Ecological Restoration Education in the Colombian Amazon

TECHNICAL ARTICLE
Ecological restoration-based education in the
Colombian Amazon: toward a new society–nature
relationship
Natasha V. Garzón1, Carlos H. Rodríguez León2, Eliane Ceccon3 , Daniel R. Pérez4,5
Caquetá Department, in the Colombian Amazon, has a historical context of deforestation, education of poor quality, land tenure conflicts, and social violence. Thus, there is an urgent need to restore not only the ecosystem, but also the social fabric and
the society–nature relationship. This article describes the process, impacts, obstacles, and lessons learned from a program of
ecological restoration-based education for local communities. During 2017, a group of 15 local people were selected and trained
in ecological restoration to become, as we called them, “local scientists” (LS). After this educative process, these LS, together
with researchers from social sciences and biology, developed an ecological restoration education program aimed to local peasants. The bioregional current of environmental education and significant learning theory were the educative theoretical frameworks used. The pedagogical contents were grouped into five main themes: (1) soils, (2) farm planning, (3) river basins,
(4) monitoring, and (5) social organization. During 2018, between 8 and 70 peasants per community participated in the program. The last phase, carried out in 2019, consisted of the propagation of native forest species and outplantings by the program
participants, to restore the landscape connectivity in a region considered to be high priority. Peasants built 71 nursery gardens
on their farms with their own labor. They produced 400,000 seedlings of 21 native forest species, which were further planted on
277 farms over 550 ha. The implications of the pedagogical process of the program, the advances in restoration of degraded
forests, and changes in society–nature relationships are discussed.
Key words: Caquetá, environmental education, non-formal education, participative process, significant learning theory,
United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration
Implications for Practice
• Ecological restoration can be a pathway toward ecologi-
cal literacy and teaching people to reinhabit their territories, even when affected by social conflicts.
• Upon receiving an appropriate educational program, local
groups of peasants can be empowered and become restoration knowledge multipliers.
• The use of different educational tools and activities can
facilitate the assimilation of new ideas and promote environmental paradigm shifts.
Introduction
Colombia is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world
(Gonzalez-Salazar et al. 2017). However, much of this biodiversity is being lost by the extensive deforestation and habitat fragmentation mainly due to agricultural expansion, cattle raising,
and illegal crops (Etter et al. 2006; Armenteras et al. 2011; Aguilar et al. 2015; Gonzalez-Salazar et al. 2017; Clerici et al. 2018).
The Caquetá Department, with an area of 8,896,500 ha, is the
third largest department of Colombia, and it shows the highest
rate of deforestation, around 52,563 ha/year between 2000 and
2017 (IDEAM 2018).
Deforestation in Caquetá began under the socioeconomic
models developed during the process of colonization (Niño
September 2020
Restoration Ecology Vol. 28, No. 5, pp. 1053–1060
Arcila et al. 2000). In this region, there have been three main
stages of human settlement: indigenous occupation for
22,000 years or more, agrarian colonization since 1900, and
new colonization and urbanization since 1950 (Niño Arcila
et al. 2000). Prehispanic indigenous culture had a relationship
with nature that was not defined by dependence on extractive
production models for economic markets. However, the agrarian colonization by the Spanish people changed this model
toward a strong utilitarian conception of nature, and led to a
Author contributions: NVG, CHRL coordinated field applications; DRP, EC wrote and
edited the manuscript.
1
Natasha Valentina Garzón, Instituto Amazónico de Investigaciones Científicas
SINCHI, CP 180001, Florencia, Caquetá, Colombia
2
Carlos Hernando Rodríguez León, Instituto Amazónico de Investigaciones Científicas
SINCHI, CP 180001, Florencia, Caquetá, Colombia
3
Eliane Ceccon, Centro de Investigaciones Multidisciplinarias, Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad Circuito II s/n, Col. Chamilpa CP 62210,
Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
4
Laboratory of Rehabilitation and Ecological Restoration of Arid and Semiarid
Ecosystems (LARREA), National University of Comahue, CP 8300 Neuquén,
Argentina
5
Address correspondence to D. R. Pérez, email danielrneuquen@gmail.com
© 2020 Society for Ecological Restoration
doi: 10.1111/rec.13216
Supporting information at:
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec.13216/suppinfo
1053
period of massive deforestation and the introduction of livestock, distorting the sustainability of the territory. After 1950,
with the increase of global and local demand, there were new
waves of timber extraction and deforestation for meat and milk
production (Niño Arcila et al. 2000). Later, Caquetá became
one of the epicenters of conflicts among armed groups known
as “guerrillas” and disputes over illegal coca crops added to
existing conflicts (Murcia et al. 2013; Clerici et al. 2018). In this
complex socioecological context, at present there is an urgent
need to restore not only the degraded ecosystems, but also the
social fabric and the relationship between society and nature.
Like several other places in Latin America and the Caribbean,
Caquetá currently has a high density of rural population living in
biodiversity hotspots in need of ecological restoration (Aguilar
et al. 2015), and in many regions without basic access to education programs (UNESCO 2013).
In tropical regions, Janzen (1988) was one of the first to point
out the need to generate links between restoration and education:
“It is critical that diverse and imaginative education programs be
taught within the restoring of wild land, and local people be
intellectually involved in the restoration and management process […].” However, in most cases, formal education is not
accessible to local communities in tropical regions. Even when
formal education does exist, programs or curricula are frequently not connected to the regional socioecological context,
teachers do not usually have adequate training for rural contexts,
and educative materials are no contextualized (UNESCO 2013;
Pérez et al. 2017). Across Latin America, several institutions
have joined efforts to develop social, institutional, or organizational skills to influence public policies and decision-makers,
generate international networks, and help people develop “soft”
skills, such as leadership, project management, or entrepreneurship (Bloomfield et al. 2018; Meli et al. 2019). However, greater
efforts are required to effectively meet the educational demands
of rural communities of this region. For this reason, it is valuable
that the strategy of the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem
Restoration 2021–2031 (UN 2020) has included, as a goal, the
generation of diverse ways of children and adult education in
benefits of ecological restoration. The document literally claims
that: “It is critical that diverse and imaginative education programs be taught within the restoring of wild land, and local people be intellectually involved in the restoration and management
process […].”
Ecological restoration-based education is considered a fundamental tool for the success of restoration in the long term and in
the reestablishment of the relationship between society and
nature (McCann 2011; Pérez et al. 2019). In this study, we
describe a program of ecological restoration-based education
for local communities implemented in Caquetá Department in
2017–2019, to contribute to the process of social and ecological
restoration after the historical degradation of the tropical forests
(SINCHI 2013). The goals of the project were: (1) to provide
opportunities to share knowledge about ecology, biodiversity,
and restoration among local peasants and researchers; (2) to contribute to peasants’ active participation in ecological restoration
based on theoretical and practical knowledge; and (3) to install
and maintain restoration plots on farms in the region. We present
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the methodologies used to achieve the above-mentioned objectives and discuss their scope over the 2 years of their
implementation.
Methods
Study Area
The project is located in Caquetá Department, in the AndeanAmazon piedmont of Colombia, specifically in the municipalities of Florencia, Morelia, Belén de los Andaquíes, and San José
de Fragua, between 1 210 –1 480 N and 75 300 –76 040 W
(Fig. 1). According to the Köppen (1936) classification, the climate is equatorial superhumid (Afi), with an average annual
rainfall of 3,235 mm and an average temperature of 25.1 C
(Murad & Pearse 2018). There are three main units in the landscape: mountains, rolling hills (hereafter “lomerío”), and floodplains, considered of high priority for restoration (Fig. 1). The
current predominant land use is cattle grazing. Cattle feed
mainly on exotic grasses (Brachiaria spp.), but as the soils are
nutrient-poor, there is a progressive reduction of grass productivity, resulting in decreasing livestock yields over time
(Becerra-Ordoñez et al. 2014).
Education Theoretical Framework
Ecological restoration-based education (hereafter RBE) refers to
ecological restoration efforts that are intentionally designed to
include an educational purpose. Like ecological restoration,
RBE is a process that occurs over a lifetime and includes both
ecological and social components (McCann 2011; Pérez
et al. 2019). The educational format (social and institutional
context in which the educational process is implemented) was
“non-formal education” for adults (Pérez et al. 2019).
The selection of educational contents was based on the current of environmental education (EE) defined as “bioregionalism” (Sauvé 2005). This current proposes the development of
contents with the main goal of reconnecting regional nature with
local cultures, allowing residents to reinhabit environments
(McGinnis 2005) and promoting a sense of belonging and relationship with a place (Hensley 2013). This EE perspective is
also known as “pedagogy of place” or “place-based environmental education” (Orr 1992).
The teaching-learning framework used in the project was
“significant learning” (Ausubel et al. 1978). From this educative
conception, the simple presentation of facts or concepts is not
enough to generate learning. Rather, education requires problematic situations, potentially significant educational materials,
and intrinsic motivation (Valerio 2012). This may allow the
restructuring of intuitive theories based on everyday experience
(Vosniadou 2007). In this context, the educative activities were
planned to promote: (1) critical thinking (students analyze and
evaluate), (2) creative thinking (students imagine and create),
and (3) practical thinking (students solve problems and make
decisions) (Fink 2003).
The design of the “significant learning” program followed the
Fink (2003) proposal, which has the advantage of being easy to
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Restoration and education in Colombian Amazon
Figure 1 Location of Caquetá Department in Colombia. Areas with different levels of ecological restoration priority, determined by previous studies of SINCHI
Institute are indicated with different colors. Credit: SINCHI Institute.
replicate step by step (Supplement S1). Fink’s proposal pays attention to “situational factors”—the specific contexts of teaching/learning, nature of the subject, and characteristics of the learners and the
teachers. These situational factors are fundamental in educative planning, because effective communication is critical for significant
learning. In fact, the educative process requires the generation of
shared meanings and the acquisition of new knowledge constructed
from the needs, aspirations, and motivations of the participants. Particularly, as we work with adult peasants, who have extensive experience and knowledge, it is important to achieve a dialogue that
allows them to question and criticize culturally inherited rationalities
that cause environmental degradation (Leff 2010).
Figure 2 Scheme of implementation sequence of ecological restoration-based education program and general organization of the educative process (vertical line).
In the lower line of blocks some principal goals are noted.
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Restoration and education in Colombian Amazon
Table 1 Basic contents of pedagogical materials used in the ecological restoration-based education program and first page of each unit.
First Page of the Pedagogical
Material
Pedagogical Unit
Contents
The socioecological
importance of soil.
Soil as a living system, formation and ecological functions, dynamics of
degradation, soil conservation and restoration.
Ecological restoration as
tool for farm planning.
Farms as a unit of planning, incentives and motivations, for decisions,
implications for the landscape, ecosystems and restoration.
How do we restore our
river basins?
Characteristics, composition, and ecological functions of riparian forests in
Caquetá, flood and rainfall pulses, riparian floristic communities,
ecological services.
Participatory monitoring.
Citizen science, decision-making, restoration objectives and goals,
variables, indicators, information capture.
Social organization and
community
strengthening.
The meaning of community, typology of social organizations, community
participation in restoration ecology projects, common goods.
For this reason, the strategy was for a group of local people to
act as the mediators of the educative process, or education multipliers. Here, we refer to these people as “local scientists” (hereafter, LS). The LS were local people with technical experience
in rural activities and peasants with deep understanding of the
local environmental and productive problems. The selection of
LS was made by the SINCHI Institute staff, based on snowball
sampling (Naderifar et al. 2017). This qualitative methodology
consists in the selection of a first person with the desired profile,
1056
who offers a new contact during an interview. Following each
new interview, a new participant is integrated until completing
the desired total number. A team of 15 LS was assembled, with
the goal of educational continuity over the time. The educative
process was called the “school of local scientists” (hereafter,
SLS). The role of LS in the conceptual structure of the project
is illustrated in Figure 2. In the context of SLS, the education
program was organized by the LS, SINCHI researchers, and
pedagogy specialists, who defined and produced the educational
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Restoration and education in Colombian Amazon
Table 2 Species produced in nursery gardens of the ecological restoration-based education program, classified by tree species and topography in which it is
found. Topography = rolling hills or “lomerío” (L), mountain (M), floodplain (F).
Topography
Scientific Name
Common Name (Spanish)
L
M
F
Cedrelinga cateniformis (Ducke) Ducke
Minquartia guianensis Aubl.
Clarisia racemosa Ruiz & Pav.
Myrcia splendens (Sw.) DC.
Euterpe precatoria Mart.
Guarea grandiflora Decne. ex Steud.
Piptocoma discolor (Kunth) Pruski
Zygia longifolia (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Britton & Rose
Aspidosperma spruceanum Benth. ex Müll. Arg.
Eschweilera coriacea (DC.) S.A. Mori
Brosimum rubescens Taub.
Inga nobilis Willd.
Parkia multijuga Benth.
Lacmellea speciosa Woodson
Vismia baccifera (L.) Triana & Planch.
Simarouba amara Aubl.
Trichanthera gigantea (Bonpl.) Nees
Iriartea deltoidea Ruiz & Pav.
Socratea exorrhiza (Mart.) H. Wendl.
Oenocarpus bataua Mart.
Couma macrocarpa Barb. Rodr.
Achapo
Ahumado
Arracacho
Arrayán
Asaí
Bilibil
Boca de indio
Carbón
Costillo
Fono
Granadillo
Guacharaco
Guarango
Kinde
Laurel
Marfil
Nacedero
Palma Bombona
Palma Cachuda
Palma Milpes
Perillo
x
x
x
x
x
goals, pedagogical units with printed materials, and activities
(Table 1). The pedagogical units included contents that were
considered necessary to establish future ecological restoration
goals, and for the comprehension of technical and organizational
options (Supplement S1, Fig. 2).
represented 1 ha of farmland and others represented money for
economic transactions. Using monetary and yield values previously established for each activity, a group of participants chose
the alternatives for the available areas. For practical thinking,
activities such as seed collection, seedling production, outplantings, and field visits were implemented (Fig. S1). These practical activities were oriented to design different restoration
strategies such as forest enrichment, riparian ecosystem restoration, silvopastoral, or agroforestry systems (“productive restoration” sensu Ceccon 2013) that could serve as models to share
with other groups.
At each meeting, the peasants shared their reflections about
the prior educative session. The evaluation of learning was
focused at the group level, not individuals. Their ideas before
and after each meeting and results of practical activities were
recorded by observers from the SINCHI Institute and are presented below.
Results
Beginning the Educative Process With the Peasants
In 2017, SLS developed the ecological restoration-based education program with five pedagogical units supported by printed
material on the topic to be addressed: (1) soils; (2) farm planning, (3) river basins, (4) monitoring, and (5) social organization
(Table 1). LS with collaboration of researchers and technicians
of SINCHI implemented the program in 23 rural localities.
The number of participants in each educational meeting ranged
between 7 and 70 (Table S1). Each unit of the educative program
was implemented in a specific meeting in each locality, over the
course of 2018 (five meetings per locality over the year).
In addition to reflections about the printed pedagogical materials, critical thinking was promoted with the game “How much
do we know about the soil?” (CSIC 2015). In this activity, a
group of peasants roll a dice, whose resulting number leads to
a box with questions. According to the answer, the group moves
forward or backward in the boxes. Each answer was discussed
among peasants, LS, and researchers.
For creative thinking, another game, called “make decisions
and plan your farm” was used (adapted from Viera 2006). The
game consisted of a set of cards with 12 land use alternatives,
including several forest restoration strategies. Other cards
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x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
New Ideas in Developing
During the meetings, the previous and new ideas were systematized and recorded in five categories by LS and SINCHI
researchers (Table S2) as follows:
(1) Change of previous ideas: Peasants’ previous ideas were
that water and soil were “inexhaustible resources.” They
also agreed that they did not know anything about river
basins and their importance for soil and water conservation.
They also recognized that they could not understand the
complexity of the native forest and were unaware of the possibility of losing soil productivity permanently. After the
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Restoration and education in Colombian Amazon
Figure 3 Local leaders (“local scientists”) working with peasants in the ecological restoration-based program. (A) Sharing knowledge about species among
peasants; (B) recognizing fruit and seeds of some species; (C) making a herbarium; (D) group of local peasants and local scientists in educative meeting.
course, they affirmed that in the future, local communities
will be able to detect erosive processes and make better
decisions to avoid them.
(2) Ideas that require more deep analysis and complementary
training: In contents about planning and ecological restoration, generalized previous ideas were that native forest
could not offer enough income to assure an acceptable quality of life. Based on this reasoning, people 55–60 years old
would generally be willing to sell their farms and move to
the town. There was also a consensus among different working groups that younger people preferred to sell their farms
to buy cheaper lands in the jungle, where the soil has higher
nutrient contents, rather than improving management practices to enhance the soil quality and increase their crop
yields. Peasants also mentioned that no productive system
could compete with the high annual profitability of coca
crops. After the educative work on economic evaluation of
alternative farm management, peasants recognized that the
high profitability of coca crops or cattle grazing only lasts
for a short time, because they degrade soils and quickly
reduce their productivity. Peasants found profitability possibilities in agroforestry and agroecological systems using
their traditional ecological knowledge and government
technical assistance for the implementation. In fact, they
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selected some native species for this purpose (see Tables 1
and S3). The project offered a first opportunity for ecological and economic planning of farms, although more educational work is required. The management is based on a
learning process to improve long-term outcomes. However,
in Caquetá alternative management is just beginning. Ecological restoration is a new idea in the region and has not
yet been fully embraced by peasants. After the pedagogical
unit, they concluded that at present, without governmental
subsidies they would not be able to invest in ecological
restoration.
(3) Ideas considered valuable but that could be applied only in the
future: Peasants stated that they had never heard about the issue
of monitoring. After the educative meeting, they expressed that
the experience was interesting and proposed several indicators
for monitoring forest enrichment, riparian ecosystem restoration,
agroforestry systems, and silvopastoral systems (Table S4). This
issue was not considered for immediate application in restorative
interventions, but useful for the future.
(4) New procedural knowledge: This is the knowledge exercised in the performance of some task (Guzman 2009). In
the project several tasks were learned. Seed collection and
seedling production were carried out in 2019 (Fig. S1).
Nursery gardens were installed on 71 farms of program
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Restoration and education in Colombian Amazon
participants with their own labor, 21 native forest species
were propagated, and 400,000 seedlings were produced
(Table 2). In 2019, with technical and financial support from
the LS, peasants established restoration plots in 277 farms
over 550 ha (Fig. S2). Restorative interventions were considered “living classrooms” for the project to acquire practical knowledge in the future.
(5) Attitudes about social organization: These are ideas about feelings, values, motivations, and beliefs (Hungerford &
Volk 1990). The peasants agreed that there was a schism
between the education system and the ecological and social
needs of the community. Peasants considered that the future
role of the LS is to keep working together with peasants and
promoting their participation in decision-making spaces, such
as in the territorial councils. The relationship between peasants
and LS established between 2017 and 2019 has been strong
enough to support continuity of educative process through
the present (2020); hopefully, this will continue in the future.
Discussion
The process of ecological restoration-based education allowed:
(1) the collective recognition of erroneous and degrading land
management practices, (2) a knowledge dialogue leading to the
recovery of local traditional ecological knowledge, and
(3) establishment of new land management possibilities. Ecological restoration-based education also provided learning at
two levels: (1) a group of educative multipliers (LS) and (2)
local peasants. LS were educators, but they were also essentially peers of the peasants with additional training and experience in socioecological issues. On the other hand, LS gained
access to new knowledge, not only from pedagogical materials
but through sharing experiences with peasants. In this sense,
we can consider this educative process of “reciprocal teaching.” The pedagogical materials were catalyst mediators for
the interaction between peasants and LS, and are now permanently available for use in the communities. Restored plots
are now places that promote new meetings, consolidate established networks, and promote new knowledge.
Due to the short duration of the process described in this article; it is not yet clear whether there has been a lasting conceptual
change in the local land use models. According to McCann
(2011), time is an important variable in the educative and restorative process. If over time restoration makes sense for local people and constitutes a better model of their relationship with
nature, they will be more likely to change their land use practices
(McGinnis 2005). This is not a quick task or merely the acquisition of a “catalog” of good practices, but a continuous and progressive learning process working toward the resolution of
socioecological conflicts. This is an endless process that must
be maintained through social organization. Thus, the challenge
in Caquetá is just beginning (Fig. 3).
Rather than centering on a number of hectares of forest to be
recovered as a solution for degradation or benchmark for success;
the project in Caquetá has focused on changing the utilitarian and
extractivist relationship with nature that was established by the
September 2020
Restoration Ecology
historical context of the region. For this goal, the main strategy
was RBE and the strengthening of local capacities for future sustainability. RBE, as shown in this article, offers to expand environmental learning for all ages, the opportunity to build new links with
nature, to establish new social relationships, and simultaneously
contribute to peace, social justice, and ecosystem restoration.
Acknowledgments
We thank the Alma Foundation, which accompanied the design
and implementation of the pedagogical strategy during the years
2017 and 2018. We also thank J. Valero, D. Sierra, D. Rondon,
and A. Lopez for their helpful work in developing the pedagogical materials and modules and to all the peasants who are part of
the school of LS. D.R.P. thanks the research project 04-U021,
and members of the Laboratory of Rehabilitation and Restoration of Arid and Semi-Arid Ecosystems (LARREA) of the
National University of Comahue (Argentina) for various contributions and opinions on this article. E.C. is thankful for the support of PAPIIT-UNAM IN300119. We also thank P. Meli for
the valuable comments.
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Coordinating Editor: Stephen Murphy
Received: 22 April, 2020; First decision: 15 May, 2020; Revised: 21 May, 2020;
Accepted: 29 May, 2020
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Supporting Information
The following information may be found in the online version of this article:
Supplement S1. Educative methodological design of the ecological restoration.
Restoration Ecology September 2020
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Restoration and education in Colombian Amazon