, Bernini and Borromini emerged,
and created for Rome several masterpieces, such as the world-famous
Baroque fountains, the awesome cathedrals, and the harmonious squares
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and palaces. One of the most celebrated works is the Piazza Navona,
designed by Borromini, which offers a subtle blend of Classical charm
with Baroque features. In the center of the piazza stands Bernini’s Fontana
di Fiumi.
The Pantheon, literally “the temple consecrated to all gods,” has the
world’s largest unreinforced concrete dome, with both the height to the
oculus and the diameter of the interior circle being 43.3 meters. The huge
dome gradually shrinks in thickness: from 5.9 meters at the bottom, to
only 1.5 meters at the top where the oculus is located. The interior of the
dome was so designed that an expansive sense of space is felt, and the oculus is comparable to God’s eye that see everything in the world. The building is a demonstration of divinity overriding humanity.
Another landmark of Rome, Fontana di Trevi, is also worth visiting. It
is a fountain made up of a group of marble sculptures back dropped and
foiled by a set of copper sculptures on a gallery wall featuring the Rococo
style. Since it was chosen as a scene for the famous movie Roman Holiday,
it has been the most romantic scenic site in Rome.
The movie also adds fame to two other sites in Rome: the Mouth of
Truth and the Spanish Steps, a set of steps climbing a steep slope where
artists and painters gather.
4.1.7.2.5 Venice, Italy
Venice, the City of Water, is an arcadia of Italy, holding the artistic essence
of the Byzantine Empire. The most renowned destinations in Venice are
Piazza San Marco and the Rialto Bridge. Piazza San Marco is where tourists may see a list of buildings, such as the sculpture of the lion with wings
which is the symbol of Venice, St. Marco Basilica, Palazza Ducale, Museo
Correr, the City Council, and St. Marco Clock Tower. The Rialto Bridge
is near the commercial district of Venice, in which there are many shops
and stalls for famous tourist souvenirs like masks and glass products. From
the bridge, people can enjoy the view of both sides of the canal.
Other sites that hold attractions for tourists in Venice include the
Church of San Polo and the Bridge of Sighs. The church, originally a
Byzantine structure during the ninth century, was rebuilt in the Gothic
style during the fifteenth century and then again in the Neoclassical in
1804. Only the lion sculptures at the bottom of its clock tower retain their
original appearance. In the church, there are precious wall paintings such
as the Last Supper, the Presence of Santa Maria, and others. The Bridge of
Sighs was built in ad 1603, connecting the Palace and the dungeon. It got
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its name from a story about the sighing of the convicts who passed the
bridge and breathed one last breath before being executed.
If time permits, visitors can take a gondola tour of the islands around
the city, which is time-saving, convenient and inexpensive.
4.1.7.2.6 Florence, Italy
Florence, the capital city of Tuscany, a region of Italy, is inscribed on the
World Heritage List as the birthplace of the Renaissance. Home to the
world’s greatest versatile artists and writers such as Da Vinci, Michelangelo,
Dante, and Botticelli, it stores a large collection of the world’s top-ranking
artistic and architectural treasures.
At the center of the city is a 94-meter-high tower that forms part of the
Palazzo Vecchio and functions as both the city hall and a museum, exhibiting Da Vinci’s paintings and the sculptures of Michelangelo. Next to the
Palazzo Vecchio lies Piazza della Signoria, where there are dozens of stone
or bronze sculptures, including a replica of Michelangelo’s David.
The Duomo, also known as the Basilica di Santa Maria Del Fiore, is
another landmark of Florence. The basilica, built between the thirteenth
and the fifteenth centuries, can hold 30,000 people. Its hollow double-­
shell dome is admired by many architects and designers around the world.
Its exterior wall is fronted with white, green and pink marble panels, colorful but not flashy. The red lily on a white field on the coat of arms of
Florence resembles the church in color.
The Ponte Vecchio over the Arno River is also a place to delight tourists. It is an arch bridge, with gold and silver jewelry shops on both sides.
Countless legends and anecdotes about celebrated people originated here,
so it is very famous.
4.1.7.2.7 The Vatican
The Vatican, officially called Vatican City State, is a sovereign state located
within the city of Rome, named after the Vatican Hill which is located at
the right bank of the Tiber River. As a small enclave surrounded by walls
at three sides, it was first used by the tyrant Nero to burn Christians alive,
and then was offered as a gift to the Christian church by Emperor
Constantine. The Christians built their first church just at the very place
where St. Peter was buried. Sometime in the fifteenth or the sixteenth
century, the church was reconstructed by Michelangelo in honor of the
Pope’s order and turned into what we can see today.
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Climbing up 244 steps to the top of St. Peter’s Basilica, visitors have a
view of Rome and the Vatican Garden. Another scenic place worth seeing
is The Vatican Museums, and on the route through the museums is the
Sistine Chapel with its ceiling decorated by Michelangelo.
St. Peter’s Basilica, with a capacity of 50,000 people, is one of the largest and most ornate churches in the world. It is made of marble, with a
three-story-tall canopy standing at the center. In front of the canopy is an
altar designed by Bernini, and underneath, the tomb of Saint Peter.
4.1.7.2.8 Greece
Greece lies between the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea, boasting
more than 1400 islands, the most famous of which include Crete, Rhodes,
Corfu, and Santorini. People who have plenty of time and money can go
to the islands for the beauty of the scene of the vast blue Aegean Sea, and
of the historical sites on these islands.
The major place to visit in Greece is Athens, which has a number of
great sites of interest. The Acropolis was an ancient citadel located on a
rocky outcrop 61 meters above the city. At the western end of the Acropolis
there is a uniquely-designed monumental gate called Propylaea, with supporting marble blocks all taken from Mount Pentelicus. Going further
upwards through the gate, visitors arrive at the nearby Parthenon, which
was the main temple for worshipping Athena, Greek goddess of wisdom
and useful arts and prudent warfare. Constructed during the period from
447 to 431 bc, the Parthenon is 70 meters long and 31 meters wide, pillared by forty-eight marble columns, each being 10 meters in height and
2 meters in diameter. Though suffering from the corrosion caused by
heavy sulphurous and oxidizing hazes that have left them covered with
dents and cuts in the surface, the pillars send out sparkles of faint golden
light. Going still further, visitors reach the Erechtheion, whose most
extraordinary part is its large porch with six supporting columns carved in
the shape of six female figures These are the reason why people called it
“the Porch of the Caryatids.” To protect these columns from further corrosion, all the original pieces have been removed to protective liquid
nitrogen glass tanks placed in the museum underneath the Acropolis.
At the foot of the hill behind the Acropolis is the ancient Agora, which
existed before Christ and has now been laid waste. Nobody would have
thought that it was once a place where ancient Greek philosophers gave
speeches and argued with each other. Fortunately, the Stoa of Attalus next
to it still stands, as clean as new. It is a 122-meter-long porch composed of
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134 grand columns standing on both sides. Since the original columns
were destroyed in the barbarian invasions (c. ad 267), new columns were
rebuilt in 1956, under the sponsorship of the Rockefeller Foundation.
On the opposite side of the ancient Agora, at the foot of the hill, lies the
Dionysus Theatre for tragedies written by Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides,
and comedies written by Aristophanes. Built in the sixth century BC, the
theatre is now nothing but debris. Further from the hill stands the Atticus
Theatre which, erected in the second century BC, still serves as a site for
people to perform comedies, and is open to both native Greeks and tourists from elsewhere.
The Olympieion is also located in the city of Athens. Like most other
ancient Greek historical sites, the Olympieion has become ruins, with
Hadrian’s Arch (combining ancient Greek and Romanesque features)
being its only remains. Not far from the Olympieion is the Olympia
Stadium, which hosted the 1896 Summer Olympic Games. Erected in the
fourth century BC, the building was returned to its original appearance in
the early twentieth century.
4.1.7.3 West Europe
4.1.7.3.1 London, Britain
There are a number of scenic spots in London that hold attraction to
tourists.
Big Ben, one of London’s most iconic landmarks, is a source of the
British people’s spiritual strength. The name, originally given to the giant
bell in the belfry of the Clock Tower (now the Elizabeth Tower), is often
extended to speak of the tower and the Great Clock on it as well. The
tower was completed in ad 1859 as part of the new Palace of Westminster,
which was built after the old one was largely destroyed in a fire in 1834.
The clock has four dials, each being about 6.8 metres in diameter. It
chimes once per hour, to an accuracy of within one second.
The Palace of Westminster or the Houses of Parliament as people also
know it, is located on the west bank of the Thames River. As a typical
example of British Romantic architecture, and the largest Gothic structure
in the world, it was once the Old Palace of the British monarchy, and is
now the meeting place of the members of the House of Commons and the
House of Lords.
St. Paul’s Cathedral is the largest cathedral in England. Its 364-inch
dome is the second highest in the world, next only to the dome of St.
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Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican. The southwest tower of the cathedral holds
a 17-ton bronze clock. It is the largest bronze clock in England. This is
also the place where the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana
Spencer was held.
Near to the Palace of Westminster is Westminster Abbey. Built predominantly in Gothic style, the splendid stone abbey enjoys delicate glass
decorations. As a church where more than thirty-eight coronations have
been held, it keeps numerous British royal treasures, for example, the
throne used by the British monarchs for their coronations. The most notable attractions of the abbey include memorials of great people: Churchill,
Newton, Darwin, Dickens, Hardy, Chaucer, and others.
Buckingham Palace also lies in London. It was originally built in
ad 1703 by the Duke of Buckingham. What people see today was constructed in the early 1920s. As the residential place of the British Royals,
it has more than 600 rooms and stores huge and extensive collections of
paintings and furniture. In front of the gate of Buckingham Palace, the
Royal Guard change guard at 11:30 a.m, every day in summertime and
every two days in wintertime, a regulation passed down since the
Victorian era.
The British Museum, one of the largest museums in the world, is also
among the most popular destinations in London. The earliest collection of
the museum included the 79,000 items of Sir Hans Sloane’s personal collection, bought in ad 1753 for £20,000 by the British government. Today,
it stores more than 7 million exhibits, looted or collected from almost
every corner of the world during the heyday of the country.
The Tower of London, a huge complex of buildings put up in
ad 1078, remained one of the major palaces of the British royal family
from the twelfth century to the seventeenth century. It was not only a
symbol and tool of torture, imprisonment and execution, but a reflection of the l­uxurious lifestyles of the royal family. The Jewel House was
built to house the royal regalia, including jewels, plates, and symbols of
royalty: crowns, scepters, and swords. Both the Imperial State Crown of
Queen Victoria and the scepter set with a 530-carat diamond are kept in
the Jewel House.
Other scenic spots in London include the Tower Bridge, Madame
Tussauds, the Kensington Palace State Apartments, the Hampton Court
Palace, the National Gallery, Hyde Park, and many others.
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4.1.7.3.2 Around London, Britain
Windsor is associated with Windsor Castle, which has had a history of
more than 900 years. The castle is located on a hill 30 kilometers away
from London, and it is the largest castle in the world. The castle is near the
River Thames, and the forests, meadowlands, streams and lakes around
make a composite, characteristically British rural landscape.
Cambridge, 80 kilometers from London and one of the most beautiful
cities in Europe, has remained the center of British higher education since
the thirteenth century. The main body of the town is Cambridge University.
In other words, the town is the school yard of the university. A river runs
through the campus, which enjoys a very peaceful environment. Famous
colleges within Cambridge University include King’s College, Queen’s
College, Trinity College, and St John’s College.
Oxford University, established in the twelfth century, is located at the
upper flow of the Thames River, 70 kilometers from London. Academic
institutions such as Merton College and All Souls College are located in
Oxford. Oxford University Press, an enterprise known around the globe,
publishes the most authoritative dictionaries and textbooks in the world.
Oxford University has other famous destinations for tourists as well, such
as St. Mary’s Church, the Bodleian Library and nearby Blenheim Palace,
the ancestral home of Winston Churchill’s household.
4.1.7.3.3 Edinburgh, Britain
The capital of Scotland, Edinburgh, is a well-preserved medieval city. The
Old Town of Edinburgh features medieval architecture, in contrast to
what tourists can see in the New Town where the George Square and
crescent-shaped buildings are located.
Edinburgh Castle inside the Old Town, was built in ad 1502 on a crag
named the Castle Rock, with no iron or nail ever used to put in place the
beams and to build the ceilings. Looking out of the castle from its position
on the castle crag, you can see mile upon mile of Lowland Scotland, and
the Scottish National War Memorial.
Upon the ridge of the tail which runs eastwards from the castle crag
gently down to Holyrood Palace sits the main thoroughfare of the Old
Town. The ancient closes and wynds (narrow lanes running out south and
north off the Royal Mile) are collectively called the Royal Mile, which
condenses the history and beauty of the town. Along the crag and tail of
the Royal Mile, there are old houses, narrow ancient buildings, and a
number of notable attractions. The most impressive, St. Giles Cathedral,
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rises from the Royal Mile. The top of St. Giles, which was built during
1495, resembles the Scottish Crown in shape. Inside St. Giles, there are
amazing wooden sculptures and fabulous painted glass decorations.
4.1.7.3.4 Special Small Towns, Britain
Stratford, lying on the River Avon, 35 kilometers southeast of Birmingham,
is the hometown of William Shakespeare. Famous attractions in Stratford
include the birthplace of Shakespeare, Holy Trinity church, and the Royal
Shakespeare Theatre.
Salisbury is notable for its peaceful environment, the magnificent
Salisbury Cathedral and the ancient Stonehenge. Salisbury Cathedral
boasts a 404-foot-high spire, no less magical than that of Cologne
Cathedral in Germany. It also contains the world’s oldest working clock,
which, although made as early as ad 1386, still functions perfectly today.
Stonehenge is the remains of a set of standing stones laid out in concentric
rings, with lying stones on top of the standing ones. Some of the standing
stones weigh more than fifty tons. The function of the Stonehenge remains
unknown. Thirty kilometers away from the Stonehenge is Avebury, a
Neolithic henge monument containing an outer stone circle and two tangential inner ones. As the largest in Europe, the outer circle is 1.3 kilometers in diameter, made up of as many as 100 standing stones.
4.1.7.3.5 The Netherlands
The Netherlands or the Kingdom of the Netherlands, is a small country.
Half of its land is below sea level and one fifth of its territory is lakes, rivers
and canals.
The capital of the Netherlands is Amsterdam, a fantastic and charming
city. Largely it is polders reclaimed from the sea. Canals can be seen everywhere in the city, and beautiful views can be seen beside every bridge.
At the heart of Amsterdam lies Dam Square (or simply Dam), home to
the Royal Palace as well as the fourteenth century Nieuwe Kerk where all
the kings of the Kingdom of the Netherlands accepted their coronations.
The National Museum in Amsterdam holds at least a million pieces of
pre-seventeenth century art exhibits, the largest and most famous of which
is Rembrandt’s The Night Watch. Fifty meters away stands the Van Gogh
Museum, with a collection of Van Gogh’s paintings, including Sunflowers.
The house of Rembrandt now also serves as a museum which collects all
his 250 prints and some of his other works.
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The Handicraft Art Center of Amsterdam is located at Nieuwe Dijk.
Craftsmen with traditional skills often gather there to sell their works or to
show their talents: diamond cutting, potting, wooden shoe making, glass-­
blowing, drawing, wool weaving, cheese-making, leather carving, and
many others.
4.1.7.3.6 Belgium
Brussels, the capital of Belgium, is located on the Senne River, with a history of more than 1000 years.
The Palais Royal is the most sophisticated building in Belgium. When
the king is in the palace, a Belgium flag is raised above the building. At
other times, the palace is open to the public. The palace is modeled on the
French Versailles and is just like its counterpart. The Palais Royal is decorated with wall paintings and chandeliers.
Grand Place, city square of Brussels, was built during the twelfth century. It is surrounded by buildings featuring Gothic style, Renaissance
style and Louis XIV style. The city hall, which was built in the sixteenth
century, is magnificent, with a 91 meter-tall clock tower and a 5 meter-tall
bronze sculpture of Saint Michael.
Also near the city hall is a 50 centimeter-tall bronze fountain sculpture
depicting a naked little boy urinating into the fountain’s basin. This is the
Manneken Pis, one of the most famous city landmarks, designed by
Hiëronymus Duquesnoy. Thieves have attempted to steal it away several
times, it is still standing in its place.
Waterloo, a small town 20 kilometers south of Brussels, is the site of the
famous Battle of Waterloo. There can be found the Waterloo Monument
and other memorials.
4.1.7.3.7 Luxembourg
Luxembourg, known as “Land of Thousands of Castles,” is a landlocked
country. The capital city of Luxembourg (Luxembourg City) lies over
deep gorges spanned by numerous bridges and viaducts. One of the
bridges, Pont Charlotte, is named after Charlotte, the Grand Duchess of
Luxembourg during World War II. The red bridge spans across the valley
like a rainbow, hence its name “Rainbow Bridge.” It is 355 meters long,
25 meters wide, and 85 meters tall, and was completed in 1962. Pont
Adolphe, another famous bridge of the city, was built in 1903, named
after Grand Duke Adolphe. With a length of 221 meters, it spans
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85 meters, which was the largest span for a stone arch bridge when it was
constructed.
The Casemates of Luxembourg City, sometimes rendered Bock
Casemates, originally formed part of an ancient fortified defensive castle
built on the Bock promontory in about ad 963. But in the following years
it was reinforced and extended time and again. So currently it contains
three circles of high walls, twenty-four firm bunkers and a network of tunnels which stretches for at least 23 kilometers. In 1994, it was recognized
as a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site.
4.1.7.3.8 Paris, France
Paris, known as the most romantic city in the world, is a place that shines
with dazzling classic traditions and great cultural heritage. It is the birthplace the Bourgeoisie Revolution and the symbol of luxurious lifestyles.
The Eiffel Tower of Paris is recognizable, even from a far distance. It
was designed by Gustave Eiffel in celebration of the centennial of the
French Revolution. Launched in ad 1887 and completed in 1889, it totals
7000 tons in weight, involving at least 7 million holes and 2.5 million iron
nails. It is 300 meters tall, and has three levels for visitors, each accessible
by lift.
Not far from the Eiffel Tower is the Avenue des Champs-Elysées, the
world’s most elegant and prosperous avenue. The avenue stretches for
3 kilometers, starting at the east Place de la Concorde, and terminating at
the west Place Charles de Gaulle and the Arc de Triomphe.
Place Charles de Gaulle and the Arc de Triomphe, located at the western end of the Champs-Élysées, are important landmarks in Paris. The Arc
de Triomphe honors those who fought and died for the country in the
French Revolutionary and the Napoleonic Wars, with the names of all
French victories and generals inscribed on its inner and outer surfaces. The
four gigantic sculptural groups at the base of the monument, which is
49.54 meters high, are respectively derived from four themes: Departure
of the Volunteers, the Triumph, Peace, and Resistance. Beneath the Arc is
the Tomb of the Unknown Soldiers, a monument built in 1920 in memory of those who sacrificed themselves in the wars but were never identified. The eternal altar flame always burning on the tomb is rekindled every
night, a dignified ceremony beginning at six p.m. From the Arc, twelve
avenues radiate outward. This design has greatly influenced other
European metropolises and has been respected as a perfect model for their
layouts.
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The Louvre, housed in the Louvre Palace, is also located in Paris, standing on the right bank of the Seine. Originally erected in ad 1204, it used
to be a royal fortress guarding the Seine River. Under the order of
Napoleon III, the fortress was rebuilt and expanded into what it is today.
In the main courtyard of the Louvre Palace sits the glass pyramid designed
by a Chinese architect named L.M.Pei. One of the world’s largest art
museums, the Louvre stores more than 4 million artworks, including the
Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci, Venus de Milo (an ancient Greek statue
created sometime between 130 and 100 bc by an unknown Greek artist),
The Winged Victory of Samothrace (marble sculpture, estimated to have
been created around 200–190 bc) and the Code of Hammurabi
(c. 1754 bc, displaying Babylonian Laws).
East of the Louvre across the Seine stand the famous Notre Dame de
Paris and the Centre National d’Art et de Culture Georges Pompidou.
Notre Dame is a historic Roman Catholic cathedral, which was begun in
ad 1163 and completed 180 years later. The cathedral is famous for its
Gothic style, decorated with carvings and paintings on the altar, corridors
and windows. A large quantity of thirteenth to seventeenth century relics
are stored inside the cathedral. The Pompidou Centre, on the other hand,
is named after Georges Pompidou, president of France from 1969 to
1974, who commissioned the building. Officially opened on January 31,
1977, the Pompidou Centre features numerous steel skeletons and tubes
exposed at its exterior. To indicate distinct functions, the tubes are coded
with different colors.
In the north of Paris is the hill named Montmartre. Many artists had
studios or worked around the community of Montmartre, and it is recognized as the birthplace of Modern Art. Montmartre is primarily known
for the white-domed Basilica of the Sacré Cœur on its summit and, the
Moulin rouge, which claims to be the location at which the “cancan” was
created in 1889.
The Palace of Versailles is 21 kilometers away from Paris. Originally it
was a hunting lodge of Louis XIII (reigned 1610–1643), but in 1682 it
was rebuilt as a palace by command of Louis XIV (reigned 1643–1715)
who demanded the capital should be moved from Paris to Versailles.
Completed in 1710, with the finest French style gardens, the palace
became the largest, most magnificent, fashionable European palace, and a
cradle of European art, culture, and royal entertainments. These gardens
were planned for the west of the palace, covering about 100 hectares of
land, and dotted with 1400 fountains and a 1600-meter-long artificial
canal. In the palace, there is a famous hall called the Hall of Apollo, which
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houses the throne of the French King. Decorated with gold-coated carving patterns on the ceiling, red velvet on the wall and a throne made of
pure silver, the hall looks extremely luxurious. The most famous room of
the palace is the Hall of Mirrors, with seventeen ground-to-ceiling glass
windows overlooking the gardens on one side, and a huge glass made up
of more than 400 smaller mirrors on the other. Inside the Hall of Mirrors,
there are wooden patterns carved on the floor, marble decorations of
white or purplish colors on the wall, green-marble pillars with bronze hull
mounted on both ends, twenty-four Bohemian crystal chandeliers hanging from the ceiling, and oil paintings praising “the Sun King.” It was in
this famous hall that The Treaty of Versailles was signed by the Entente
Powers and the Allied Nations, right after the end of World War I.
4.1.7.3.9 Provence, France
Provence, formerly a province of the ancient Roman Empire, is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which
extends from the left bank of the lower Rhone River on the west to the
Italian border on the east and is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea on the
south. The town is scented with lavender, thyme, and pine trees. There is
also a lot of sunlight, so the grapes grown here have a high sugar content,
which is perfect for wine making. In addition, Provence is a major producer of French olive oil, with olive sauce, garlic mayonnaise, and bouillabaisse as local specialities.
4.1.7.3.10 French Riviera
The French Mediterranean coastline, which starts at Menton, runs
through Monte Carlo, Monaco, Nice, Cannes, Toulon, Marseille, and
ends at the mouth of the Rhône, is called the French Riviera, or Côte
d’Azur in French.
Monte Carlo is renowned for its luxurious casinos. Its most famous
attraction is Loews Hotel Monte-Carlo, with new names given in 1998
and 2004. The west section, built in ad 1878, was planned by the same
designer of the Opera House of Paris. At the center of the hotel is Monte
Carlo Opera, which has 529 seats. The French edition of Wagner’s Tristan
und Isolde had its premiere here.
The prosperity of Nice owes partly to the British visitors who favored
this place and built the Promenade des Anglais along the seashore, where
Queen Victoria used to take a walk. In Nice, you can enjoy top class
French cuisine in a three-star Michelin restaurant.
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Cannes is a busy tourist destination and the host of the annual Cannes
Film Festival and Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival. It has
an old town district called Suquet, where the seventeenth-century Church
of Our Lady of Good Hope is located. The clock tower of the church is a
landmark of Cannes. Grasse, the town which is thought of as France’s
capital of perfume, is near Cannes.
4.1.7.4 North Europe
4.1.7.4.1 Denmark
Denmark enjoys a reputation as “the Kingdom of Fairytales” and boasts
picturesque landscapes and impressive scenery.
Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, is the birthplace of Carlsberg
Beer, and famous for royal ceramics. The symbol of the city is the Little
Mermaid Statue (Den Lille Havfrue) displayed on a rock by the waterside
at the Langelinie promenade, on the northeast shore of Copenhagen. The
statue is based on the fairy tale of the same name by Hans Christian
Andersen.
The Gefion Fountain is a large fountain on the harbor front in
Copenhagen, featuring a large-scale group of animal figures being driven
by the legendary Norse goddess, Gefjun.
Amalienborg is the winter home of the Danish royal family. It is a complex consisting of four Rococo palaces flanking an octagonal courtyard.
The four palaces were constructed by four noble families between ad 1749
and 1760 on the orders of king Frederik V. A few blocks away is Frederik’s
Church, with its impressively large gigantic dome. In front of Amalienborg,
the guard change ceremony is executed by the royal guard every day at
noon as long as the royal family is in residence in the palaces.
4.1.7.4.2 Norway
Norway is a fascinating destination for tourists, its rugged coastline broken by huge fjords and thousands of islands. Its capital and largest city is
Oslo, occupying an arc of land at the head of a fjord on Norway’s southern coast. Facing the sea to the south and surrounded on all other sides by
green hills and mountains, it is charmingly warm in summer and sacredly
white in winter.
Located near 60 degrees north latitude, Oslo is completely covered
with snow for four months every year, and is a perfect place for skiing.
There are ski tracks with a total length of 2200 kilometers around the city,
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and three indoor ice skating rinks within the city. Several international skiing competitions are held at this place.
Oslo City Hall (Rådhus) is the landmark of Oslo. The red building
resembles ancient castles, with two 60-meter towers in the shape of square
columns. The clock on the tower is 9 meters in diameter and is the largest
in Europe. The set of chimes with thirty-eight pieces plays a pleasant melody every hour. All the major halls inside the building are decorated with
impressive paintings, with the largest being 26 meters long and 13 meters
high. On December 10 each year (the anniversary of Alfred Nobel’s
death), Oslo City Hall hosts the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony, in which
the annual laureate gives his or her speech and is awarded the medal and
diploma.
Akershus Fortress (Akershus Festning), which was built in ad 1300,
was the old palace of Norway. It was rebuilt once in the seventeenth century, following the Renaissance fashion.
Vigelandsparken is named after the great Norwegian sculptor Gustav
Vigeland. The park has 192 sets of sculptures of 650 different human
statues. The theme of the bronze, granite or iron statues is the whole process of life, from birth to death. The most famous one is the statue of a
crying little boy.
4.1.7.4.3 Sweden
Sweden is the venue for giving the Nobel Prize, and a neutral country
which has never been caught up in any war for more than 200 years.
Moreover, Sweden is a good example of a welfare nation.
Sweden’s capital is Stockholm, famous primarily for being the host city
for the Nobel Prize ceremonies on December 10th each year. The ceremonies are held in Stockholm Concert Hall, in front of the gate featuring
Swedish sculptor Carl Milles’ famous bronze Orpheus group. Every time
a prize is issued there, the orchestra will play music for ten minutes.
In the evening, a banquet in honor of Nobel Prize winners will be held
at the City Hall, a gigantic dark brown chamber which was built in
ad 1923, with a 106-meter-tall spire standing at one of its corners. The
three golden crowns atop the spire symbolize the Kingdom of Sweden, so
the hall itself is conceived of as the symbol of Stockholm. On a lower floor
of the gigantic building sits the main hall, historically called the Blue Hall,
the exact site for the banquet. Above the Blue Hall is the Golden Hall,
named after the decorative mosaics made of more than 18 million tiles.
The mosaics shine like twinkling stars under the lamplight.
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The Stockholm Palace is the official residence and major royal palace of
the Swedish Monarch. It is located on Stadsholmen (“City Island”) in
Gamla Stan (the old town) in the capital. A host of halls within are used as
museums today. The Rikassalon Hall, for example, is a museum exhibiting
the silver throne of the Swedish King, while the Slottskyrkan hall and the
Skattkammaren Hall store the crown, the robe, the scepter and all kinds of
gold or silver vessels used by the Royal Family. The Cavalry Guard execute
the changing of the guard in front of the palace at noon under the guidance of the Royal Drum Corp.
On the banks of Lake Mälaren in the western suburb of Stockholm,
there is a grand palace for the Swedish royal family. This palace is known
as the “Swedish Versailles,” whose major part is called Drottningholm
(literally: “Queen’s islet) Palace, a name derived from the love of King
John III of Sweden for the place as much as for his beloved queen
Catherine Jagellon. The current Swedish royal family have used
Drottningholm as their primary residence since 1983. The theatre in the
north of the palace is an opera house which is of Classical style and still in
frequent use. At the back of the palace is a garden which, with the lawns
neatly divided into geometrical patterns and many statue fountains scattered through the patterns, looks as charming as pleasant French
countryside.
4.1.7.4.4 Finland
Finland is a country of thousands of lakes, and the native place of Santa
Claus and saunas.
The Senate Square of the capital, Helsinki, is paved with 400,000 red
granite bricks. Helsinki Cathedral on the northern edge of the square,
built in ad 1852, is the Finnish Evangelical Lutheran cathedral. Helsinki
Cathedral is similar to St. Paul’s Cathedral of London in shape. With its
tall, green Neoclassical dome surrounded by four smaller domes, the milky
white building is a distinctive landmark of Helsinki.
The famous Finlandia Hall, designed by Alvar Aalto, is situated by
Töölönlahti Bay, looking like a huge white piano which is reflected in the
lake. It is a pearl of modern Finnish architecture.
Temppeliaukio Church, also known as the Church of the Rock, was
completed in September 1969. The interior was made right out of solid
rock, bathing in natural light coming through the glazed dome. The huge
church organ laid on the left side of the hall has four keys, 43 stops, and
3001 sound pipes.
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4.1.7.4.5 Iceland
Iceland is the largest volcanic area in the world. It has more than 100 volcanoes, twenty being geologically active, so it is a land very rich in hot
springs and geothermal power. Such natural wonders make Iceland an
appealing tourist attraction.
Tingvellir, 40 kilometers away from the capital Reykjavík, houses
Alþingi, the national parliament of Iceland, and one of the oldest extant
parliamentary institutions in the world. A canyon stretching for 40 kilometers long and 10 kilometers wide also lies here. Tingvellir is also home
to Tingvallavatn, the largest natural lake in Iceland, a mirror reflecting the
blue sky, white clouds and snowy glaciers in it.
Geysir, sometimes known as “the Great Geysir,” is a famous geyser in a
valley on the slopes of Laugarfjall hill at the northwestern end of South
Iceland. The geyser is 500 meters long and 100 meters wide, boasting
numerous underground hot springs. The hill hosts Strokkur geyser, one of
Iceland’s most famous geysers, erupting every few minutes and spouting
as high as 20 meters.
Iceland is also famous for its glaciers, such as Vatnajökull, Myrdralsjökull,
Langjökull and Snaefellsjökull. Vatnajökull, as thick as 1000 meters, is the
biggest in Europe. Langjökulland features a magnificent view of lava falls.
Snaefellsjökull is only three hours away by car from Reykjavík.
Tourist attractions within the capital include the Parliament House,
which was built during the nineteenth century with features of the Norse
style wooden cabins; Lake Tjörn where the swans and birds gather; the
Hallgrimskirkja Cathedral; and the Árbaejarsafn Museum which consists
of thirty houses of different times, styles or features.
4.1.7.5 Central Europe
4.1.7.5.1 Berlin, Germany
Berlin has suffered from internal warfare and disintegration. Originally the
capital of the Kingdom of Prussia, the German Empire, the Weimar
Republic and the Third Reich, Berlin was bifurcated into East Berlin (capital of East Germany) and West Berlin as a result of the Cold War. Following
reunification in 1990, the city was once more designated as the capital of
Germany and gained a promising future.
The Brandenburg Gate (Brandenburger Tor) is a common starting
point for tourists visiting Berlin. Built in the late eighteenth century as a
Neoclassical monument, the gate is recognized an iconic landmark of
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Berlin and Germany. Atop the Gate there is a four-horse chariot driven by
Victoria, Roman goddess of victory. It was taken to Paris by Napoleon
when he occupied Berlin in ad 1806 and was returned to Berlin after
Prussia won the Franco-Prussian war of 1870–1871.
In the middle district (Mitte) of Berlin, can be found one of the most
beautiful boulevards in Europe: Unter den Linden, whose places of interest include the Russian Embassy, the US Embassy, the Berlin State Library
(Preußische Staatsbibiliothek), the Berlin State Opera (Staatsoper Unter
den Linden), the Humboldt University (Humboldt Universitätm) and St.
Hedwig’s Cathedral (Sankt-Hedwigskathedrale).
The Fernsehturm, another landmark in the eastern end of Berlin, is a
TV tower on Berliner Alexander Platz. Close to Alexander Platz, the
Berliner Dom which was built in Kaiser Wilhelm’s era, stands opposite the
Fernsehturm, and is now the Historical Museum of Berlin.
There are also many important sites in the west of the city. The
Protestant Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church was built at the end of the
nineteenth century in honor of Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm I. It was badly
damaged in an allied bombing raid during World War II. In memory of
the loss, the damaged church has been retained, with a modern belfry
built beside the ruins of the imperial church.
The Reichstag building, which was originally constructed to house the
diet of the German Empire, and later served as the seat of the parliament
of the Weimar Republic, became the meeting place of the parliament of
the Federal Republic of Germany in 1999. Severely damaged in a fire in
the time of the Nazi Regime, it was reconstructed and was almost completely redesigned. Renovated with a modern framework and decorations,
the current Reichstag building has a glass dome on its top. The dome was
designed by the famous architect, Norman Foster, and was built to symbolize the reunification of Germany. With its distinctive appearance, the
dome makes the structure a prominent landmark of Berlin, and a place
which people can visit even during sessions of the German Federal
Parliament (Bundestag).
Among the numerous museums worth seeing in Berlin, there is one
called the Pergamon Museum. This museum is situated on the Museum
Island in Berlin, housing some cultural treasures, such as the Pergamon
Altar and the Market Gate of Miletus, all consisting of parts transported
from Turkey. Another is the Egyptian Museum of Berlin (Ägyptisches
Museum), which preserves the world’s most important collections of
Ancient Egyptian artifacts, with the most famous piece on display being
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the exceptionally well preserved and vividly colored Bust of Queen
Nefertiti, a woman with a harmonic and balanced beauty.
4.1.7.5.2 Munich, Germany
Munich is modern Germany’s major center of finance, culture, advanced
technologies, and communication. It is also the capital of Bavaria, actively
retaining Bavarian culture and tradition.
As the venue of Oktoberfest, Munich has a huge number of beer drinkers. The ad 1972 summer Olympic Games were held there. The Munich
Residence (Münchner Residenz) at the city center was a complex of very
important buildings of the Bavarian monarchs during a time from the
sixteenth century to the nineteenth century.
Marienplatz (Mary’s Square) is Munich’s main square, dominated by
Munich’s new city hall (the Neues Rathaus) on its north side. The hall is
a magnificent Neo-Gothic building, modeled on the city hall of Vienna. A
clock tower stands as high as 85 meters at the facade of the hall. The
famous Glockenspiel on the balcony of the tower consists of forty-three
bells and thirty-two life-sized figurines. The Glockenspiel chimes every
day at 11:00 a.m. (as well as 12:00 p.m. and 5:00 p.m. in summer). To the
tune of the chimes, the figurines twirl on the two major levels of the tower
and perform a show. In the morning, the Glockenspiel re-enacts the story
of the marriage of the local Duke Wilhelm V to Renata of Lorraine, while
in the afternoon, it is the story of Munich people overcoming the Black
Death. On the northwestern side of the square, the Frauenkirche (Church
of Our Lady), with its two onion domes, is a landmark of Munich.
The Nymphenburg Palace (Schloss Nymphenburg) was the main summer residence of the rulers of Bavaria. It faces east, stretching for an overall
width of about 600 meters. In front of the palace there are ponds, swans,
wild geese and fountains. One of the most famous rooms of the palace is
the Chinese Cabinet, with its decorations and furnishings, all under
Chinese artistic influence.
Museums in Munich are also well-known around the world. The
Deutsches Museum in Munich is the world’s oldest and largest museum
of technology and science, the exhibits ranging from machinery parts of
tanks and planes to the tiniest digital pieces.
The most important art galleries of Munich include the Old Masters’
Fine Arts Museum (Alte Pinakothek), the New Fine Arts Museum (Neue
Pinakothek) and the Museum of Modern Fine Arts (Pinakothek der
Moderne). The Old Masters’ Fine Arts Museum houses one of the most
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famous collections of Old Master paintings, spanning a period of time
from the fourteenth century to the eighteenth century. The major attractions in the New Fine Arts Museum include Albrecht Dürer’s Christ-like
self-portrait and Four Apostles, Raphael’s paintings The Canigiani Holy
Family and Madonna Tempi as well as Peter Paul Rubens’ two-story-high
painting The Last Judgment. The gallery holds one of the world’s most
comprehensive Rubens’ collections.
The Blue Rider (Der Blaue Reiter) was a group of artists led by Wassily
Kandinsky and Franz Marc. The group was formed in 1911 in Munich,
also the birthplace of most of their works, which are fundamental to the
development of Expressionist style of art. The name of the group is the
title of a painting that Kandinsky created in 1903, and also of an extensive
collection of paintings by the founders of the group, which is exhibited in
the Lenbachhaus in Munich.
Near Munich lies Füssen, a small town. On a rugged hill above a village
4 kilometers away from the town stands Schloss Neuschwanstein, a
nineteenth-­century Romanesque revival palace. Commissioned by King
Ludwig II of Bavaria, the palace was intended as a personal refuge.
Neuschwanstein embodied Ludwig II’s immoderate enthusiasm for the
operas of his friend Richard Wagner. Many designers of modern fairytale-­
like buildings nowadays are inspired by the buildings.
4.1.7.5.3 Other Cities, Germany
Frankfurt, due to its central location in Germany and Europe, is a major
air, rail and road hub in Europe. It is also the birthplace of Goethe. The
central square of Frankfurt, Römer, houses the Frankfurt city hall. Römer
is located on the bank of the Rhine, with thirteen museums on the opposite bank across the river, thus the name Museum Embankment
(Museumsufer). The skyline of Frankfurt is formed by a significant number of skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, which house large international
commercial banks and other financial institutions.
The German city Weimar is famous for its cultural heritage. Located in
the Federal State of Thuringia, it is home to great luminaries such as
Goethe and Schiller. The Goethe-Schiller Monument is still standing in
front of the National Theater today. It was in Weimar that Franz Liszt
composed the Dante Symphony and the Faust Symphony. Thanks to his
efforts, Weimar became the music center of Europe. The music college in
Weimar is still one of the best music campuses in Europe. In ad 1860, the
College of Fine Arts and the School of Arts and Crafts were established in
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Weimar. In 1919 Walter Gropius merged the College into the Staatliches
Bauhaus. This was the making of a new type of art school, a pioneer of
modernity that left a legacy which continues to influence the Bauhaus-­
University Weimar today. In 1919, the Republic’s constitution was drafted
here. That is why the country founded on the basis of the constitution was
named the Weimar Republic.
Cologne is located on the Rhine River. During the Middle Ages, the
city was the center of German religion and art. Cologne Cathedral is
Germany’s most visited landmark. Its towers are approximately 157 meters
tall, and its construction commenced in the thirteenth century. Art historians think it is a renowned monument to German Catholicism and Gothic
architecture, and it is a World Heritage Site. Cologne is also the birthplace
of cologne perfume.
4.1.7.5.4 Vienna, Austria
Apart from being regarded as “the City of Music” for its musical legacy,
Vienna was also the capital of the Habsburg Empire, where the Habsburgs
ruled the Austrian Empire for 650 years. The Habsburgs kept expanding
the Hofburg Palace from ad 1220 until they were dethroned in the twentieth century. The Neue Hofburg wing we can see today was built ten
years before the Habsburg dynasty collapsed. The palace houses a series of
structures as well as the Schweizerhof, Spanish Riding School, and
National Library, all facing the magnificent palace garden. Numerous historical relics are stored in the palace, such as porcelain, silverware, the
Crown Jewels of the Holy Roman Empire, Renaissance sketches, and
much else.
The Belvedere Museum is a historic building complex in Vienna, consisting of two Baroque palaces (the Upper and Lower Belvedere).
St. Stephen’s Cathedral was exclusively used by the Habsburg dynasty
for both wedding ceremonies and funerals. Its catacombs preserve the
intestines of the late Habsburg emperors.
Schloss Schönbrunn is a former imperial summer residence in the suburb of Vienna. The beautiful garden of this Baroque style palace is on a par
with the French Versailles.
Names of notable musicians related to Vienna include Joseph Haydn,
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Gustav Mahler, Franz
Schubert, Johannes Brahms, Johann Strauss I, and Johann Strauss II.
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4.1.7.5.5 Salzburg, Austria
Salzburg is well-known as the hometown of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,
whose house of birth has become a museum. The name of Mozart and
souvenirs related to him can be found everywhere in the city.
The name Salzburg means “Salt Castle.” The reason often given is that
there is a fortress named Festung Hohensalzburg on a hill in the city.
The Salzburg Cathedral (Dom), built in ad 1614 through 1628, is the
oldest Baroque church north of the Alps. St. Peter’s Abbey nearby is the
first monastery in the German speaking region.
The Mirabell Palace, one of the most famous places in Salzburg, was
once used by Prince-Archbishop Wolf Dietrich Raitenau as a residence to
hide his mistress in the seventeenth century. The most interesting point
about the palace, which is built in the late Renaissance fashion, is the stairways with twenty-two happy little angels carved on it.
The Salzburg Festival (Salzburger Festspiele) is a prominent festival of
music and drama held each summer (for five weeks starting in late July).
With the famous conductor Herbert von Karajan working as the artistic
director of the festival for more than thirty years, the festival is known
around the world.
4.1.7.5.6 Bernese Oberland and Other Ski Sites, Switzerland
Switzerland has a large number of ski resorts. It is a prosperous country,
and a popular tourist destination.
The Bernese Oberland is a typical example of the Swiss Alps mountains.
Interlaken, located in its central part, is surrounded by three gigantic
mountains: the 4138-meter-tall Jungfrau, the 4099-meter-tall Mönch and
the 3970-meter-tall Eiger.
If we start at Interlaken and go through the highest and the most
expensive railway line in Europe, we can reach the highest view point in
Switzerland: Aletsch. To mount the 3454-meter-tall subsidiary summit of
the Jungfrau, we need to take the longest aerial tramway system in the
Alps to the 2970-meter-tall Schilthorn summit. Ski sites on the
Jungfraujoch are quite extraordinary. Together with the long ski trails,
there are cable-way ski transports and more than forty railways there.
4.1.7.5.7 Geneva, Switzerland
Geneva is located in the western border region of Switzerland, surrounded
by French territory on three sides.
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The Water-Jet is a large fountain in Geneva and is one of the city’s most
famous landmarks. The fountain can spout water to a height of 145 meters.
The white summit of Mont Blanc, which is 4810 meters tall, is visible
from Pont du Mont-Blanc and Port Mont-Blanc. The Île Rousseau is an
island and park in Geneva, situated in the middle of the Rhone. French
philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau often wandered and meditated on the
island, hence its name.
Geneva hosts the largest number of international organizations in the
world, including the European headquarters of the United Nations, the
Red Cross, the World Council of Churches and the World Wide Fund for
Nature.
Nyon, near Geneva, is known far and wide for having produced beautiful ceramics during the period from ad 1781 to 1813.
Lausanne, situated on the northern shore of Lake Genève, boasts the
Medieval Cathedral and the Swiss Hotel School, both being the most
noted in Switzerland and probably the best in the world.
4.1.7.5.8 Other Cities, Switzerland
Lucerne is the most populous city in Central Switzerland, known for its
ancient lanes and red roofed medieval houses, and the landmark Chapel
Bridge. The Lucerner See in Lucerne is a crystal clear lake which, with
reflections of the mountains around it, expresses the unique beauty of
Switzerland. Mount Pilatus overlooking Lucerne is the world’s steepest
cogwheel railway. The Gletschergarten, formed during the Ice Age
20,000 years ago, consists of thirty-two cavities, with the deepest one
being 9 meters in depth. The place producing Emmentaler cheese is near
the River Emme, which is not far away from Lucerne.
Bern, the capital of Switzerland, is nicknamed “the City of Bears.” This
is because items and portraits of bears can be seen everywhere in the city.
The architectural features of Bern are mainly Gothic houses made of local
sandstone and decorated with compact structure windows.
Basel is the second largest city in Switzerland. The most important site
of interest is the Dreiländerecke, where the borders of Switzerland, France
and Germany meet.
Zürich is the largest city in Switzerland, and one of the world’s largest
financial centers. Palaces built with Renaissance style can be found everywhere in the city.
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4.1.7.5.9 Czech Republic
Prague, the capital of the Czech Republic, was once the most glamorous
city in Europe during the fourteenth century, famous for its Gothic architecture. Three-hundred years later, the city turned to Baroque architectural features. Although it has suffered a lot in wars, Prague has maintained
its original appearance, as well as the essence of Western civilization.
The Vltava is the main river that runs through Prague, crossed by eighteen bridges, including the famous Charles Bridge. Hradčany, the Castle
District, is on the west bank of the Vltava. Near the Castle District we can
find a small Renaissance borough called Lesser Quarter (Malá Strana). To
the east bank of the Vltava, the Old Town (Staré Město) is on the north,
and New Town (Nove Město) is on the south.
The main entrance to the Castle District lies on the Castle Plaza, which
is guarded by sculptures of Titan gods. The castle gate, surrounded by
courtyards, is in front of an art gallery inside the castle, with great works
by Tiziano Vecellio, Rubens, and others. The most important building
within the district is the St. Vitus’ Cathedral, an excellent example of
Gothic architecture, famous for its Gothic towers. Perhaps the most outstanding place in the cathedral is the Chapel of St. Wenceslas, which keeps
the relics of the saint. The lower part of the chapel walls is wonderfully
decorated with semi-precious stones and ancient wall paintings.
Scenic spots within the Malá Strana include the Wallenstein Palace and
the Church of Our Lady Victorious.
Near the Old Town square is the Josefov (Jewish quarter), the oldest
part of Prague, with a history dating back to the tenth century. The
National Jewish Museum and Jewish Church are just within the Josefov.
The Church of St. Francis, built in the early Baroque style, and the
National Library of the Czech Republic are located on the Square of the
Knights of the Cross.
4.1.7.5.10 Hungary
Budapest, the capital of Hungary, was once two separate cities, Buda and
Pest, founded during ad 200 by the ancient Romans on both sides of the
Danube River. The two cities were not linked until 1840 when Adam
Clark completed the Chain Bridge across the river, under the design of his
British compatriot, William Clark.
In 1526, when the Turks attacked and occupied Buda, they tore down
every church in the city and rebuilt them as mosques, so they brought
oriental architecture into the city area. Thanks to the bathing tradition of
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the Ottoman Empire, the Turks constructed many fine bathing facilities
within the city. Some of the baths that the Turks erected during their
occupation are still in function. Király Bath, for example, still retains many
of the key elements of a Turkish bath. More than 1600 gallons of thermal
water flow into the baths per day, to provide thermal baths with medical
effects for the more than 120 pools that line the Danube River.
After the Turks’ occupation ended, Baroque buildings, such as the
Mathias Church and the Fishermen’s Bastion, were constructed within the
city area. The interior of the Mathias Church is extremely marvelous, its
pillars being skillfully decorated, and its ceilings and walls painted with
portraits of Hungarian saints. The Fishermen’s Bastion, built in the early
twentieth century, is a bizarre building with twisted alleys and stairways.
St. Stephen’ Basilica, a cathedral of Neo-Renaissance architecture,
modeled on the English Parliament and the Great Synagogue, is a dream
place to see.
4.2 The USA
The USA, younger than most of the European countries, appeals just as
greatly to tourists. A very large country in both territory and population, the
USA is home to a wide variety of ethnic groups, traditions, and values.
Generally speaking, Americans traditionally admire individualism and independence, which is quite different from many other nations. Another attraction of America is its extraordinary natural wonders, such as the tropical
features of Hawaii, Guam and Saipan, the spectacular view of the Grand
Canyon, the surpassingly beautiful Yellowstone National Park, and the
Niagara Falls, which are renowned both for their beauty and availability as a
valuable source of hydroelectric power. It is also a promising land for winemaking, especially in California. In addition to the attractions above, the
USA has a number of world-renowned competitive institutions of higher
education, such as Harvard University; Stanford University; Yale University;
the University of California, Berkeley; the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology; Columbia University’ the University of Chicago; and Princeton
University. American jazz music is also popular with tourists.
4.2.1 New York City
New York City is the largest city by population in the USA It is very busy
and prosperous in many fields, such as banking, financing, publishing,
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theater, advanced technologies, education, fashion, and others. Located at
the mouth of the Hudson River, it comprises five boroughs: Manhattan,
the Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island.
Manhattan is home to numerous excellent tourist destinations. Among
them is the Central Park, where we can find man-made lakes, spring fountains, skating rinks, a castle, a zoo, and out-doors theaters. On the Museum
Mile stretching along the Central Park is the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, which, containing about 33,000,000 items of art, is recognized as the
third largest museum in the world.
The Empire State Building, located in Midtown Manhattan, on the
Fifth Avenue between West 33rd and 34th Streets, is a 102-story skyscraper. As high as 400 meters, the building is a landmark of New York.
Wall Street is located in lower Manhattan, and contains the headquarters of major stock exchanges, banks, and financial houses of the world.
Broadway in Manhattan is lined with many famous theatres, music halls
and cinemas. The Theater District along Broadway alone houses as many
as forty professional theatres of 1000 or more seats. The theatres are collectively called the Broadway theatres, with the highest level of grand
operas performed in them.
Another impressive view to see is the United Nations Headquarters, a
complex located on spacious grounds overlooking the East River. It has
four major modern buildings: General Assembly building, the Conference
Building, the Secretariat building, and the Dag Hammarskjöld Library.
Inside the perimeter fence of the complex stands a row of flagpoles, with
the flags of all 193 UN member states, plus the UN flag, flying in English
alphabetical order.
The Statue of Liberty is a colossal sculpture on Liberty Island at the
mouth of the Hudson River. It is the most significant symbol of New York
City and the USA. It was a gift of friendship and support from the French
government, presented on October 28, 1886 to celebrate the first century
of independence of the USA. From the bottom to the torch of the statue,
the height of the statue is 49.8 meters. The statue is of a robed female
figure representing Libertas, the ancient Roman personification of liberty,
who bears a torch and a bronze tablet upon which is inscribed the date of
American declaration of independence, July 4, 1776. There are twenty-­
two stories inside the statue. Tourists can take stairs or elevators to the
tenth story and then climb up a geometrical stair to the top.
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4.2.2 Washington, DC
Washington, DC is the capital of the USA. As asserted by the Constitution
of the USA, the District is under the exclusive jurisdiction of the US
Congress and is therefore not a part of any state. Many of the sites to visit
here are government-related buildings, like the White House, Capitol
Hill, and the Pentagon.
4.2.3 Los Angeles
Los Angeles is located in Southern California. It is the second largest city
by population in the USA and the most important hub of communications
on the western coast of America.
Mann’s Chinese Theater, in the Chinese temple style, is located on the
historic Hollywood Walk of Fame at Hollywood Boulevard. In the concrete of the theater’s forecourt, there are nearly 200 Hollywood celebrity
handprints, footprints, and autographs. In the Universal Studios of the
theatre, a lot of classic scenes and magic effects from famous movies are
displayed.
The exclusive residential district of Beverly Hills is famous for its clean,
tree-lined streets, celebrity homes and specialty stores.
Hollywood is a district in northwest Los Angeles. It represents the
motion picture industry of the USA and the world.
The first Disney Land Theme Park. about 50 kilometers away from Los
Angeles, opened in 1955.
4.2.4 San Francisco
San Francisco is another large city on western American coast. The Golden
Gate Bridge is one of the internationally recognized symbols of San
Francisco. This suspension bridge spans the Golden Gate, the opening of
the San Francisco Bay into the Pacific Ocean. It is the second longest suspension bridge in the world, with a total length of 2700 meters.
More than 200,000 ethnic Chinese immigrants live in San Francisco.
The Chinatown in San Francisco covers 24 street corners and gathers the
largest Chinese community outside China. The Gateway Arch (Dragon
Gate) on Grant Avenue with green-tiled roofs has the Chinese motto
“Tian Xia Wei Gong” printed on it, which means “The world belongs to
all people”.
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4.2.5 Hawaii
The Hawaiian Islands, located in the Pacific Ocean,are 3220 kilometers
away from the mainland of the USA. Sunny all the year in a tropical region,
they are covered by lush tropical vegetation. On its southeastern coast is
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, which is listed on the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage of UNESCO.
Honolulu, the capital of Hawaii, is on Oahu, a sunny island with fine
sand and clear water. To observe the amazing view of Waikiki Beach of
Honolulu and Hawaii, there can be no better option than to climb up
the Diamond Head, a volcanic tuff cone near the beach. Pearl Harbor
is on the south of the island, a place bearing a special status during
World War II.
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park offers dramatic volcanic scenes as well
as rainforest and snowcapped mountains. Mauna Loa is the largest active
volcano in the world, standing about 4172 meters tall.
4.2.6 The Grand Canyon
The Grand Canyon is in the Kaibab Plateau, in the northwest of Arizona.
It is 446 kilometers long, up to 29 kilometers wide, and on average
1600 meters deep (the maximum depth is 1740 meters). The canyon was
formed a billion years ago when the Colorado River was cutting its way
through layers of rock. Ridges on both sides of the canyon consist of red
rock fractures. The color of the soil of the Grand Canyon is dark brown,
but under certain conditions and under the sunlight, for example, the
canyon sparkles in many colors.
4.2.7 Yellowstone National Park
The Yellowstone National Park covers an area of 9000 square kilometers,
stretching across Wyoming, Montana and Idaho. A UNESCO World
Heritage site, it was once a place alive with volcanoes during the ancient
times. Although the volcanoes went extinct as time passed by, the heat
accumulated by them is still there in the earth’s crust, thus bringing out
hot springs, mud pots, fumaroles, geysers as well as other geothermal features in the site. It is estimated that there is a total of at least 10,000 hot
springs in the park, with more than 3000 boiling water fountains under-
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ground. The gorgeous scenes in the park also include beautiful lakes, fast-­
running rivers, intact fossil forests and canyons.
The bear is considered the symbol of the park. There are more than
200 black bears and about 100 grizzly bears and other wild animals in
the park.
The park is open to tourists from May to October, but the best time to
go and visit the park is from June to September.
4.2.8 Niagara Falls
Niagara Falls is one of the three greatest waterfalls in the world. It is a
collective name for three distinct waterfalls that straddle the international
border between the Canada and the USA From the largest to the smallest, the three waterfalls are the Horseshoe Falls, the American Falls, and
the Bridal Veil Falls. The first two waterfalls drop about 56 m respectively, with the total width coming near 1000 meters and the total water
yield at the peak time reaching more than 100 million gallons per minute. To enjoy the waterfalls, tourists have three choices. On the Canadian
side, they can go boating on the Maid of the Mists or take an elevator
down to the bottom tunnel of the waterfalls first, then go out of the tunnel and come up to the observation towers. On the American side, they
can go to the Prospect Point Observation Tower, from which the best
views can be had.
4.2.9 Mount Rushmore
The Mount Rushmore National Memorial is a large-scale mountain sculpture located in the west vicinity of Badlands, South Dakota. Distinguished
by the huge granite faces of four American Presidents, it is also called
“President Hill.” There are sculptures of George Washington (founder of
the nation), Thomas Jefferson (principal author of the Declaration of
Independence), Theodore Roosevelt (prestigious president), and Abraham
Lincoln (the president who abolished black slavery). The carving was
started in ad 1927 and completed in 1941. The face sculpture is 18 meters
tall, and each nose is 6 meters long. Set off by the hills of the Badlands, the
sculpture perfectly blends into the surroundings.
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References
Chen, Ying. 2003. Approaching Muse: A Survey of European Museums. Guangzhou:
Guangdong People’s Publishing House.
Qian, Zhengkun. 2005. A History of World Architecture Styles. Shanghai: Shanghai
Jiaotong University Press.
Shen, Zheongnian. 2007. Travel Notes of World Cultural Relics. Shanghai: Xuelin
Publishing House.
Traveling around the World (Book Series). 2008. Beijing: China Travel & Tourism
Publishing Press.
CHAPTER 5
Western Etiquette
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Formation and Development of Etiquette
Etiquette, an important means to adjust and regulate social life, is a natural part of the progress of civilization. In daily life, etiquette, manners, and
politeness are often conflated, but actually they have different connotations. In Le Protocole, Instrument De Communication, Louis Dussault
asserts that etiquette is applicable to relationships among countries, institutions, power holders and individuals; manners applies interpersonally;
and politeness emphasizes respect for others through attitude and behavior. Interpersonal and international interaction is based on conventions
formed in the past.
Etiquette is also known as “manners.” On the origin of “etiquette,” it
is said that humans have conformed to it since the hunting age. Some
scholars believe that hunters had to maintain an appropriate distance to
ensure they would not hurt each other, and they could instead share some
benefits; even if they did not catch anything, they shared anecdotes, so
many so that they would not feel disappointed. Thus etiquette has developed with the progress of human communication.
There is no doubt that “etiquette” is a part of what Marx termed the
“superstructure,” something based on the development of material civilization and production. Etiquette in daily life came into being because of
© The Author(s) 2018
G. Xu et al. (eds.), K. Chen et al. (trans.), Introduction to Western
Culture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8153-8_5
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the development of material production. For example, “cheers” could not
have been understood before the appearance of the brewing industry.
People pay attention to dress etiquette, and believe that there is appropriate dress for different occasions. This became possible only after the emergence of the textile, silk, printing, and dyeing industry. Some etiquette has
gradually evolved from social and cultural life and mutual exchanges. The
handshake is said to have evolved from the Western medieval knights shaking the otherwise sword-holding right hand when they were well-matched
in strength, in a gesture of reconciliation.
When social classes appeared, “nations” were established and “etiquette” reached a new stage. In ancient Greece, Rome, India, Egypt, and
China, etiquette with ethnic characteristics was formed. Rules of etiquette
can be found in these countries’ poetry, tomb murals, and other sources.
Rules of etiquette are a vivid reflection of the culture and customs of different countries and different nationalities during different periods of
time; they contribute to the wealth of human culture. Etiquette has not
only been used in relation to personal exchanges, but also to rule by the
state. The ruling class, in order to consolidate its rule, established many
rules of etiquette, and required the members of the ruling class to strictly
follow them. Once the relationship within the ruling class was stable and
orderly, the entire society became relatively stable. Historically, China’s
Zhou dynasty was the first to have had complete national etiquette. The
king of the Zhou dynasty formulated “The Etiquette of Zhou” that all
feudal lords had to obey or face punishment. Subsequently, all feudal
dynasties advocated the Confucian “Etiquette Governance,” following
the manners dictated by the Zhou dynasty, and according to the needs of
their own rule, modified, supplemented and perfected it. This so-called
guidance by morality, and government by etiquette, required people to
see etiquette as the yardstick and to make sure that they should carry out
their own duties without going beyond them. This “Etiquette Governance”
played an important role in safeguarding social stability. Etiquette became
an essential part of the Chinese cultural tradition, making China “a country of etiquette.” In the feudal period of Western countries, etiquette
often referred to society’s code of behavior or the manners of the court, as
well as officially accepted norms. As for the common people, they just followed the law of the ruling class, and became slaves of the nobles, which
is consistent with a saying heard spoken in China’s feudal times
“Punishment is not for the nobles and etiquette not for the common
folks.” At the same time, as communication between nations became more
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frequent, international etiquette was formed to establish international
relationship norms.
In modern times, with the development of industrialization and the
commodity economy, interpersonal exchanges have become much more
frequent, which in return entails etiquette’s regulation and the promotion
of people’s interpersonal relationships. Communication etiquette has
become indispensable in social life. Western and Eastern societies, bathed
by the tides of the democratic system, broke the old etiquette by which to
distinguish the privileged and underprivileged, and rejected the legacy of
feudal bureaucracy. Etiquette itself has undergone great changes. Even the
rich and the powerful say such words as “please,” “thank you” or “sorry”
when talking with their entourages, waiters, and servants, to show their
excellent manners and maintain equality on the surface.
5.1.2 Characteristics of Western Etiquette
Western etiquette has experienced continual growth. There are a large
number of records about social etiquette in medieval Europe, including
the code of behavior taken down in Latin by the priestly class, and the
material manifested in the popular language spoken by the royal house
and the knightly circle. In France, the French King Louis XIV developed
a system of court etiquette, which was an important tool to strengthen
royal power over the country. The Duke of Saint-Simon, a famous French
prose writer, described in his book Memoirs various practices in the Palace
of Versailles during the period of Louis XIV: any kind of courtesy bestowed
by the king represented a higher status recognition for the receiver; to
participate in the king’s morning ritual of rising from bed was a kind of
privilege; the favor given to hold the candle in front of the royal bed meant
the King’s great trust. Thus, observing etiquette was a means to distinguish nobles and the common people under the reign of a monarch.
After the coming of democracy, the old system, with its hierarchical
discrepancies and devalued etiquette, was abandoned. Equal interpersonal
relations were established. However, every society throughout history has
had to formulate etiquette conducive to the exercise of power, and remind
people to abide by it. Therefore, although it was constantly adjusted as
Europe developed politically, economically, and culturally, the old ­etiquette
still provides the basis for the etiquette necessary for modern European
countries. People have been made increasingly aware that etiquette covers
the values peculiar to a political and social system, and that citizens hold-
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ing respect for government institutions, and people showing good manners to one another, are the common wealth that accrues when passed
down from generation to generation. As European integration continues,
European etiquette is becoming an important part of modern international etiquette.
Modern Western etiquette has the following characteristics.
5.1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics
“Culture” here refers to the time-honored Western religious culture.
Europe is the birthplace of one of the three major religions in the world,
Christianity, which currently has three branches, the Catholic Church, the
Protestant Church, and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Many European
countries, such as France and Italy, experienced times of theocratic government, when etiquette and religion were closely linked and many of the
rules of etiquette were just religious canons. Believers participate in various religious rituals from birth to death, but rules of etiquette differ
between the followers of Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox
denominations. Today, people in Western countries follow the “lady first”
etiquette, which can be summarized as: when walking, men are supposed
to walk on the side closer to moving vehicles; when getting out of a car
and descending a staircase men should go first; when eating, ladies order
first; when entering a restaurant or theater, men should go first in order to
get a reservation. Analyzing this from a religious point of view, some have
held that the respect for women in these situations stems from the respect
for the Virgin Mary. Western Christian countries deem “666” as the most
unlucky number, because “666” was seen as the incarnation of Satan. If
two men danced, or rubbed their shoulders with each other, they were
seen as gays. Such actions were not allowed, because in early Christianity,
homosexuality was a taboo. A homosexual person in the Middle Ages
would be given severe punishment by the church. Etiquette was seen as a
means of promoting social harmony by Christianity. In books of Western
Christian schools, etiquette was understood as the means by which a holy
soul shows its mercy.
5.1.2.2 National Characteristics
Etiquette arises from a nation’s customs, which in turn add to etiquette.
Every nation in the world regards its national customs as the most sacred
and precious wealth. In Europe, for example, the interdependence of the
economic and military sectors makes the integration of all the European
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nations an important trend of modern Europe. However, because of the
threat to the nationally distinct images preserved by their national traditions, the European countries have had some scruples about adapting to
the trend of co-operation that does not align with the core values of the
national traditions. Therefore, no matter how the integration process is
pushed ahead, the European countries will each work in terms of their
own national interests in the integration process, as is especially true when
it comes to a country’s etiquette as an essential part of its cultural traditions: Many codes of behavior, manners, and rules of etiquette are characteristic of a country’s cultural traditions. Take a meeting as an example.
Eastern Europeans usually offer a warm embrace to others to show respect,
or, to show greater respect, a bouquet of flowers in addition to the
embrace; in Denmark, when a girl or young woman meets a man of high
status, she will bend her knees and at once extend one hand. Danish men
often shake hands when they meet, but will avoid reaching out both hands
for the other party’s, in the belief that to do so will invite bad luck; in
Poland, most women prefer a hand-kiss from men, which was once popular among the upper class during the feudal period in Europe. It is still
popular in Poland today, and even leaders kiss on the hand when they
meet with ladies from the rank and file, because many Polish people believe
that this is an important manifestation of respect for females. Spain and
Portugal, which had a booming maritime civilization which enabled them
to conquer other countries with military might and trade, have a special
interest in blue, which they believe is the noblest color.
5.1.2.3 International Characteristics
Modern international communication calls for forms of etiquette that may
be accepted by all countries. With changes taking place in national etiquette, and great headway being made in international relations, the etiquette people observed in international exchanges in the past is likely to
change accordingly, giving rise to a modern international etiquette. This,
in terms of its content, includes the etiquette people follow for routine
communication in international exchanges, rules by which to hold ceremonies, diplomatic manners, diplomatic privilege and immunity, and
other aspects. Some of these have found their way into international conventions, such as the “Vienna Convention” that are internationally legally
binding. Most of them have become what people accustom themselves to
and abide by in international interactions and are gradually becoming
practices internationally recognized and accepted.
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In the West, etiquette has had a long history. There was “special treatment to foreign nationals” and there were “foreign affairs officers” in
ancient Greece. In ancient Rome, there was a Law on Courtesy for Guests.
After the seventeenth century, because of the development of the commodity economy, international communication expanded rapidly; accordingly, Western countries formulated corresponding etiquette. France in a
certain sense was the founder of modern international etiquette. As early
as the Napoleon Empire, France promulgated the first protocol in the
form of a national law on the etiquette of receiving guests. The French
government reformed its etiquette laws in 1905 and 1989. The ever-­
improving French etiquette has been recognized worldwide. Many countries, such as Japan and Israel, use French etiquette as standards.
5.1.2.4 Simple Characteristics
With the advance of globalization, interpersonal and international
exchanges and activities have dramatically increased, so that the manners,
protocols and etiquette became burdensome. Therefore, simplification of
etiquette has become inevitable. Western etiquette gives greater priority to
usefulness, which has tended to make arrangements more flexible. For
example, rituals held for the royal family on tour have been simplified; and
the same is true of the president’s inauguration in France. In 1969 and
1974, the outgoing and incoming presidents completed the transfer of
power by a simple conversation. They then reviewed the guard of honor.
Finally they drove to the Triumphal Arch and lit the torch near the tomb
of the unknown soldier. What draw greater attention are the substantial
talks between the leaders rather than the rituals. In general visiting schedules are made tighter and more workable; banquet etiquette does away
with extravagances; there are fewer banquet attendees; formal speeches at
the banquet appear less frequently; the number of delegates to visit foreign countries has been reduced, and now importance is attached to security, comfort and convenience when giving a reception to the guests by the
hosting country.
5.2 Etiquette in Some Western Countries
As mentioned above, with economic globalization and European integration, Western etiquette has become increasingly internationalized and
converged, but Western countries preserve their national features due to
the various differences in their cultural traditions.
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5.2.1 United Kingdom
5.2.1.1 Good Manners Manifest in Respect for Etiquette
The UK is known as “a country of gentlewomen and gentlemen.” Because
it once dominated the world, the British people, having a strong sense of
national pride, retain their old rules and regulations, clothing, nobility
titles, and educational system that has existed for hundreds of years, and
deem ancient traditions valuable. At one time Britain regarded France as a
model nation, one which put a high value on etiquette. Accordingly, the
British see impoliteness is lack of good breeding. When at home or on
social occasions, or when attending some official functions, the British
people care about their speech and demeanor towards others. The “gentlemanlike manners” that many Englishmen try to measure up to consist
not only in showing care and respect for women, but also in keeping up
appearances and acting elegantly and with restraint.
5.2.1.2 Dress Etiquette: Traditional Costume and Individuality
As members of a nation that values its traditions, the British people have
kept many rules of dress etiquette, and they will pay attention, for example, to dressing properly so as to show what best befits a gentlewoman or
gentleman. By “dressing properly” is meant that the clothes people wear
have to be made to suit the occasion and their social status. On certain
occasions, the British cling to traditional dress. When a judge needs to
settle a lawsuit, s/he wears a wig and a black robe; all the royal guards,
whether on duty at the Tower of London or Buckingham Palace, wear the
same costume as all their predecessors; according to royal tradition, each
year the Queen holds a garden party at Buckingham Palace, at which all
the guests are required to appear in the costume they traditionally would:
gentlemen wearing black formal suits with a hat in hand, and ladies dressing themselves up with a hat on their head.
In addition to the requirement for wearing traditional clothing on special occasions, the British people have customs of dressing to observe in
daily life. They dress formally at work or when participating in formal
activities. Civil servants and company employees usually wear a suit and a
white shirt with a tie, making themselves “white collar” staff in contrast to
“blue collar” workers who wear blue working clothes while at work. In the
past, British women wore skirts both at work and at home, and the custom
still influences the way women dress themselves today; when the British
people go to the theater or concerts, they are often “dressed up.”
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In the past, it was easy to judge an Englishman’s social status by the
clothes he wore. Now, however, an ever-growing tendency to dress
casually, a taste for a diversity of dress styles, and a longing to dress comfortably make the distinction between people in terms of their social
status more and more difficult. When the daily wear becomes simpler
and more comfortable, what stands out is that people have made their
dress styles individualized and act more prudently when choosing what
to wear when socializing, in case they should have clothes on them that
look like the same as others’. A striking example is that in primary and
secondary schools in England, school uniforms have almost been phased
out, an embodiment of the British society’s pursuit of individualized
dress styles.
5.2.1.3 Daily Greeting Etiquette: Modesty and Sobriety
In the UK, people usually say “Good morning!” or “Hello!” to those
they know; even when they are in a hurry they will greet them with a
wave of the hand, even from across the road. The British people show
their good manners when they are with others, and phrases like “please,”
“thank you,” “morning,” and “sorry” are heard spoken every day among
family members and good friends. Such exchanges of greetings and
good feelings is a rare occurrence between strangers, however. For people who are not from England, it would be best, as they think, to call
people “English,” “Scots,” “Welsh,” “Northern Irelanders” respectively
or “the British,” a term to cover all. But two strangers, without a third
party introducing one to the other, seldom start a conversation between
themselves, because there the British have the rules of sobriety to follow.
In Britain it is no easy job to introduce a person to another person,
because the one doing the job has to act with flexibility and care or the
job easily borders on damaging the rules of etiquette. The rules people
observe when introducing people to one another are to introduce young
people to old people; to introduce men to the women; to introduce
people of low social status to people of high social status; and in the case
of two women, to introduce the unmarried to the married. Normally
people do not shake hands very often in daily life, and a woman, a person
of higher social, or a person in seniority of age, will reach out a hand to
the other party when the first handshake becomes necessary between
people who are introduced to one another. Women do not have to take
off gloves when shaking hands, and it is necessary to have only a brief
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exchange of greetings when they are introduced for the first time. People
generally do not exchange business cards when they go and visit the
homes of others, but they have to on business occasions, or when they
give a gift to others. Neither a casual “hi!” nor an embrace with a kiss
pressed on the cheek will be appropriate. Shaking hands is the most
popular meeting etiquette.
The British still use the term “Sir” without using the family name to
address the elderly, people of high social status, or as a mark of respect.
This form of address sounds formal and respectable, although under other
circumstances the family name is often added. In Chinese culture, “old” is
a word people use when mentioning or greeting someone with respect,
while for the British the word carries sarcasm, meaning “impotent” or
“not much use” so that the word “old” is taboo in the culture. At the
same time, some acts concerning the elderly, such as supporting someone
by the hand or offering seats to people, are not welcomed either, because
they are suggestive of “being old.”
5.2.1.4 Etiquette for Visitors and Hosts: Details Matter
As a proverb goes in the West, an Englishman’s home is his castle.
According to a British tradition, each person has the freedom and right to
shun outside interference, which accounts for the fact that, for the British,
a visit without a prior appointment would be regarded as a serious faux
pas, and a phone call made to the household of a person at an inconvenient time could stir up ill-feeling. When one visits the home of a friend,
it would be wise to bring some inexpensive gifts such as the works of
one’s national arts and crafts. The host will often open the gift packaging
in front of the guests and give warm praise of the gift or thanks to the
guest, whatever the value is, and whether they like it or not. An invitation
to dinner, a drama performance, a concert or a dance show can also be
seen as a gift.
The British used to invite friends to a tea party where three or four
friends or, at most, several dozens gather for an informal social occasion
that usually begins at four or five pm and lasts for more than an hour.
Guests attending the tea party wear normal clothing and take their seats as
they please. A formal tea party can accommodate two or three hundred
people. All the guests have to get there on time, but they can leave without saying “Thanks” or “Good-bye.” At the tea party, coffee or black tea
with milk and sugar are served.
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The invitation to dinner should be sent out at least ten days in advance,
and the reply should be made as soon as possible so that the host can make
appropriate arrangements. If there is any change, the host should be
informed as soon as possible, and the absentee should apologize and
explain. To delay replying to an invitation or to go to a gathering uninvited is a serious faux pas. The British like to propose toasts but do not
force people to drink, and guests may drink as much as they think fit. After
dinner, the guests may stay for a while, and shake hands with the host to
show their thankfulness when they leave. The guests may nod to each
other as a sign standing for “Bye.” The guests are expected to send the
host a letter of thanks afterwards.
People who have business relations often have a luncheon at about
1:30 p.m. in the afternoon. The guests do not wear such formal dress as at
a formal dinner, and relatively simple foods are served for the luncheon. If
many guests are invited to the gathering, the host often provides a buffet.
At the launch of a new business, when there is a gala, or when the host
anticipates guests coming and going frequently, the host often holds a
cocktail party for hundreds of people, which lasts for less than 90 minutes,
with the time limit written in the invitation. Guests can come and go freely
with no seats arranged. In this way, the host and guests can talk to one
another as they please.
5.2.1.5 Dining Etiquette: More Drinks and Less Food
There was once a European writer who commented of British dining habits that, whereas in Europe people were particular about eating, in the UK,
people only cared about whether there were good table manners at the
dinner table. Typically, English food is simple, served in large portions,
with a limited variety of dishes. The most common foods, in addition to
milk, bread, ham, beef, and sweets, are fried fish and braised food. The
eating of dog meat is considered taboo. As people have quickened their
pace in life, fast food is becoming more and popular. To ask the British
people “have you eaten?” would be considered rude behavior. It would
also be viewed as acting impolitely to make any noise when eating, to gulp
down food, or to talk when there is food in the mouth. Of course, people
have to talk during a meal, because it would be looked on as impolite to
keep the mouth tight shut. But people are not expected to engage in conversation about weighty topics, much less in argument. In addition, people should not smoke, except when offered cigarettes by the host. The
British place drinks well above food. They love tea, coffee, and alcoholic
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drinks. They have had a history of over 300 years of tea drinking that has
changed people’s life styles, and tea has become a drink that they cannot
do without for a single day in daily life. The British have their favourite
drink in black tea that comes mostly from India and Sri Lanka. They wake
up at six in the morning and begin to enjoy the so called “bed tea” while
in bed. At 11:00 a.m., they have morning tea and in the afternoon they
have afternoon tea with some cookies and desserts. Again after supper they
have tea with friends as a way to socialize and relax. The British people
love, besides tea and coffee, alcoholic drinks and, when they invite people
to dinner, they often treat them to whisky, champagne, Martini, gin and
others. They often have several kinds of alcoholic drinks on the same
occasion.
5.2.2 France
5.2.2.1 Respect for Etiquette: Stressing Gentleness and Mutual Respect
Like the Chinese nation, the French nation has had a long history and has
long been known as “A Nation that Respects Etiquette.” Besides, France
is the founder of modern international rules of etiquette. Many rules of
etiquette prevalent in the USA and Europe today have their origin in
France, the most characteristic of which is respect for women, a tradition
that can be traced back to the ancient Germanic tribes who brought it
with them when migrating into Western Europe in the fifth century. If
French etiquette is an important part of French culture, then French as a
language is the main carrier of French etiquette. The French people can
blend their politeness and refined taste in the words and sentences of their
mother tongue, so French is also called the “diplomatic language,” “social
language” or “lovers’ language.”
After the separation of the church and state in 1905, the French government carried out a thorough reform of the etiquette system. The
­currently effective etiquette and customs were revised and enforced by
the French government in September 1989. The French people stress
that, compared with traditional society, modern society is much more
free and open, but in an age of globalization, people have an even greater
need for etiquette as a way to communicate, and to mediate conflicts. In
this connection, gentleness and mutual respect are the primary rules of
French etiquette.
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For the French, gentleness covers gestures, language, communication
and interpersonal relationship, and others that lie not only in the outwardly visible show of consideration to others, and caring speech and
demeanor, but also in the warmth of concern for others that comes from
within, shown in the form of expressing your thankfulness in a timely
manner, extending your congratulations, sympathy or support to those
who deserve them. Mutual respect consists in showing respect for others
and for yourself. Respect for others is the respect for others’ personality,
beliefs and privacy, embodied by behaving with what is considered as necessarily good manners before others on any occasions; abiding by the rules
of etiquette when men get along with women, and by treating the disabled and the elderly kindly. Looking at a person provocatively and inquisitively would be considered rude, while good manners is shown by respect
for the privacy and character type of another person, by asking, for example, if one can smoke when one wants to or instead go to the smoking
area. Only when one realizes that one acts by following the rules of etiquette, can one make what one does praiseworthy. In other words, one
can acquire a sensible insight into one’s own strengths and weaknesses;
one can accept one’s own character type; one can, when handling things,
act by following rules of etiquette and remain restrained in one’s own
emotions, speech and demeanor.
5.2.2.2 Dress Etiquette: Neat, Elegant, Proper
In the nineteenth century, the French did not take a daily bath, but wore
“tight underclothes” to conceal fouling of the body. Modern French people care about personal hygiene, and they see to it that they are neatly
dressed. Both men and women manicure their nails, brush their teeth
both in the morning and evening, and keep their hair clean. The French
believe that elegant and proper clothing best shows one’s personal taste.
People think that the dress should appear natural, with care shown to taste
and to details that become the occasion where they appear, their age and
their body type.
For ladies, it is advisable for people to wear clothes called “Quality
Casual Wear” suitable for all daytime occasions, or even for a dinner party
in the evening, and to make people look elegant with such adornments as
shoes, hats, handbags, and belts, as well as some unpretentious ornaments.
Other conventions include wearing scents that match one’s complexion,
character and life style, and applying cosmetics properly. That is, people
(and especially elderly women) should avoid wearing heavy makeup, and
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also one should not apply makeup in public. For men, when going to a
cocktail party, a dinner party, when visiting superiors, or when attending
ceremonial events, they wear traditionally gray, blue or brown suits, avoiding appearing in slovenly dress. The three-piece set (trousers, suit and
vest) suits a formal reception perfectly. In addition, both men and women
wear formal dress to attend any ceremonial events if they receive an invitation. When going to theater or attending a dinner party or a celebration,
men sometimes wear a tuxedo jacket with a bow tie or a black suit; women
wear a single-color, often long, dress.
5.2.2.3 Daily Greeting Etiquette: Traditions in a Simplifying Process
In France, people who know each other often greet each other by saying
“good morning,” “good afternoon,” or “good evening.” On the first meeting, people get to know each other most naturally through the introduction
of a third person. But at a party, if there is no third person available, one can
introduce oneself to others, though the introduction should be brief. One
may mention one’s name but not one’s title. After the introduction, people
exchange greetings. If this would take a long time, greeting with a nod and
a smile may do. The major rules of etiquette afterwards include shaking
hands, hugging and kissing the cheeks. Men must take off gloves when
shaking hands, while women do not have to. When shaking hands, it would
be impolite to stretch out only three fingers. Familiar friends, whether men
or women, may briefly kiss each other’s cheeks three or four times, instead
of shaking hands. Hand-kissing is no longer popular.
Most French people put a high value on their titles, and want to be
introduced with their titles mentioned. Soldiers of ranks higher than lieutenant should be introduced with their titles, too. If someone has more
than one title, one introduces him by referring to his highest title. It will
do for people who don’t know each other to use such terms of address
when greeting each other as “Monsieur,” “Madam” or “Mademoiselle,”
never adding the surname. Nowadays, a popular trend observable among
people who know each other is to turn to the first name for the greeting,
but it is advisable to make sure beforehand that the use of the first name is
acceptable. On some occasions, it has become a matter of course that colleagues use the first name to greet each other with. In addition, phrases
such as “Sorry,” “Excuse me,” “Thank you,” and “Please …,” “My pleasure.,” “Very glad to be at your service” can be heard anytime in daily life.
In public places, people are expected to keep the volume of their conversation to a polite minimum.
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The French people have a strong sense of national pride, believing that
French is the most beautiful language in the world. Although many French
people know English, they never use English to order dishes in a restaurant. People who do not understand the French menu are regarded as
illiterate or without any refined taste. The French care much about privacy, so they tend not to ask about personal or family affairs in conversation. When socializing, the French people keep themselves apart from
each other, at a distance of no less than 80 centimeters.
5.2.2.4 Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
It is customary to treat one’s friends to a dinner party given at home. One
may entertain one’s guests at home with lunch, dinner, a cocktail or tea
party, all of which go on in accordance with the established customs and
procedures. To handle the reception appropriately, the host has to take
into account the visitor’s identity, age and taste. Sending an invitation letter to a friend is a very important part of the event, as all large receptions,
banquets or cocktail parties necessitate an invitation sent to people in written form, while one may otherwise invite people over by phone or in
person. During the banquet, the host or the hostess has to lead every new
arrival to the guests who have already arrived, and to make a brief introduction. The order of the introduction is to have the young introduced to
the old or men introduced to women first. Due consideration is given to
the guests’ age, title and familiarity with the host before seats are arranged.
The French people pay much attention to punctuality, so one should
reply to an invitation on time. Before one goes to a gathering, one is
expected to give the host a bouquet of flowers, some candies or other
small gifts to express one’s gratitude to the host. One may give the hostess
a bunch of flowers when attending a banquet. There are many rules to
follow when giving the host or hostess flowers, because for the French
different flowers embody different sentiments. For example, roses symbolize charm, orchids stand for enthusiasm, tulips are a sign of affection,
marigolds mean sadness, lilies denote solemnity and respect, acacia flowers
show dependence and safety, snapdragon flowers express confidence, carnation flowers are synonymous with boldness and fantasy, peonies suggest
reserve and shyness, daffodils refer to one’s love of oneself, dahlia flowers
are associative with freshness and novelty, while chrysanthemums are used
at funerals. Red roses have such semantic features as romance and love, so
one should not casually give them to young girls; more, roses should be
given in odd numbers. In addition, relatives and friends do not have to
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give gifts to one another but, if it is necessary, a book or some candies are
good candidates for gift-giving. Only to a friendly family dinner should
one bring food and drinks, or the host would feel that the visitors worry
about going hungry to some extent. It is better to give gifts to the host
away from the sight of other guests, and to avoid giving the host too
expensive gifts. On receiving a gift, the host is expected to express his
thankfulness and at once to open the box. Later, a thank-you letter is
appropriate to show one’s thankfulness.
Today the French make far fewer calls at friends’ homes than formerly.
When one wants to make such a call, it is customary to make an appointment beforehand. While at the friend’s, one should speak laconically and
finish the visit in time. One should not smoke without permission, or sit
down unless you have been waiting more than five minutes.
5.2.2.5 Dining Etiquette: Food as Art
Living in a country best known for its cuisine, the French people care
about fine food, calling themselves gourmets and turning man’s bodily
need for food into a main joy of life, and even an art. The French people
usually take breakfast, brunch (between the traditional breakfast and
lunch, at about 11:00 a.m), lunch, afternoon snack and dinner, and like
drinking tea in their leisure time. They like many kinds of foods, such as
bread that is baked in many forms, cheese, beef, pork, chickens, caviar,
snails, and goose liver. They do not like fatty pork, cat or dog meat, and
many people prefer not to eat offal except liver or fish without scales. They
like dishes highly seasoned, prepared by adding such condiments as garlic,
lilac and caraway. They love fresh foods and foods underdone, but they do
not like green onions, soy sauce and MSG as seasonings. They generally
serve fruit at every meal.
At home or in a restaurant, the dining tables, whether big or small, are
nicely laid out and have all the necessary things ready: the menu, the
guests’ seat labels, flowers, tablecloth and cutlery. There are a wide range
of famous French brands of wine for use for a meal: One may take some
sweet wine as an appetizer before the meal, some white wine or rose wine
when eating fish or seafood, or red wine that goes well with meat dishes,
or some fortified wine if one has ham and roast beef, or some spirit when
one enjoys venison and marinated chicken. One may also be served with
eggs boiled in the dry alcoholic beverage, roast fish and some brandy after
the meal. In addition, the French love drinking beer with a bit lemon juice
put in it. They love drinking tap water and coffee, so coffee bars and open-­
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air coffee tables are a feature of the French street, making a good street
scene and venue for socializing.
Whatever receptions people attend, they show good manners as the
most basic requirement. Before the hostess says “Please be seated,” it is
not advisable to sit down. When people do sit down, it is polite to sit
straight and naturally, and keep an appropriate distance between the body
and the table, with the hands on either side of the plate, and keeping the
elbows tucked in case the guests next to them are inconvenienced. The
French are used to putting the knife and fork halfway on the plate (totally
different from the way the British people arrange the fork and knife). It is
considered impolite to eat noisily.
5.2.3 Germany
5.2.3.1 Interpersonal Relations: Fixed Pattern
Typical Germans listen to conventional wisdoms and are loyal to their
duties, as is manifest by the fact that they see that there are laws that
people must abide by and laws that people cannot do without. They draw
a clear line between personal affairs and business affairs and have a strong
sense of citizenship that enables them to strictly follow rules of morality
and code of behavior in daily life, making themselves model citizens, compared with people from other parts of the world. As examples to show that
they value rules highly, Germans do not generally cross the road except on
a zebra-crossing; the bus driver will not start the bus earlier than the
scheduled time even when the bus arrives at the stop a few minutes early;
they do not litter the floor with garbage; they have a strong sense of
responsibility while at work, never placing their personal interest above
people’s common interest. It is appropriate, therefore, to describe the
Germans as “characteristically following the regulations or instructions to
the letter.”
Despite their apparently cold demeanour and relatively poor communication skills, Germans have a strong sense of community and like to attend
gatherings and associations as the channels of interpersonal communication. Generally speaking, in terms of interpersonal relations, Germans
place emphasis on rules and see as an embodiment of virtue people speaking and behaving in accordance with etiquette.
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5.2.3.2 Dress Etiquette
The attire of the Germans can seem formal, simple and clean. They are not
fond of bright or flashy clothes, and neither do they tolerate untidy and
slovenly clothing. German men wear suits and jackets in daily life. German
women love to wear a shirt with lapels and a pale-colored long dress. They
care much about their hairstyle. German men tend not to shave their heads
since to be bald runs the risk of being singled out as “Neo-Nazi”; unmarried women wear short hair or long hair reaching the shoulders; married
women generally give a perm to the hair. Germans hate to use a lot of cosmetics on their faces, and they wear light makeup, instead. They generally
dress in dark formal attire when going to the theater, concerts, or visiting a
friend’s home, with men wearing three-piece suits, and women skirt suits.
5.2.3.3 Daily Greeting Etiquette
The Germans get along with others in a simple and straightforward manner, using “you” to greet an intimate friend and the first name when
greeting a colleague. But in the case of people meeting one another for
the first time, the Germans behave politely, keeping themselves apart at
some distance. When one finds oneself before a stranger, a senior person
or any other person one knows as an acquaintance, it is customary to use
“you” in the honorary form. When people meet each other for the first
time, an introduction is made. Since the Germans traditionally pay attention to personal identity, they use academic, professional or military titles
before their names, for example, “Mr. Doctor” and “Mr. Professor” to
show respect for the person to whom reference is made when introducing people to each other. Even when the title is not used correctly, it does
not matter very much. In addition, different from the French people, the
Germans never greet a friend by calling out “Mr.” alone, but use their
names as well; For women over twenty, people turn to “Madam” or
“Mrs.” “Miss” is considered frivolous. In Germany, people often bow
slightly as a token of greeting and, in the case of people knowing each
other well, shake hands. When shaking hands, they look one another in
the eyes to show respect. This is also the moment when men take off
their hats and introduce themselves by letting the other party know their
surname but not their first name. They do not act like the French who
hug a lot, as hugging is saved for relatives and friends only. The Germans
show respect for women and the elderly, so that the young are introduced to the elderly, men are introduced to women, and the inferior
introduced to the superior.
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5.2.3.4 Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
When they want to give friends a party at home, the German people often
send invitation letters to friends a week prior to the event, while the recipients have to reply as soon as possible whether to attend the party. Punctual
attendance is part of etiquette people value very highly and, therefore, if
one is late, it is necessary to let the host know how sorry one feels for
being late. When one visits someone’s home for the first time, a half-hour
stay suffices and one does not have to give a gift or a bunch of flowers to
the host who does not entertain the visitor in turn. Germans customarily
do not give the host a gift that costs much, and when going to a party they
bring with them inexpensive and memorable gifts, such as a bunch of
flowers, a bottle of jam, a book or a bottle of wine. If the gift is a bunch of
flowers, five or seven flowers are enough; the number should be an odd
one; and the paper package should be unwrapped on the spot before the
guest presents the flowers to the hostess. The Germans generally do not
cook for themselves, so they seldom entertain guests except to a drink at
home. For Germans, the purpose of having friends at home is not to eat a
lot of food but to engage in pleasant talk. Germans like to spend a lot of
time talking with one another, and their conversation often focuses on
serious topics. In the home of a German friend’s, one shall often stay until
midnight; it would be impolite to leave very early.
The Germans like to sleep late on Sunday, so breakfast and lunch are
turned into one meal, called “brunch.” Other than calls made between
intimate friends or calls for urgent issues, one should not make any calls to
people at this time. At two or three in the afternoon at the weekend it is
the coffee time at home when people enjoy coffee and pastries.
5.2.3.5 Dining Etiquette
Germans believe that eating and drinking bring health and happiness.
Therefore, Germans focus on the nutritional composition of the diet, and
like mild food with sour and sweet tastes. They often have light cold dishes
rather than greasy and spicy foods. The Germans generally can eat a large
portion of food, and don’t like anything better than pork. Over 1500
kinds of sausages and more than 1200 kinds of bread and 600 kinds of
cheeses are available in Germany. The Germans eat beef, too, but they do
not touch mutton or any of the internal contents of the animal body
except the liver. Buffet and hamburger are two German inventions that are
popular all over the world. German beers rank highest in the world, and
almost every German can drink one pint of beer after another. They are
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particular about the way they drink beer and the rules of beer drinking.
Besides beers, the Germans drink wine, coffee, black tea, and mineral
water. In Germany, there are plenty of bars, where the Germans, who
otherwise act in a rigid gentlemanlike manner and abide by rules, can
relax, talking and laughing merrily. When they have dinner at a restaurant,
people share the cost of the bill unless otherwise arranged beforehand.
The German people have such table manners to abide by as, firstly, not
using knife and fork with which people eat fish to pick up bits of meat or
cheese; secondly, finishing the beer before the wine; thirdly, putting on the
plate an appropriate amount of food; fourthly, doing away with fans at
meals; fifthly, eating no walnuts.
5.2.4 Spain
5.2.4.1 Daily Communication: Traditions Coming First
In the last fifty years, great changes have taken place in Spain, including
the change of the political system, industrial growth, the entry into the
EU, and tourism popularization. However, despite its entry into industrialized European civilization, Spain has kept its cultural traditions and ethnic characteristics. Influenced by Latinate culture, the Spanish people have
the characters of typical southern Europeans. They are enthusiastic, optimistic, pragmatic, honest and straightforward. In Spain, the family is
always the pillar of society, where husband and wife maintain traditional
relations. The wife rarely goes out in public alone, especially not to bars.
The gallantry that the French men show to women is never welcomed in
Spain. The Spanish, even when chatting, prefer more serious topics, not
frivolous ones. They do everything by the book, putting themselves and
others under the regulation of rules. They see this as integral to living in a
civilized society. Influenced by the past regime, there is a legacy of hierarchy in Spanish society. Bullfighting is very popular in Spain.
5.2.4.2 Dress Etiquette
The Spanish strike people as enthusiastic and passionate, so their daily
dress styles show their individualistic character and deportment, and at the
same time are so designed that the clothes are loose and comfortable.
Therefore, outside the working hours when they wear suits or skirt suits,
the Spanish appear in a shirt without a tie, a jacket, jeans and trousers; they
also love casual wear and sportswear, especially cotton clothing; women
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like to wear pale-colored and yet elegant dress, with a traditional shawl
over the shoulder. The young Spanish like to wear clothes in plain colors,
while the elderly wear bright colors. Men also wear shirts with a variety of
flower patterns, and women going out without wearing earrings would be
laughed at. For formal business meetings, the Spanish generally wear dark
suits, white shirts and black leather shoes. When going out in the evening,
men wear suits and leather shoes no matter how high the temperature.
5.2.4.3 Daily Greeting Etiquette
The name of a Spanish person is made up of the first name, the father’s
surname, and the mother’s surname. Generally, it may do to greet a
Spanish person using the father’s surname or the first name plus the
father’s surname. A married woman can have the husband’s surname put
at the end of her name. In general, one can greet a Spanish person by calling out Mr., Mrs. or Miss plus his or her name, professional title, or academic degree. Relatives and friends simply use the first name or, in the case
of almost all people, the term of endearment, to greet each other. When
people shake hands, the elders, superiors and women reach out the hand
first, and people exchange their business cards on the occasion. Among
friends and relatives, men may press their shoulders tight against the
friends’ on hugging; women may kiss each other on the cheeks with light
hugs. A face-to-face close embrace is confined to man and wife, lovers,
parents and children. There is kiss etiquette people abide by all across
Spain: Man and wife as well as lovers press the kiss at each other’s lips; the
elderly people kiss the young on the forehead and relatives and friends on
the cheeks.
Spanish women like fans made of black silk, and have a traditional “fan
language”: covering up the lower half of the face means “Do you love
me?”; if the fan now opens and then shuts, it means “I miss you”; if the
fan is thrown onto the table, or flutters fast in the hand, it says “Please
leave me alone. I do not like you!”
5.2.4.4 Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
The Spanish like night life, so they usually take a siesta, in which phone
calls are not welcomed. If invited to others’ home, they do not necessarily
arrive on time. They can be fifteen minutes late at least. The Spanish never
give the host flowers as a gift; chocolate or wine is best. Special mention
should be made here of the fact that, in Spain, when you agree with someone you say “Ok, thank you,” and when you disagree you smile and say
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“No,” which is not quite what people do in other countries where they say
“No, thank you.”
5.2.4.5 Dining Etiquette
The Spanish cut a day into two halves, in the latter of which social activities, especially dinner, are arranged. From 1:30 to 4:30 p.m. in the afternoon, most offices and stores are closed. Restaurants do not open until
8:00 in the evening. The Spanish have supper relatively late, even in the
winter. People have lunch at 2:00 p.m., and supper served later than
10:00 in the evening. After supper, the whole family go out for a walk. In
Spain, if one refuses to attend a banquet or does not care about eating and
drinking, one is regarded as a dull or even unworldly person. Spain is
famous for its great number of holidays, with several holidays in almost
every month, and almost all of them related to enjoying delicious food.
People eat cooked pasta food, all kinds of meat, hot and sour food rather
than greasy or salty dishes. They love to drink beer, wine, coffee, mineral
water and cold soup. To celebrate the new year they eat garlic soup, and
when the new year’s bell rings, they eat twelve grapes. When having dinner, the host and hostess sit face to face at opposite ends of the dining-­
table, with the guests on both sides. People take whatever dishes they like
by themselves, and do not insist on others drinking with them. The guests
do not leave immediately after dinner; neither do they stay too long.
5.2.5 Switzerland
5.2.5.1 Daily Communication: Self-Esteem and Restraint
Switzerland is not a nation state, nor is there a unified language in the
country, where live both Protestants and Catholics. Many foreign ­residents
in Switzerland belong to the elite, such as diplomats, businessmen and
intellectuals, and these have a huge influence on Swiss society. When dealing with a Swiss, one must first understand his or her nationality and
mother tongue so that one can handle things in different ways. Switzerland
is a Protestant country, so self-esteem, restraint, and rigorousness or even
asceticism constitute the national characteristics of the Swiss. The Swiss
people, even those born rich, act with restraint. Even if they own a Rolls-­
Royce, they drive ordinary cars when they go out. Under the influence of
their religious faith, the Swiss do not easily reveal feelings, and they keep a
certain distance from others. When talking with people, the Swiss look
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serious and reserved, and are cautious about choosing the right words,
being a little bit over self-controlled.
5.2.5.2 Dress Etiquette
The Swiss people wear simple attire, believing that one should wear formal
and simple dresses to suit one’s identity. The Swiss people wear suits or
skirt suits on formal occasions, avoiding wearing clothing that is too bright
or gaudy. The Swiss think of brown clothing as undignified. The Swiss
people dress casually in daily life, and some girls do not even wear makeup.
They like purely natural fabrics, and consider chemical fabrics to be cheap
goods. The Swiss do not wear traditional clothing except on holidays or
ceremonial occasions. The most commonplace scene is that men appear in
a dress shirt with big sleeves, a short jacket, and a pair of pants reaching
the knees; women in a silk jacket, a velvet vest and a long loose skirt. The
Swiss people do not wear jewelry, much less artificial jewelry, in daily life.
5.2.5.3 Daily Greeting Etiquette
The Swiss people’s self-esteem and restraint lead to the moderation and
conservativism that characterize people’s daily speech and demeanor. The
Swiss people respectfully use “Sir,” “Madam,” or “Miss” when greeting
others. Unless in intimate relations, the Swiss do not greet each other
using the name, neither do they use “you.” When greeting friends, the
Swiss people generally shake hands, one looking into the face of the other.
They do not greet others using their titles, neither do they wear medals on
social occasions. Some Swiss have two kinds of name cards, one kind of
which bears their name and the address, for domestic communication; the
other being more informative, for international communication. The
Swiss always act politely towards strangers, ready to give them a hand
obligingly. When asked about a place or a person, the Swiss give people
the detailed information they need. When meeting people they know, the
Swiss often nod or take off their hats. Among friends and relatives, men
can embrace each other, while women can give each other a kiss on the
cheek. They hate to touch a person’s body unknowingly and, once they
do, they immediately say “Sorry.” The Swiss customarily not only let
women and the elderly people go first, but also, even between men, give
way to people who are in a hurry. They like to keep quiet, avoiding making
too much noise when walking in. In Switzerland, women living alone
always make people dubious and uneasy, because this does not comply
with Swiss custom and practice.
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5.2.5.4 Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
The Swiss people rarely entertain guests at home, and they choose a restaurant to entertain friends and clients, which is a way to protect people’s
privacy. Before meeting a Swiss, one has to make an appointment, and to
get to the meeting on time. When invited to a Swiss person’s home, one
should prepare a small gift, such as chocolate, wine or flowers. When
accepting gifts, the host or hostess can unwrap the box and praise the gift.
In business correspondence, apart from the director’ name, one should
write on the envelope the name of the department, so when the director
is absent, somebody else can open the letter. It is advisable not to arrange
a visit in July or August, which is usually the holiday season in Switzerland.
5.2.5.5 Dining Etiquette
The Swiss people have cooked pasta food as the staple food, but they also
eat steamed rice. They like chickens and eggs, beef and mutton, pork and
wild animal meat, while potato is their favorite food. The Swiss cuisine is
exquisite, with attention paid to the color, the smell, the taste and the
looks. It is just a simple job to prepare dinner, because it consists of a main
course, a soup, some cold dishes and dessert. They drink an aperitif before
a meal, a digestif after dinner, and they drink white wine when eating fish,
and red wine to accompany meat. When there are guests at the reception,
they treat them to traditional “dry cheese and egg paste.” The Swiss people like drinking wine, especially grape wine. In daily life, the Swiss have
wine and beer as ordinary beverages in somewhat the same way they drink
tea or coffee.
5.2.6 The Netherlands
5.2.6.1 Graceful, Generous and Efficient Interaction
The Netherlands is a country with well accumulated humanistic traditions.
When the Netherlands took shape in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, there were strong urges of the ideas of freedom, atheism and democracy, all of which added to the formation of a prevalent “tolerant” culture.
Traditionally a country to which immigrants went from many regions, the
Netherlands is tolerant of foreign cultures. The Dutch are a people characterized by the pursuit of freedom, adventurousness and efficiency. So, in
interpersonal communication, they act in a naturally straightforward manner, and show sincerity to people and set great store by punctuality in life
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or at work. Under the influence of all these characteristics, the Dutch
value family life highly, stressing inner comfort rather than the outward
grandiose looks. Young Dutch people like to travel around the world,
especially to sunny countries.
5.2.6.2 Dressing Etiquette
The Dutch, on formal occasions, wear somewhat the same dress as people
in other European countries, as men wear formal clothes and women elegant and beautiful attire. People in traditional clothing appear in the country on ceremonial occasions and theatrical performances. The Dutch wear
casual clothes in daily life, and like to have their clothes brightly colored.
The Netherlands boast “four treasures” which are windmills, sabots,
tulips, and cigars. A pair of sabots is carved from a whole piece of wood,
rather like a boat, the sole made steadily thick, the toe box stretching
upward a little bit and, when one uses them, one puts some hay inside
them to keep them dry and warm. Sabots are a token of love, for a Dutch
man traditionally has to make a pair of beautiful sabots in his lifetime for
his fiancée, which the newly wed couple hangs on the wall of their home.
5.2.6.3 Daily Greeting Etiquette
The Dutch people apply different rules of etiquette on social occasions to
socializing with different people. On public occasions, the Dutch generally shake hands to greet each other and do not leave until business cards
have been exchanged. On meeting with friends and relatives, they embrace
each other, while, between intimate ones, they kiss each other on both
cheeks. When one gets along with the Dutch, one has to greet them using
a right term of address. The Dutch people share much in common with
people from other European and American countries in the making up
and ordering of their names; that is, there are the first name and the following surname; men’s names usually end in a consonant, while women’s
names in a vowel. Women, in general, take the husband’s surname after
marriage, while some people add their own surname after the husband’s,
with a hyphen put between them, which makes a composite surname. In
the Netherlands, it gives one great honor to have a noble rank or title, so
people who have a rank or title tend to use it between the first name and
surname. It may do, when greeting people one doesn’t know, to use Mr.,
Mrs., or Miss; when greeting people one knows, to use their names and,
when greeting intimate friends, to use the terms of endearment. On formal occasions, a full name is usually used, while on the occasions when one
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greets members of the royal house, one has to stick closely to conventional
etiquette by using “Your Majesty” or “Her Majesty” to address the Queen
and “Your Highness” to address the other members of the royal house. To
get along with the Dutch, one has to show respect for women. This has
something to do with the fact that the Dutch people have a female
monarch.
5.2.6.4 Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
The Netherlands is a highly commercialized society, alive with a business
atmosphere. The shortage of arable land and other resources and a history
of hundreds of years of ocean trading have made the Dutch people highly
business minded, and the booming of the country’s business has in turn
made possible the country’s development in industry and agriculture. In
such a business atmosphere, the Dutch are very practical. Because its
booming economy depends to a great extent on international trade, the
country has acquired a number of marketing talents to occupy the market
internationally.
The Dutch treat their guests in a simple way, but there is no lack of
sincerity and naturalness. They are friendly to the guests, even allowing
visits without prior appointment. The Dutch like to get up early in the
morning and begin business talk at the breakfast table. This pragmatic
attitude impresses foreign friends favorably. When doing business in the
Netherlands, one wears a conservative suit. In June, July and August, the
Dutch go on holiday, so if one wants to make a visit, one has to make an
appointment in advance. In negotiations, one can straightforwardly come
up with the best plan.
5.2.6.5 Dining Etiquette
The Dutch have high income and good social welfare, but most of them
have kept the plain-living tradition, refraining from eating extravagantly or
wasting food. The Netherlands national dish is composed of carrots, potatoes and onions. Cheese is their favorite food and the famous specialty of
the Netherlands. Supper is the formal meal of the day in the Netherlands,
in which soup comes first, then vegetables, meat, cheese products and,
lastly, dessert. Breakfast and lunch are relatively simple, made primarily of
cold dishes, which generally include bread with butter and cheese, yogurt,
coffee or milk. In the Netherlands, bread, milk and potatoes are the staple
foods. The Dutchmen love to drink beer, yogurt, and mineral water. They
are used to chatting while eating, so supper often lasts for two or three
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hours. The Dutch do not fill their coffee cups more than two thirds, or put
their arms on the table while eating. People part within an hour after the
meal.
5.2.7 Italy
5.2.7.1 Pleasant Interpersonal Relationships
In Italy, an ancient and civilized country, people keep pleasant and admirable interpersonal relationship with one another. Italy and France are
Latinate countries, where people have rich and yet fine sentiments, are
open-minded and enthusiastic, eloquent and straightforward, and fond of
good-natured argument. Modern Italy did not become one country until
1861, and the economic development gap between the north and the
south is huge. Most Italians, nostalgic for their native land, are proud of
the region that they come from. The Italians have a very strong sense of
national pride, however; and happily talk about their national history, so if
anyone objects to Italy’s glorious past, they will fly into a rage. Most
Italians are not good speakers of English. Due to the historical influence
of the Catholic Church, there are many important religious festivals which
have gradually evolved into occasions for national celebration as practices
in Italian folklore.
5.2.7.2 Dress Etiquette
Italy is an important country for the production of clothes, and is known
for its fashion designing, and the production of leather shoes and jewelry.
The Italian people believe that dress embody culture and knowledge and
shows people’s outlook in life. Italian clothing can be roughly divided into
national costumes, ordinary wear, fashion clothes and formal dress. During
major festivals and celebrations, the Italians wear colorful costumes that
for them stand for the customs and practices of the ethnic groups. The
Italians dress casually in daily life, men wearing cotton shirts, T-shirts,
jackets or jeans, while women wear embroidered shirts, cotton silk blouses,
knitted coats, long skirts, short skirts, casual wear, or sportswear. Some
young people like to wear fashionable clothes remarkable for their fine
traditional workmanship, good material and attractive style.
The Italians, when attending an evening party, dress meticulously. To
enjoy performances or operas, women wear an evening dress with jewelry
and long white gloves. In some aristocratic circles in big cities, the party
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etiquette is standardized and people have to dress a certain way when
appearing there.
5.2.7.3 Daily Greeting Etiquette
Italy was once made up of kingdoms and duchies where kings and dukes
ruled as the supreme lords, and each district still keeps many of its customs
and practices. The Neapolitan way of speaking is different from that of
Milan; in Rome, people like to use the informal “you,” while in the northern cities, they use “you” in the honorary form. In the office, the boss
speaks his or her own dialect; in Turin, people of higher social status
mostly use French in communication.
In Italy, one may greet others, depending on their social status, profession or academic degree acquired, using the honorary titles such as “chairman,” “lawyer” “engineer,” “doctor,” even if they are graduated only
from high school. When greeting an unfamiliar woman, one may use
“honorable lady,” plus the woman’s first name, but never her last name. If
one finds oneself in a conversation with people of noble birth, one may
greet them by adding their aristocratic titles, as one may call him, for
example, “Mr. Duke.” But when using “Mr.” to greet a person, one
should add his name as part of the term of address. To greet government
ministers, diplomats and bishops, one may use “Honorable.” The Italians
keep the same order of introduction as people do in France. When meeting each other, the Italians mostly shake hands and extend greetings, but
do not hold the hand of the other too tightly or for too long. When
friends meet, it is women who take the initiative to hug male friends or to
kiss them on the cheeks. Those who wear hats pull the brim low to show
respect for the people they salute. For ordinary friends, they wave hands as
a token of greeting.
The Italians do not keep themselves far apart from one another when
conversing. They keep away from each other for a distance of 30–40 centimeters, but avoid direct eye contact. They wear rich facial expressions
and make a lot of gestures: To express the meaning of “OK.,” they close
the thumb and index finger to make a circle, with the three other fingers
pointing upward; to praise the beauty of a lady, they keep erect the index
finger and then move the finger back and forth or use the index finger to
sketch two circles on the cheek; to show no interest in something and
“Your leaving here is a good riddance,” they may gently pinch the chin; to
let others know that “I’ve got no idea of that,” they shrug and stretch the
arms downward with the palms facing upward; to tell others that “I’m
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hungry,” they press the five fingers tight together and move the hand in
circles around the stomach; to indicate that “The food is delicious,” they
press the index finger against the cheek and make it ply back and forth
and, lastly, to communicate the message that the person in question is a
fool, they use the index finger to make several strokes at the forehead. The
Italians do not smoke in public places. They ask for permission from others before smoking.
5.2.7.4 Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
When attending a dinner party in Italy, one has to get there on time. The
child is often considered the most important member in the Italian family,
so when visiting a friend’s home, one should not look annoyed when hearing the child cry or make a noise and, one should also prepare an inexpensive gift for the child. The gifts one prepares may be flowers, paintings,
wine, tea, chocolate bars, cakes, works of arts and crafts. The Italians care
much about the packaging of the gift, and unwrap the box right on the
spot and say a few words of praise, or of gratitude. After dinner, they thank
the host in various ways in a timely manner, or, even more polite, they
send flowers to the host.
5.2.7.5 Dining Etiquette
The Italians prepare the dinner table with fine chinaware or silverware.
People pay attention to the order in which foods and drinks are served, so,
for example, they first drink an aperitif and some beverage before they are
served cold dishes. After the main course and some vegetable course are
finished, Italians eat cheese, pastry, fruit and ice cream; they finish by
drinking a cup of coffee or a small cup of a strong spirit. While having dinner, the Italians hold the fork with left hand and the knife or the spoon
with the right, and are careful not to have the set of cutlery make a noise
or forget to put the cutting and eating tools back on the plate when the
dinner is over. It would be considered as rude behavior to slurp while eating. While eating again, one must finish eating one slice of meat before
cutting another. In eating spaghetti, one should not pull it too long, but
by turning it around the fork several times. The Italians like cooked pasta
food and in addition to bread, pizza and pastry, they take macaroni as a
dish of cooked pasta and take the fried steamed rice as a dish, too. The
Italians love drinking, but do not force others to drink. They love wine the
best, and also drink yogurt and coffee. The Italians treat meals as social
time, so they chat over a meal, which can last for two or three hours.
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5.2.8 Belgium
5.2.8.1 Polite Society and Good Manners
The people living in Wallonia, a French-speaking region of Belgium, have
almost the same customs as their cousins in France, while Flanders is closer
to the Netherlands. Belgium is a monarchy, however, so people follow the
royal traditions, stressing the importance of etiquette which is reflected in
all aspects of life in society today. When it comes to an evening dinner
party, for example, people strictly abide by the traditional etiquette, the
host sending to the guests a written invitation letter prior to the event, the
guests dressing splendidly and, in the case of an important dinner party
and all those who attend the dinner party, having their arrival announced.
The Belgians are amiable and generous, but people are not supposed,
when making a tour, doing business or visiting relatives and friends in the
country, to make jokes about the Belgians, or to laugh at the Belgian
national dish “moules-frites.”
Much less should people mimic the Belgian accent or touch the sensitive topic of the conflict between Wallonia, the French-speaking area, and
Flanders, the Dutch-speaking area.
5.2.8.2 Dressing Etiquette
The Belgians like to wear clothes made with fine workmanship and refined
style, clothes that feel soft because of the natural texture the material
brings. On formal occasions such as an evening party, men wear formal
suits, while ladies appear in evening dresses, wearing jewelry. At some
important dinner parties, the hosts and the guests wear medals and belts.
The Belgians care about their grooming and hairstyles. According to some
Belgian customs, people wear the left shoe first; they do not like dark
green (a Nazi army uniform color) or blue (seen as an ominous evil incarnation); people wear a three-piece suit; casual wear is not accepted on
formal occasions.
5.2.8.3 Daily Greeting Etiquette
When they meet in daily life, the Belgians usually shake hands and both
parties say “Hello.” or extend other greetings. When they meet as intimate friends or when they appear at a grand ceremony, people hug and
kiss each other, especially so when it comes to the Flemish people, who
kiss on the cheeks three times. At a formal dinner party, a gentleman may
kiss the hand of a lady, and in the exchange of greetings one has to use a
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correct term of address or title of the other any time. In general, to greet
the Belgians, one may use “Mr.,” “Mrs.,” “Miss” plus the surnames. For
people with high social status, one uses “Your Excellency.” In Belgium,
the nobility have their circles, in which traditional customs and rules of
etiquette are followed and one has to, when invited to a social gathering
there, know and follow the rules of etiquette. On social occasions one can
speak some English preferably and can even explain things by turning to
English words now and then to leave an impression on others that one is
a knowledgeable person. When communicating with the Belgians, one can
discuss business at any time.
5.2.8.4 Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
The Belgians are well-known for their generosity. They are very much
hospitable and sociable because they often invite friends to social gatherings or get invited to them. The Belgians do not like ostentation, but they
clean up the house and have guests eat and live at home. The Belgians
have a strong concept of time, so they can be five minutes earlier before
meetings. Invited to attend a dinner party or a wedding ceremony, they
can give the host flowers to show their good manners and they also bring
with them a box of chocolate or candies. When one sees men hugging
each other, one does not need to make a fuss.
5.2.8.5 Dining Etiquette
The Belgians care about living happily with nice food. There are some
special dishes that are local to each region of Belgium, such as fish soup,
waterzooi, Hutsepot, and eel. The Belgians mainly eat Western-style food.
They do not like greasy and salty food, and they prefer light, crisp, acid
and sweet taste. They love using such seasonings as pepper, tomato sauce,
and vinegar. The staple food is bread. They like to eat potatoes, fish, and
mussels, and love to drink beer, brandy, wine, yogurt, soft drinks, mineral
water, and others. They have the habit of drinking a postprandial coffee.
5.2.9 Sweden
5.2.9.1 Polite Behavior and Good Manners
Sweden is an advanced general welfare state where people pay high taxes
and enjoy high income, good social welfare, social security system and free
education. Influenced by these conditions, Swedes are amiable, calm,
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polite and elegant in interpersonal relationships. When they get along with
others, Swedes are composed and calm, good at controlling their emotions, which is considered as a virtue. Under normal circumstances, they
neither lose their temper, nor allow themselves to be carried away by any
kind of emotion. In their view, giving way to emotions or yelling boisterously is the sign of lack of good manners. Swedes characteristically keep
away from a social life and would rather stay alone, while they care much
about others’ attitude towards them, wondering whether they are
respected.
5.2.9.2 Dress Etiquette
Swedes dress casually in daily life, but on formal occasions they wear dark
suits or skirt suits. Businessmen attending an evening dinner party appear
in formal wear with a bow tie. People dress in national costume at traditionally ceremonial celebrations. Both Swedish men and women love to
wear rings, whose patterns can show the wearer’s occupation. For example, a teacher might wear a ring with the oak leaf pattern, while a glassware
maker the crown pattern, and a carpenter the axe pattern.
5.2.9.3 Daily Greeting Etiquette
When they meet for the first time, Swedes shake hands and at once introduce themselves to one another. Among friends and relatives, people hug
each other, kiss each other on the cheeks, take off the hat to the others,
wave the hand, or nod. Swedes are not used to kissing people in public,
but the law says that “gay marriage” is legitimate. And when they part,
Swedes shake hands, and then pick up their coat before leaving. Swedes
have a naming tradition somewhat the same as that of the other European
countries or of the American countries: The first name appears before the
surname, the surname used in daily life, the full name on formal occasions
and the first name between intimate friends. Generally, one should greet
others using “Mr.,” “Mrs.” or “Miss” plus the name. Swedes keep apart
from one another when talking, for a distance of 1.2 meters, and like
direct eye contact.
English-speaking foreigners and immigrants do not have trouble in
communication in Sweden, since most Swedes have mastery of English. If
one can speak Swedish, one is highly respected, so highly so that one is
treated as a relative because Swedes set a high value on their mother
tongue.
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5.2.9.4 Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
When visiting a friend’s home, Swedes arrive punctually. They bring with
them flowers or candies as gifts for their visits. In Sweden, all alcoholic
drinks are prohibited, and in the restaurant, big or small, some drinks with
low alcohol content only are sold in the evening. If one wants to give the
host wine as a gift, one has to acquire an alcohol license by which to buy
it at the designated place after paying a certain amount of tax. When
receiving guests, Swedes lay great store by etiquette. When the host and
guests part, it would be taboo to say goodbye to the host first, and not
appropriate to do so until the host says “Good-bye.” Due to their long
winters, Swedes cherish summer, so one should not make business trips to
Sweden in July or August when Swedes are out on summer vacation.
5.2.9.5 Dining Etiquette
The Swedish people are accustomed to European-style food and have
cooked pasta food as the staple food, loving bread, sausage, and beef.
They eat raw fresh dishes, half-cooked and cold food. They do not eat
many fruits and vegetables, which can be accounted for by the fact that
fruits and vegetables have been for hundreds of years hard to grow in
Sweden and accordingly are expensive. Sweden is a country with a long
coastline, which brings about for Swedes large quantities and many kinds
of fish so that seafood makes the core dishes at the dinner table of Swedes.
Coffee is the Swedish national drink. Swedes do not drink a lot because
harsh restrictions have been imposed on selling and drinking alcohol, and
those who break the regulations are punished. When invited to a dinner
party in Sweden, customarily the important guests sit on the left side of
the host and people refrain from making any noise when eating or propose
a toast to the host or the senior and the superior before they do so to the
others.
5.2.10 Poland
5.2.10.1 Distinctive National Character
Poland is a nation that has endured tribulation and disaster. Because of its
unique geographical location and long history of civilization, Poland has
always been the prey of powerful nations. Throughout its history, Poland
has repeatedly been subjugated, divided, or controlled by alien nations,
although it has always recovered. This disaster-ridden historical back-
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ground of Poland creates a very strong national pride and cohesion, making a distinctive national character in their etiquette and customs.
5.2.10.2 Dress Etiquette
Polish men love to wear a jacket with a white long-sleeved shirt as underwear, and striped loose trousers with boots. Sometimes they wear uniform
clothing, with a black hat with a narrow edge. Women like wearing
embroidered high-necked white shirts, big long skirts with petticoats. On
formal occasions, men wear suits, women appear in formal dress. In general, married women tuck their hair into their hat, while girls make pigtails
with ribbons tied at the end, wearing turbans or wreaths. The Polish people, regardless of age or gender, have a special love for a pendant or a
badge carved with a cross.
5.2.10.3 Daily Greeting Etiquette
The Polish have good manners, as are shown in their speech and demeanor.
To greet a man, they use “Pan” (Mr.); a woman, “Pani” (Miss or Mrs.).
The most common greeting etiquette is handshaking or embracing.
People shake hands with one another when meeting for the first time, that
is, after the introduction is done by someone, people shake hands and
meanwhile tell the other party the name. When friends or relatives meet,
they often hug each other. But when it comes to intimate friends, they
usually hug three times from the left, right sides and, back from the left
side again. Another common practice is hand-kissing, in which a man
kisses the hand of a woman to show his respect for her. Generally speaking,
hand-kissing is something a man does for a married woman, and he does
it preferably indoors. When he kisses the fingers or the back of the hand of
a woman, he should not make any noise. The Polish chat for a while when
meeting relatives and friends.
5.2.10.4 Receiving and Visiting Etiquette
In Poland it is necessary to make an appointment for meeting someone.
The Polish people love entertaining friends to dinner, treating them to
food and drinks, as they would otherwise be looked on as impolite. When
receiving others, the Polish people attach great importance to etiquette.
Keeping their hands in their pockets, turning their back on others, finger
pointing, stretching out the arms and yawning, stamping, and so on, are
deemed rude behavior. The Polish people like flowers, among which the
pansy is their favorite, and is designated as the national flower. Therefore,
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to go and visit others, one can give this kind of flower to the host as a gift.
and one gives the flowers in odd number, though.
5.2.10.5 Dining Etiquette
Even the French people who are particular about cooking talk about traditional Polish cuisine. Polish dishes are characteristically local to the
region: in the north, for example, there are many dishes featuring fish as
the main ingredient; in central Poland, there are famous soups; in the
south, there is darkened cheese made from sour cabbage soup and goat’s
milk. Most Polish dishes are cooked without using chemical additives and
they are made of purely natural material. There are master chefs who can
cook some special dishes that are not available in any other parts of the
world. The Polish do not eat greasy food or pickled cucumbers or steamed
dishes. Except the liver, no internal contents of animal bodies are edible
for them. Catholics do not eat pork on Friday. They see it as a taboo to
have an odd number of people gather for a meal. When they eat whole
chickens, ducks and geese, it is usually the youngest hostess who cuts food
and serves it onto the guest’s plate. When having dinner as a guest at a
friend’s home in Poland, one is not supposed to talk with food in one’s
mouth. Regardless of the taste of the food, one behaves well and tries to
eat some of it to let the hostess know how grateful one is for the food. No
matter at what kind of dinner, one is expected to propose a toast.
References
Jin, Zhengkun. 2005. A Course Book on International Etiquette. 2nd ed. Beijing:
China Renmin University Press.
Li, Tianmin. 1999. Modern International Etiquette: How to Conduct International
Affairs. Beijing: World Affairs Press.
Liang, Fengming, and Jin Yan. 1997a. The Meticulous Germans. Beijing: Current
Affairs Press.
———. 1997b. The Sober English. Beijing: Current Affairs Press.
Lin, Long. 2007. Etiquette and Rituals of 110 Countries. 2nd ed. Beijing: China
City Publishing House.
Liu, Yuxue and Liu, Zhenqiang. 2000. A Must-Read on Foreign Etiquette and
Rituals. Beijing: China Travel & Tourism Press.
Louis, Diso. 2005. Le Protocole. Trans. Gao Ye. Beijing: Foreign Language
Teaching and Research Press.
Romantic France: A Treasury of Rituals and Etiquette. 2006. Trans. Fu Rong and
Zhang Dan. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
CHAPTER 6
Western Folklore
6.1 An Overview of Western Folklore
and Culture
6.1.1 Definition of Folklore
As human society develops, different countries, regions and nationalities
create their own folklore traditions and develop unique understandings.
Folklore may reflect the conditions of a country, a region or a nation at a
certain period of time. It is also a showcase of people’s daily conduct and
common emotions such as anger, happiness and sorrow.
Folklore, or the lore of the folk, is the set of customary practices and
thoughts fostered in the creative activities, daily life, and economic development of a particular group of people in a certain region. Folklore is also
a cultural phenomenon created and passed on by the mass of people. Its
binding force on the folk group comes from the power of habits rather
than laws.
6.1.2 Formation of Folklore
Many factors lead to the formation of folklore, including geographical
conditions, economic background, political issues, religion, and beliefs.
These factors, when combined, determine and influence the origin, evolution and spread of folklore.
© The Author(s) 2018
G. Xu et al. (eds.), K. Chen et al. (trans.), Introduction to Western
Culture, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8153-8_6
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6.1.2.1 Geographical Conditions
The earliest influential factor on human society was nature. People’s
dependence on geographical conditions was greater in ancient times than
in the modern world. Therefore, most of humanity’s oldest customs were
formed under the influence of natural conditions. The different geographical conditions and climates which our ancestors lived in shaped their life
style and production mode, leading to diversified folk cultures. For
instance, people living in forests and mountainous areas might worship
mountain spirits, tree spirits, and animal spirits, while those living along
rivers and lakes might worship rain, sea, or river deities, such as the Chinese
Dragon King and the sea-goddess Mazu.
6.1.2.2 Economic Background
The development of social productivity affected and determined the creation and evolution of folklore. People who live by hunting might pray for
good harvests, and worship nature spirits, while those who live by fishing
might believe in water deities.
6.1.2.3 Political Changes
The most primitive folklore is shaped by the natural environment and
mode of production. After the advent of class society, the ruling class
employs a variety of means to transform the old folklore, and create new
folklore that is designed to consolidate its dominance.
6.1.2.4 Religious Beliefs
When religious consciousness came into being, most ancient customs
gradually became part of religious beliefs. Meanwhile, part of the religious
teachings and rituals were transformed back into folk customs. For
instance, some folk customs, such as ancestor worship and funerary rites,
derived from people’s respect for the ancestors’ souls (Yang, 2006).
6.1.3 Genres of Folklore
Given the diversity and extensiveness of folklore, folklore scholars differ in
their opinions on the classification of folklore. There are two typical
approaches to classification. One divides folklore into economic customs,
social customs, folk beliefs, and folk entertainments. The other divides
folklore into folk psychology, folk behavior, and folk language.
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Economic customs consist of ecological customs, conventional economic production practices, trade practices, and consumer practices.
Social customs include internal exchanges, activities and rituals that take
place in a family, clan, village, or other social unit. Folk belief refers to
religious beliefs and superstitious customs. Entertainment folklore refers
to traditional folk entertainment activities, chiefly oral storytelling traditions and sports. As a result, some folklorists have suggested reducing
these four categories to three: material folklore, ideological folklore, and
social folklore (Zhang Man, 2002: 5).
Folk psychology, or commonsense psychology, is based on religious
beliefs, including various superstitions and taboos. Folk behavior refers to
behaviors in daily life, and production activities; linguistic folk culture
refers to the conventional information exchange system that includes folk
languages and folk literature, such as folk sayings, proverbs, folk tales, and
songs.
6.2 Features of Folklore in Major Western
Nations
Despite the multiple categories of folklore as defined in the first section of
this chapter, there are some common features.
6.2.1 Collectiveness and Sociality
Folklore demonstrates group activities and the collective wisdom of human
society. It comprises the social norms followed by the majority of people
in a society. In the beginning, a new form of folklore might be practiced
by only a minority of people, but only when it has been accepted by the
majority can it be called folklore. The spread, improvement, and innovation of folklore relies on collective behaviors. Without the collective efforts
of improvement and heritage from generation to generation, it would be
impossible to form a colorful folk culture and cultural landscape.
6.2.2 Inheritance and Communicability
The inheritance of folklore is the extension of tradition over time. Once
formed, folklore will survive social changes and be transmitted from generation to generation. The transmissibility or communicability of folklore is
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its extension in space, which means it could be spread among different
geographical areas and ethnic groups. Transmission by ethnic migration
and cultural adoption are two major forms. A case of transmission by ethnic
migration is when people travel to other areas; they bring their own folk
culture into new destinations, which may lead to a mélange with local folk
culture to form new folklore. Cultural adoption refers to folk culture being
introduced to other countries or regions as a result of increased communication between people. With increased people-to-people exchanges, some
valuable folk cultures may be adopted by other countries or regions. For
example, after the American fast-food chains Kentucky Fried Chicken
(KFC) and McDonald’s entered China, they were rapidly accepted by most
urban citizens, and adapted to Chinese tastes. This is folk transmission
through cultural adoption.
6.2.3 Stability and Variability
Since folklore comprises the social norms that are followed by the majority
of people in a society, it has become part of people’s daily lives, and therefore is quite stable. The essence of folklore remains unchanged, or only
slightly changed, over time. Even backward or irrational folk customs are
deeply rooted and change-resistant.
Despite the stability of folklore, it evolves with social development and
communication with the outside world. Although such evolution is usually extremely slow, it provides an internal impetus for folklore to be inherited and further developed.
6.2.4 Geographical and Ethnic Characteristics
Folklore is geographically distinctive. For instance, Chinese cuisine culture
differs from area to area, consisting of eight major culinary schools:
Shandong cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Guangdong cuisine, Suzhou cuisine,
Zhejiang cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Fujian cuisine, and Anhui cuisine.
As a symbol and an essential component of a nation, folklore carries
ethnic characteristics, in that the same folklore genre may have various
forms of expressions among various ethnic groups, and that each n
­ ationality
has unique folklore corresponding to its own historical, geographical, and
economic conditions.
Since folklore is all comprehensive and inclusive, it is hardly possible to
present all Western countries’ folk cultures in a single chapter. The next
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section introduces five main genres of folklore in six Western countries,
namely, the United States, Britain, France, Germany, Russia and Spain.
6.3 Folk Cultures in Major European
and American Countries
Folklore affects almost every facet of human life. The important components of traditional folklore include dress characteristics, marital and
funeral customs, diet and daily habits, traditional festivals, and taboos.
These five aspects of folklore in the United States and five European countries will be presented in detail in this section.
6.3.1 Folk Costume
Costume custom includes not only clothing, but also other body adornment practices such as headwear, footwear, jewelry, scarves, and handbags.
It also refers to people’s habitual actions in dressing and wearing body
adornments. As part of humanity’s material culture, costume embodies a
cultural group’s political, religious, moral, and aesthetic ideas that are
associated with the lifestyle, social system, customs and habits, and mental
state of a folk group in a geographic area.
6.3.1.1 American Costume
Americans are known for their relaxed attitude to dressing and fashion. Most
Americans like loose, casual clothes that can distinguish them from others.
American clothes are usually diverse and colorful. In summer, girls wear
colorful skirts and dresses, and boys T-shirts and shirts of various patterns.
The elderly also dress fashionably, like the youth. In some areas it is acceptable for coastal tourists to wear swimsuits in cinemas and restaurants. In
other seasons, Americans wear jackets, sweatshirts, and jeans.
Great importance is attached to social etiquette in American dress culture. Americans seldom wear vests or pajamas in public places, or to meet
guests. When attending general meetings and banquets, Americans dress
with considerable freedom. But if there is a dress code in the invitation
letter, they are supposed to dress accordingly, and there are numerous
dress rental shops in the US for those in need.
6.3.1.2 English Folk Costume
The British are usually dressed neatly, preferring to match clothes of harmonious colors. Men’s coats are generally of a plain dark color, while
shirts are more eye-catching. An example is the custom that many civil
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workers wear black or gray business suits with white shirts and ties at work
or on a business trip. Women often wear skirts, and generally prefer monochrome clothing with little patterning.
The British wear different clothes on different occasions: formal attire
for banquets, jackets and ties for high-end restaurants, neat clean dress for
concerts, and formal attire for premieres.
There are three special elements in British costume. The “Bowler” is a
hard felt black, grey or blue hat with a rounded crown which used to express
the identity of a gentleman in Britain in the 19th century. As for women,
they usually wear hats of various colors to match their colorful clothes. The
umbrella is another typical element of British costume. The British weather
is changeable, and it rains often, so the image of a person holding an
umbrella has become a symbol of the British. However, many of today’s
young people are more inclined to walk in the rain than use the umbrella.
The kilt is a knee-length garment with pleats at the rear, that originated
in the traditional dress of men in the Scottish Highlands in the sixteenth
century. It is often worn with a vest of a complementary color, a tweed
jacket, a pair of boots, thick knitted socks, and a big pocket hanging in the
front. It is everyday clothing of the northern peoples in Britain, and is the
uniform of some military forces in Scotland.
6.3.1.3 French Folk Costume
France is famous for its exquisite costume design. The term “Paris style”
is synonymous with fashion and pop culture. The French fashion industry
has long enjoyed a high reputation for its stylish and individual designs.
Having a strong sense of fashion, French people pay much attention to
their dress on social occasions. At formal ceremonies, men often dress in
black suits with tails, and wear bow ties. A suit vest is also necessary, to
prevent the junction between the shirt and the pants from being noticed.
White shirts are matched with gray ties or ties with plaids, black leather
shoes, and black or tie-matching socks.
Women wear solid-color gowns, most often ankle-length backless
dresses with a hat of a matching color, long gloves, and a variety of headwear, earrings, necklaces, and other jewelry. On other formal occasions,
French ladies usually wear suits, mostly of blue, gray, or black.
6.3.1.4 German Folk Costume
German women generally do not like heavy makeup. A relatively simple
and elegant skirt, or a windbreaker or jacket in cold weather, is their
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preferred style of dress. Men’s clothing is even simpler. Suits, jackets, and
ordinary shoes are their customary dress.
Only a few areas still retain the unique local traditional style of dress. In
the northern port city of Hamburg, people sometimes wear homburg
hats. A homburg is a formal felt hat, characterized by a single dent running down the center of the crown, a stiff brim shaped in a “kettle curl,”
and a bound edge trim.
6.3.1.5 Russian Folk Costume
Russian clothing is usually clean, dignified, elegant, and harmonious.
Russian men like to wear leather coats, which are considered indispensable
in winter. Leather garments are appreciated by Russians for their elegant,
gorgeous, and fashionable style. Russian men usually wear fur hats, fur
scarves, and leather gloves to match their leather coats.
There is a tradition for women to wear skirts all year round, especially
on social occasions. Wearing trousers is considered disrespectful to the
guests. Russian women believe that skirts keep them warm in cold winters
because the knee pads, shin guards, thick socks, and thick knitted wool
trousers worn under the skirt are warmer than pants.
6.3.1.6 Spanish Folk Costume
A cloak is a type of loose garment that is worn over indoor clothing, and
serves the same purpose as an overcoat, having pockets on both sides. It
may be knee-length or waist-length and is usually made of exquisite materials with embroidery or an elegant pattern in bright colors. It is said that
in some places in Spain, the bride’s mother prepares a well-made cloak as
a wedding gift to demonstrate family tradition.
Bull-fighting pants, also known as skinny pants with very short legs, are
a traditional dress form for men in Spain. They are mostly very tight, and
were formerly black or dark blue, but nowadays are more likely to be
embroidered with multicolored lace.
The Spanish prefer natural and comfortable loose clothes. On formal
occasions, such as banquets, concerts or lectures, they will wear formal
suits to show respect and courtesy. Royal or government celebrations usually stipulate particular dress requirements. Casual dress is appropriate for
regular family gatherings.
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6.3.2 Wedding and Funeral Customs
6.3.2.1 Marital Customs
Marriage could be considered a form of Individual development. It not
only bears on the well-being of individuals and families, but also on
national prosperity and social stability. That is why every country and ethnic group in the world takes marriage seriously and boasts its own unique
wedding customs.
6.3.2.1.1 American Marital Customs
The United States is a multi-ethnic, multi-religious country with diversified marriage customs.
Wedding ceremonies that are held in a Christian church usually lasts
between 20 and 40 minutes. The bride, holding a bouquet of flowers,
walks into the church under the escort of her father, and is delivered to the
groom, who has been waiting at the altar. Under the auspices of the priest,
the bride and groom exchange vows, “to have and to hold from this day
forward, for better or worse, for richer or poorer, in sickness and in health,
to love and to cherish, till death us do part.” Then the couple exchange
rings, usually worn on the ring finger of the left hand.
After the wedding ceremony, the bride and groom progress to the wedding car under a shower of rice or confetti scattered by the guests and
drive away from the church. The car is decorated with balloons, ribbons,
cans, and letters on the window. Friends drive behind the wedding car and
constantly honk to attract attention. A wedding banquet will also be held
for the newlyweds to receive the guests’ congratulations. After all the procedures, the bride and groom will go on their honeymoon.
6.3.2.1.2 British Marital Customs
Most British families are founded on a legal marriage, and the wedding
ceremony is usually held in a church. The groom, dressed in a wedding
suit, will be accompanied by the best man, and must wait in front of the
altar. The bride, dressed in a white wedding gown, and holding her father’s
arm, will walk down the church aisle while the “Wedding March” music
plays, and be guided by the bridesmaids to the altar. When she arrives at
the altar, the groom will stand on her right and the best man stands behind
the groom. On the bride’s left is her father. The bridesmaids and page boy
will be standing behind the couple. After the priest announces that the
two are married, the newlyweds will be escorted by their friends, relatives
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and guests into the prayer room and be registered as a couple. After the
ceremony, the bride will hold the groom’s right arm and step out of the
church, to be showered by rice or confetti thrown by relatives and friends
to express their best wishes for the couple.
A wedding reception will be held after the wedding ceremony, and a
large cake is indispensable. The cake will be cut by the bride. At the end of
the reception, the couple say goodbye to all the guests and start their honeymoon. The honeymoon is crucial in British marital culture. According
to the British tradition, a special drink made of honey that symbolizes a
sweet family life should be drunk for at least thirty days. This is the origin
of the word “honeymoon”.
6.3.2.1.3 French Marital Customs
In France, people generally hold two wedding ceremonies: a secular wedding and a religious wedding. The secular wedding is attended only by the
couple’s parents, close relatives and witnesses. The witnesses can be relatives of the couple, good friends, colleagues at work, or any other persons
of significance. The witnesses will arrive at the municipal building earlier
than the couple and stand behind them during the ceremony.
After the secular wedding, a religious wedding will be held in the
church. For devout Catholics, this marks the point at which the bride and
groom become an official couple. After the secular wedding, the couple
will sign the marriage certificate in the registration room of the church.
Before the wedding ceremony, the bridegroom goes to the bride’s
home to escort her to the wedding. A group of people will go with the
groom but are encouraged to keep this ceremony quiet and short, which
is quite different from the case in other countries.
6.3.2.1.4 German Marital Customs
German marital customs consist of the engagement, marriage registration,
and a wedding ceremony in a church.
During the wedding ceremony, the bride will dress in white and the
groom in a dark suit. They receive a blessing from the priest, and exchange
wedding rings. The wedding reception is normally a buffet or a tea party,
or sometime a dance party.
Germany also has its own unique traditional wedding ceremonies. On
the wedding eve, friends and relatives will break ceramics at the gate of the
wedding couple’s house, to drive away evil and bring happiness to the
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couple. But it is forbidden to break glassware, for there is a saying in
Germany that happiness is like glass.
6.3.2.1.5 Russian Marital Customs
In Russia, the groom’s parents visit the bride’s family to propose an
engagement. Before the wedding ceremony, the bride should attend a
farewell ceremony at the tomb of her dead loved ones. She is also supposed to wear her hair in two braids, which means she will enter a strange
environment where life may not be easy.
On the wedding day, two carriages will carry the couple and the relatives of the bride. The carriages are covered with white sheep skin, symbolizing pure love and happy marriage. The carriages take narrow winding
lanes rather than wide straight ones, for the purpose of avoiding evil spirits
that might be following behind. At the gate of the bride’s home, a group
of children will ask for money, and the wedding witnesses will give candies
to them. Once the groom and his parents enter the house to meet the
bride, the groom’s father knocks iron nails into the door and window
cracks, to ward off evil. Then the bride’s mother will insert a pin into her
daughter’s dress, which symbolizes the passing on of the family’s wisdom
and wealth.
6.3.2.1.6 Spanish Marital Customs
Spain has diverse marital cultures. In Castile, Leon and other rural areas,
there is a non-governmental organization called the “Youth Association.”
If a man from another village is dating a girl from their own village, they
will strengthen patrols in the evening to tax the man. Taxes are usually
coins or wine. When the wedding day approaches, the association is
responsible for hiring a music band and making a schedule. The association members also take turns to dance with the bride on the wedding day.
In the countryside there is a special celebration for remarried widowers.
On the wedding night, young villagers gather together to perform a loud
concert, playing instruments such as food cans, pots and cowbells, as a way
to express their good wishes for the groom.
6.3.2.2 Burial Customs
Burial customs of the human world fall into four categories: burial, cremation, water burial, and celestial burial. The ways of placing the dead body
also vary: lying the body on its back means that the soul will ascend to
heaven after death; lying on the side, for female sacrificial victims, is a sym-
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bol of attachment to the male; lying on the chest is a defensive measure
against evil; flexed burial with limbs of the body bent like a fetus for a soon
reincarnation. In addition, burial ceremonies are divided into single burials, the burial of couples, family burials, and modern cemetery burials.
6.3.2.2.1 American Burial Customs
In the US, the burial ceremony is often performed in the church. Before
the funeral day, the coffin is placed in the church for relatives and friends
to take turns to keep vigil over the dead. The burial process consists of
prayer, singing hymns, and eulogies delivered by the priest. After the
funeral, the body will be transported by a black hearse to the cemetery for
burial. Mourners all dress in black or blue-black, and wear a white flower
on their chests. They will offer sword-lilies to the dead. A short burial
ritual will be held at the cemetery, where the mourners cover the coffin
with soil before the bulldozer fills the grave, and grass is planted on it.
After the burial ritual, people attending the funeral will dine with the
family of the deceased. What is different from the case in other countries
is that the guests are supposed to bring their own food, for the host serves
only cooked eggs and salt.
6.3.2.2.2 British Burial Customs
When a family member dies, the British family will generally put a notice
in the newspaper announcing the time and place of the funeral. Friends
who learn of the death will immediately write a letter or write on the back
of their business card and deliver it in person to the family to express their
condolences, respect to the dead person, and sympathy for the family.
Gifts are usually limited to flowers or wreaths.
The funeral consists of a memorial service hosted by the priest in the
church, and a burial ritual at the cemetery. In the memorial session, the
attendees, dressed in black or another dark color, will sing hymns, play
funeral music, and pray together. The burial ritual is usually attended only
by the family members, close relatives, and intimate friends. The head of
the body will point toward the east, indicating that the dead is embracing
sunrise and awaiting resurrection.
6.3.2.2.3 French Burial Customs
In French culture, children should be absent when a person is dying.
Upon the news of the death of a friend or relative, people will visit the
family to offer condolences. The memorial words should be brief, express-
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ing praise for the dead and the grief of the visitor. It is taboo to ask how
the person died. When approaching the body, visitors should move gently
and keep silent. When leaving the body, they will cross themselves. They
are forbidden to shake hands with the guard at the bier, and nod to him
instead.
In rural areas, all the mourners attend the burial cemetery, while in
urban areas, only relatives and close friends do. After the burial ceremony,
the mourners will dine at the home of the family of the deceased, or at an
already-booked restaurant.
6.3.2.2.4 German Burial Customs
In Germany, the funeral is usually held in church. The corpse is washed
with clean water, which is believed to have enormous sacred power that
can purify peoples’ bodies and souls and oust evil. Germans believe that
baptizing at birth and corpse-washing at death removes all earthly sins.
German funeral procedure is similar to that of Britain and France. On
the day of the funeral, family and friends holding flowers or wreaths in
their hands arrive at the church. The memorial service is presided over by
a priest. People will sing hymns, play funeral music, pray for the deceased,
and declare the death of the deceased. After that, the deceased’s family,
close relatives and best friends leave for the cemetery, while other guests
leave on their own. Family members stand around the grave, watching
while the casket is placed into the grave, and pray that the soul of the dead
rests in heaven.
To attend a funeral in Germany, one should pay much attention to
one’s clothing. Men are supposed to wear black clothes with undecorated
black ties. Bright clothes are discouraged. Attendees should remain solemn and silent, and refrain from loud laughter. In contrast to the subdued
dress style and atmosphere, the graveyard is decorated with colorful blossoms, which symbolize that the soul of the dead will rest in a beautiful
heaven. Like the British, the Germans have a period of time for mourning,
during which women dress simply and live a tranquil lifestyle, avoiding
dance parties, banquets, and other pleasure activities. Restrictions on men
are less strict, though they are also supposed to avoid social pleasure
activities.
6.3.2.2.5 Russian Burial Customs
Russia funeral customs are unique. In accordance with Russian traditions,
the corpse is placed in the house, its head toward the corner where the
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sacred icons are located, its feet toward the door, and with a lighted candle
next to the corpse. The elderly read eulogies about the dead person.
Generally, a funeral is held three days after the death. At the funeral, family
members and friends follow one after another to bid farewell to the
departed. Then the body is put into the coffin and delivered to the graveyard. The body is buried with its head toward the west and its feet toward
the east, and a cross is erected in front of the feet. The ninth and fortieth
days are major mourning days, on which family and friends gather together.
Besides death anniversaries, Easter is also a day when Russian people
visit the graves of their loved ones. Russians believe that the departed family member will be resurrected on Easter for family reunion, so they adorn
the grave with one to three cooked red eggs, huge cylinder bread, pastries
and fruits, inviting him or her to join them for his or her own
commemoration.
6.3.2.2.6 Spanish Burial Customs
Although a predominantly Catholic country, Spain has funeral customs
very similar to those of Britain, France, and Germany.
6.4 Food Folklore
Food folklore refers to the cultural practices and conventions related to
how drinks and food are processed, produced, and consumed. Four factors affect the formation and development of food folklore: the economy,
natural conditions, ethnic characteristics, and religious belief. Food folklore consists of daily eating habits, festive eating habits, etiquette, banquet
eating habits, and religious eating habits. It differs among different ethnic
groups.
6.4.1 American Food Folklore
The life of most Americans moves fast. Breakfast and lunch are simple.
Fruit juice, bread, cereals, milk, and coffee are the most usual breakfast
fare. Hamburgers, sandwiches, pizza, and hotdog are most favored at the
lunch table. For dinner, the biggest meal of the day, people eat steaks,
pork chops, fried chicken, and hot dogs. American food is generally light
in flavor, with a main course inevitably accompanied by salad and coffee.
It is common for people to eat at a restaurant or a snack bar. The fast food
industry has severely threatened the traditional food industry in the United
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States. Chain stores such as McDonald’s, KFC, and Pizza Hut are prevalent throughout America and the world at large, reshaping many countries’ dining habits.
The United States has long been known as a ‘melting pot,’ because
many of its people are descendants of settlers from different ethnicities all
over the world. Migrants from various nationalities run restaurants with
their own ethnic characteristics. In the USA, one can see a diversity of
French, Italian, Greek, Swiss, and Hungarian restaurants, among others.
Asian-style restaurants such as Indian, Japanese, Korean and Chinese restaurants are also increasing in number. On festivals and holidays, Americans
go out for a picnic or barbecue.
6.4.2 British Food Folklore
In the United Kingdom, people have three meals a day, plus refreshments.
Common breakfast foods include porridge or cereals, ham and eggs, and
toast with butter or jam. Morning refreshment or tea, usually at 11:00 a.m.,
consists of coffee or tea, biscuits or desserts. Lunch is very simple, consisting of hamburgers, sandwiches, or fried fish. Tea and pastries are served
for afternoon tea, mostly between 4:00 and 5:00 p.m. Dinner is the most
elaborate meal of the day. It generally varies every day. It consists of grilled
meat, steaks, vegetables, and after-dinner desserts.
Britain boasts a unique pub culture. There are strict limitations on the
opening hours of pubs, usually from 11:00 a.m to 3:00 p.m, and from
5:30 p.m to 11:00 p.m. Drinking alcohol in a pub outside opening hours
is illegal, and will result in punishment for both the customer and the pub.
That is why one can often see in the street groups of friends that have just
left a closing pub, searching for one that is still open. British people like
beer, especially bitter beer. Pure Devon cider is also popular in Britain.
6.4.3 French Food Folklore
French cuisine enjoys a reputation as high as that accorded to French perfume and fashion. French cuisine uses choice ingredients. Diverse in type,
rich in aroma, and fresh in taste, French cuisine is a perfect combination
of good presentation, aroma, and taste. Known as the ‘kingdom of cheese’,
France makes over 365 different types of cheese. France is also famous
throughout the world for its production of superior quality wine, as well
as champagne.
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In French cuisine, daily meals are simple. People often drink a cup of
milky coffee or black tea, along with slices of bread or croissants. Lunch is
usually between 1:00 p.m and 2:00 p.m, and consists of bread, a salad, a
steak with mashed potatoes, and fruits. Most people go to a café to have
coffee and desserts between 3:00 p.m and 6:00 p.m. Dinner, which is
between 8:00 p.m and 10:00 p.m, is often elaborate, since it is the major
meal of the day. It consists of thick soup, salad, main courses, cheese,
bread and fruits, sometimes accompanied by wine.
6.4.4 German Food Folklore
Like the people of other European countries, Germans also dine on bread,
potatoes, cheese, sausage, milk, and salads of vegetables and fruits. The
Germans do not like spicy food, sea cucumbers, or dog meat. Traditional
German foods are said to resemble the conservative personality of
Germans: they taste plain, and are often boiled, stewed, or grilled.
However, German sausages and bread are special. Despite conformity in
their ingredients and processing methods, they are tremendously diverse
in kind and taste. There are over 1456 kinds of sausage, among which the
most popular is meat sausage, such as pig liver sausage, and pig blood
sausage. There are over 1500 different types of bread in Germany, made
using various kinds of flour, including rye flour, ground oats, wheat flour,
and meslin.
Germans consider breakfast the most important meal of the day. They
have beverages, staple foods and meat for breakfast, to take in enough
nutrition and energy for the body. Beverages include coffee, tea, milk, and
juice. Staple foods include bread of various kinds, which is eaten along
with cream, cheese, or jam. Meat is made into sausages and hot dogs for
breakfast.
Germans are fond of liquor, and pay much attention to the match of
liquor with cuisine. On most occasions, champagne and white wine go
with side dishes, light red wine with poultry, beer with pork, and white
and red wine with beef or mutton. An aperitif is often served before a
meal, and champagne after the meal.
Beer is popular in Germany, making Germany the second largest beer
consumer in the world. Many local and regional breweries produce superb
beer of over 1500 varieties, under 20 categories. Germany’s per capita
sales of beer rank first worldwide. It is said in Munich, the capital of the
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southern state of Bavaria, the average person consumes more than 200
liters of beer a year.
6.4.5 Russian Food Folklore
Russians mainly live on bread and potatoes, eaten along with non-staple
food including meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and vegetables. Foods are most
often stewed, boiled, or braised, and taste sour, sweet, salty, or slightly
spicy. Vegetables are eaten uncooked.
The Russian breakfast is simple, consisting of brown bread and yogurt.
Lunch and dinner, however, are rather elaborate, containing meat cakes,
steaks, braised beef in brown sauce, roast mutton, roast chicken, fish balls,
fish, and fried potatoes. Thick soups are popular. Cold dishes are also
served for dinner. Most Russians have a tremendous appetite for alcoholic
drinks, vodka in particular. Another popular drink is tea. Tea is by far the
most common drink in almost all parts of Russia. The dominant variety,
black tea, is often drunk with jam, honey, candies, or desserts.
6.4.6 Spanish Food Folklore
Spanish people favor sour and spicy food but avoid greasy or salty food.
They prefer wine, sherry, cider and beer to hot soup. They usually drink
cold water and add sugar to their tea. What is special about Spanish food
culture is the meal times. Breakfast is at 9:00 a.m, lunch at 3:00 p.m, and
dinner after 9:00 p.m.
6.5 Traditional Festivals
Traditional festivals demonstrate folklore and folk culture in a particularly
visible way. Every nationality has its own special festivals that are celebrated with a variety of traditional activities. These festivals and activities,
passed on generation after generation, gradually become festival customs.
Festival customs are formed under the influence of five factors: production activities, such as festivals to celebrate or pray for good harvests; worship of Gods for blessings and protection from evil; commemorations of
great figures or historical events; social assemblies for interpersonal communication; and festivals fostered by the government or communities to
advocate a certain idea or concept.
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Co-religionists among different nations may have common festivals.
The six countries mentioned here, namely, America, Britain, France,
Germany, Russia and Spain, are mostly Christian, and they share certain
religious festivals.
Christmas, an annual commemoration of the birth of Jesus Christ, is
celebrated generally on December 25. It is an important civil holiday of
family reunion, similar to China’s Spring Festival. To celebrate this grand
festival, people start weeks ahead, preparing cards, gifts, and decorations.
On Christmas Eve, all Christian churches employ various special religious
rituals, where Christmas carols are sung to celebrate the birth of Christ,
and young people gather together in parties. On Christmas Day, the head
of state delivers a Christmas speech in which the President or monarch
wishes all citizens a merry Christmas. Most families celebrate their family
reunion at their own home, where they enjoy a Christmas dinner consisting of roast goose or turkey. On Christmas Day family members exchange
gifts and play Christmas games together. Beautifully decorated Christmas
trees can be seen everywhere. A folk character popular with children is
Santa Claus, who is depicted as a white-bearded man wearing a red coat
with white collar and cuffs, white-cuffed red trousers, and a red hat.
Christmas generally lasts for 12 days. It ends on January 6th, also known
as Twelfth Night.
Another important Western festival is Easter, a holiday celebrating the
resurrection of Jesus Christ on the third day after his crucifixion at Calvary,
as described in the New Testament of the Bible. The date for Easter is
determined according to a lunisolar calendar similar to the Hebrew calendar. The First Council of Nicaea (325) established the date of Easter as the
first Sunday after the full moon following the March equinox (between 21
March and 25 April). Symbols of Easter include Easter eggs and the Easter
Bunny. Celebration activities begin on the Monday of the week prior to
Easter. Adults make chocolate in the shapes of Easter eggs and rabbits for
children. Family and friends exchange Easter eggs as gifts. The church,
schools and families hide Easter eggs in tree cavities, bushes or behind
stones, for children to find. During the Easter holiday, Russians eat foods
such as spherical rolls or cooked eggs and pay visits to graveyards to
remember their dead. In some parts of Germany, Easter eggs are chained
and hung on trees.
Besides Christmas and Easter, there are other common festivals that
most countries in the world celebrate, such as New Year’s Day. However,
other festivals are unique to certain countries, as described below.
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6.5.1 America’s Traditional Festivals
In addition to Christmas, Easter and New Year’s Day, the United States
celebrates Thanksgiving Day; National Day; International Labor Day;
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day; President’s Day; Columbus Day; Veterans’
Day; and many other holidays. Among these holidays, Thanksgiving Day
and Mother’s Day are the most typical of America.
6.5.1.1 Thanksgiving Day
Thanksgiving Day is celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November in
the United States. It is a national holiday created by the United States. It
is a traditional day of giving thanks to God for the blessing of the harvest
of the preceding year. It is also a day of family reunion.
The origin of Thanksgiving Day can be traced to 1620. When the first
Puritans who had emigrated from England to America began to suffer
from severe diseases, Native Indians gave them help that enabled them to
survive in the new land. After a good harvest, the white immigrants held
grand celebration parties, treating Indians to roasted turkey, pumpkin
pies, and sweet potatoes. Such celebrations were observed year after year
and ultimately became a traditional holiday. But it was not until 1941 that
the US Congress set the date of Thanksgiving as the fourth Thursday of
November.
Thanksgiving is observed nationwide in the United States. On this day,
schools and stores are closed. Everyone goes home to celebrate the holiday with their family. Family members sit together to enjoy the traditional
Thanksgiving main course, turkey, along with sweet potatoes and p
­ umpkin
pies. Thanksgiving is a time for family members to talk about old times,
renew relationships, and enhance mutual connections. Some even invite
good friends, singles, or people far from their own family, to spend the
holiday with them.
6.5.1.2 Mother’s Day
Mother’s Day is a celebration extending people’s affection, respect, and
thanks to mothers. Celebrated on the second Sunday of May, it honors
mothers and motherhood, maternal bonds, and the influence of mothers
in society.
The modern holiday of Mother’s Day was first celebrated in May, 1907,
when Anna Jarvis held a memorial for her mother in a church in West
Virginia. She asked attendees to wear white pinks. She then began a cam-
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paign to make “Mother’s Day” a recognized holiday in the United States.
When the number of her followers increased, the US Congress made it an
official national holiday in 1914, and designated it to be celebrated on the
second Sunday of May. The whole nation flies the American flag to celebrate the founding of this holiday, as well as to extend love and respect to
mothers.
On Mother’s Day children give gifts to their mothers, and husbands to
their wives. The most precious gift may be a day of relaxation, when mothers are served with breakfast in bed, and the housework is done by their
husbands and children.
Nowadays, this holiday has become an international holiday recognized
by over forty countries in the world.
6.5.2 Britain’s Traditional Festivals
May Day is a popular and ancient British festival. May 1st is the first day of
summer in the Celtic calendar. It started out as a day to worship the
Goddess of Flowers, but later was given the name May Day, which indicates the coming of spring. It is a holiday on which people used to pray for
good weather and ample harvests.
One of the traditional celebrations is the Maypole dance. May 1st is
celebrated by the delivery of a maypole, a pole put up on the village green
and covered in green leaves to represent life and good harvests. Young
people dance around it. Girls gather flowers to be made into wreaths, and
parade in the streets. In the modern British celebration of May Day, garden parties are held across the nation to greet the long-awaited sunshine
after winter, and the rebirth of living creatures on earth. One of the primary activities at these garden parties is the crowning of a May Queen.
The Queen, regarded as a symbol of spring, wears a wreath on her head,
and meets villagers in a street parade.
6.5.3 Germany’s Traditional Festival Customs
In addition to their religious holidays, Germans also celebrate other traditional festivals.
Three major German carnivals take place in Cologne, Mainz, and
Munich. During the three-day celebration, people wearing elaborate costumes and masks dance and sing at various masquerades and traditional
fish feasts.
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The Munich beer festival, also known as Oktoberfest, is one of the largest festivals in Germany. It lasts for sixteen days, from the last- but-one
Saturday of September to the first Sunday in October. Prior to the holiday,
eight twenty-meter high tents are put up on Trayser Square, each able to
hold thousands of people. At noon, twelve guns of salute are fired. The
mayor of Munich uses an enormous hammer to knock a bronze beer tap
into a 200-liter wooden beer barrel, turn on the tap, and present the first
glass of beer to the President of Bavaria. Then he proposes the second
toast to thousands of tourists, and drinks with them. People from around
the world attend the festival, drink beer, eat roast chicken, go to the markets, and participate in social events and entertainments. The festivity ends
at 11:00 p.m on the first Sunday of October, when the last glasses of beer
are served in the square. Half an hour later, all the lights are turned off,
indicating the conclusion of this yearly beer festival.
6.5.4 Russian Traditional Festival Customs
Maslenitsa is a traditional Slavic agricultural festival. As one of the most
celebrated festivals in Russia, it is also known as the Winter Farewell
Festival, or the Sun Festival.
Maslenitsa is celebrated between late February and early March. People
worship the sun and pray for an early spring, good weather, and fertility
for people and livestock. This is a one-week holiday, with each day of the
week named differently. From the first to the seventh day they are named
Greeting Day, Joy Starter, Carnival Day, Boxing Day, Mothers-in-law
Party Day, Aunts’ Party Day and Farewell Day.
Spring cake is one of the foods associated with this festival, for it symbolizes the sun and is eaten to celebrate the sun’s vivifying power. In addition to banquets, various entertainments take place, such as skiing, sleigh
rides, masquerade parties, boxing, and chariot riding. On Farewell Day,
young people transport wood or grass by sleigh to the outskirts of the villages, and then light bonfires. People dance around the fires, and cast
scarecrows into the flames, bowing and crying in farewell to these effigies
of winter, and offering greetings to spring.
6.5.5 Spain’s Traditional Festival Customs
Spain is a vigorous nation with a long history, and it boasts a number of
traditional festivals. It is known as a country of holidays. Among the eight
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national holidays are New Year’s Day, Christmas, Easter, Three Kings Day,
San Jose Day, Holy Friday, La Merce and National Day.
Three Kings Day is a magnificent traditional Spanish holiday, celebrated
on February 6th. It has its origins in an old tale that three kings from the
east brought joy and happiness to Spain.
Saint Joseph’s Day honors St Joseph, the Virgin Mary’s spouse. It is
held annually on March 19th. This date is also known today as Father’s
Day in many areas of Spain.
Holy Friday or Good Friday is observed on the Friday before Easter
Sunday, usually between June 5th-7th. It commemorates Jesus Christ’s
passion, crucifixion and death. It is usually observed by fasting and other
forms of abstinence, attending solemn church services, and avoiding
merry events such as weddings.
The National Day, or Fiesta Nacional de Espana, takes place on October
12th. It is also called the Hispanic Day. The day is celebrated to commemorate the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas in 1492.
Bullfighting is a traditional spectacle of Spain. There are over 5000
bullfighting performances in Spain around the year, which have earned the
country the title “Kingdom of Bullfighting”. The festival of San Fermin,
or the Pamplona Bull Run, is celebrated annually for one week, starting on
July 7th. It attracts thousands of local people and tourists each year,
despite concerns about the welfare of both the bulls and the spectators.
6.6 Beliefs and Taboos
Beliefs refer to people’s convictions, and the practices, rituals and social
customs derived from them. In most cases, the beliefs in question are religious in nature, and these are discussed in Chap. 14. This section deals
with taboos only.
A taboo is a vehement prohibition of an action or practice, based on the
belief that certain words or forms of behavior are either too sacred or too
accursed for ordinary individuals to undertake, under threat of supernatural punishment. A taboo is a form of folk custom. Taboos and the more
general beliefs of a nation are often complementary, or even mutually reinforcing. Taboos generally come from four sources: worship and fear of
spiritual powers, control over one’s instincts, the rituals fostered in human
social and cultural life, and people’s life experiences. The folk custom of
taboo is, in a broad sense, not limited to religious taboos, but also includes
production taboos, language taboos, and life taboos. These various kinds
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of taboos are passed down from generation to generation, and still
observed even in this modern era of advanced technology.
Western, Christian countries, hold many taboos in common. For example, the number thirteen, and the day Friday are taboos for most Christians.
The former is considered an unlucky number and thus kept from being
used in people daily life. For instance, thirteen people do not sit down to
dine together, people do not order thirteen dishes at a meal, many cities
do not have a 13th Street, and many buildings do not have a thirteenth
floor. Friday has long been considered an unlucky day, on which people
need to be exceptionally careful about their behavior. If Friday happens to
be the thirteenth of the month, it is considered an evil day. The taboos
concerning the number thirteen and Friday originated from Christianity,
according to which the Last Supper of Jesus Christ before his crucifixion
was attended by thirteen people (Jesus and his twelve disciples including
Judah the traitor), and the day of Jesus’ crucifixion was a Friday. Therefore,
Friday and the number thirteen signify something dreadful in the Christian
world.
Another taboo in Western culture is to discuss personal affairs, which is
considered a violation of the respect for privacy and individual freedom. It
is taboo to inquire about another’s age, educational level, career, marital
status, children, family income, religious belief, and political tendency, for
it may lead to unpleasant feelings and embarrassing situations.
6.6.1 Taboos in the USA
Americans dislike the number thirteen and Friday. They are also generally
distrustful of bats, seeing them as evil omens.
6.6.2 Taboos in the UK
People in the UK often regard the idea and image of elephants as clumsy
and annoying. They also regard black cats as bringing bad luck, especially
a black cat which crosses the street in front of them. They also have an
aversion to dark green, considering this to be a depressing color. It is also
taboo in the UK to spill salt, for this indicates that one might quarrel with
one’s friends. This bad luck can be counteracted, however, by throwing
salt over one’s left shoulder. Breaking a mirror is sometimes seen as a sign
that someone in the family may die, or that the breaker will suffer seven
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years of misfortune. In the UK, lilies and meteors are believed to symbolize
death and news of death respectively. Horseshoes are favored by the British,
and finding a horseshoe in the street is believed to bring good luck.
6.6.3 Taboos in France
French people dislike yellow, dark green, and purple. They regard chrysanthemums as flowers of death, and narcissi and walnuts as bringing bad
luck, so it is taboo to give these as gifts. The French are not fond of peacocks or cranes, seeing them a sign of destruction, trouble and
foolishness.
6.6.4 Taboos in Germany
Chimney sweeps symbolize good luck in Germany. When a sweep passes
on the street, it is good luck to touch him. This special custom emerged
because most Germans used to live in houses with fireplaces and chimneys
which, if not cleaned, could cause a fire. As a result, chimney sweeps who
clean the chimneys and thus prevent fire are often seen as bringers of happiness and good luck.
The Germans are careful about giving flowers as gifts. For instance,
roses and chrysanthemums are used to commemorate the dead. They are
also careful about how a gift is wrapped. Like the French, Germans dislike
peacocks, cranes and walnuts.
6.6.5 Taboos in Russia
Salt is highly appreciated by Russians because it is thought to dispel evil.
The knocking over a salt shaker and spilling of salt on the ground indicates
family disharmony. To escape bad luck, people tend to pick up the spilled
salt and spill it over their heads. It is believed that horses and horseshoes
have the power to ward off evil and bring good luck. Due to the conception
of “lucky right-hand side and unlucky left hand side”, Russians have a
taboo about shaking the left hand, or eating or passing things on with the
left hand. When leaving home for work, they make sure to step out with
their left foot first. Rabbits are also disliked in Russia for being a weak animal, and a running rabbit is regarded a sign of bad luck. The color black,
and black cats in particular are also taboo, as the former is related to death
and funerals while the latter leads to misfortune.
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6.6.6 Taboos in Spain
Chrysanthemums and dahlias are avoided by the Spanish, for they are
associated with the dead. When friends shake hands, they are not supposed
to cross two shaking hands to reach a fourth person, because this would
form a cross, which is considered ominous. Moreover, children fighting
and crying on the first day of a new year is taboo, so Spaniards do what
they can on this day to please their children.
In conclusion, folk culture encompasses all aspects of life and is very
diverse. The form and content of culture evolve over time, and are conditioned by geography, cultural inheritance, and population diffusion. Folk
culture can be categorized in various ways. At the core of folk culture is
people. Folklore refers to the habits and practices that are fostered in daily
life, production process, and other human activities. The attempt to
explore, understand and study folk culture is an effort to probe into
human beings and human society, as well as to rescue old customs and
traditions. It is also a quest for the roots of culture in the mass of its people, and a historical reflection and embodiment of the national spirit of a
certain nationality. In this chapter we have only touched the surface of the
folklore system. It is the author’s hope that this chapter may serve as a
modest spur to trigger college students’ interest in exploring more deeply
the roots and practices of folk culture.
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