The air quality in Chile: Twenty years of challenge (PDF

em • feature
by Luis Díaz-Robles,
Herman Saavedra,
Luis Schiappacasse,
and F. Cereceda-Balic
Luis Díaz-Robles,
Herman Saavedra, and
Luis Schiappacasse are
with the Air Quality Unit
at the Catholic University
of Temuco in Chile.
F. Cereceda-Balic is with
Environmental Technology
Center (CETAM in Spanish)
at the Universidad Técnica
Federico Santa María in
Chile. E-mail: ldiaz@uct.cl.
The Air Quality in Chile:
Today, with a population of 16 million, Chile is one of South America’s most
stable and prosperous nations.1 It leads Latin America in human development,
competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, economic freedom, low perception of corruption, and state of peace.2 It also ranks high regionally in terms
of freedom of the press and democratic development. Its economy is recovering
fast from the last global economy recession, growing by 5.2% in 2010. The
Monthly Economic Activity Grow Index for March 2011 was 15.2%, the highest
value since 1992.3 In May 2010, Chile became the first South American country
to join the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
However, Chile has serious air quality problems.
Cerro Alegre Hill,
Valparaiso, Chile.
28 em august 2011
Copyright 2011 Air & Waste Management Association
awma.org
20 Years of Challenge
Geography and Climate
Chile occupies a long, narrow coastal strip between
the Andes Mountains to the east and the Pacific
Ocean to the west, with small mountains in the
center of the country, called the Coast Mountains.
Its climate varies, ranging from the world’s driest
desert in the north, through a Mediterranean-like
climate in the central region, to a rainy climate in
the south. The northern desert contains great mineral
wealth. The relatively small central region dominates
in terms of population and agricultural resources,
where the main cities are located between the
Andes and the Coast Mountains. Southern Chile
is rich in forests and grazing lands and features a
string of volcanoes and lakes.
Weather patterns of the majority of cities in Chile
located in the central depression are detrimental to
the pollutants removal from airshed, especially
during fall and winter. The presence of the Pacific
subtropical anticyclone marks for much of the year
the emergence of the phenomenon of temperature
inversion and a heavy coastal fog (called “vaguada
costera” in Spanish). This favors the generation of
a very stable layer of air near the surface, which
inhibits turbulence and vertical air movement in
these basins.
During the summer, surface heating allows the erosion of the inversion layer on the airshed, resulting
in a significant improvement in ventilation. However,
emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile Map of Chile.
organic compounds (VOCs) mainly from mobile
sources, as well as the solar radiation, favor the
formation of ozone in the cities of Santiago and
Rancagua in central Chile. This article presents an
overview of the Chilean air quality standards and
the regions that are in exceedance of the air quality
standards, as well as a broad picture of the air quality
trends in Chile based on available monitoring data.
Table 1. Chilean National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
Pollutant
Primary Standards
Level
3
Averaging Time
a
Secondary Standards
Level
Averaging Time
CO
9 ppm (10 mg/m )
26 ppm (30 mg/m3)
8-hr
1-hr a
None
None
Pb
0.5 μg/m3 b
Annual (arithmetic average)
None
None
c
NO2
53 ppb
213 ppb
Annual (arithmetic average)
1-hr d
None
None
None
None
PM10
150 μg/m3
50 μg/m3
24-hr e
Annual f (arithmetic average)
None
None
None
None
PM2.5
50 μg/m3
20 μg/m3
24-hr e
Annual f (arithmetic average)
None
None
None
None
O3
0.061 ppm
8-hr g
None
None
SO2
0.031 ppm
0.096 ppm
none
Annual h (arithmetic average)
24-hr i
0.031 ppm North Zone
0.023 ppm South Zone
Annual h (arithmetic average)
0.140 ppm North Zone
0.099 ppm South Zone
24-hr j
0.382 ppm North Zone
0.268 ppm South Zone
1-hr k
Notes: aThe three-year average of the 99th percentile of the daily maximum 8-hr or 1-hr concentration must not exceed 9 parts per million (ppm) or 1 ppm, respectively. bThe
two-year average concentration must not exceed 0.5 μg/m3. cThe three-year average concentration must not exceed 53 parts per billion (ppb). dThe three-year average of the
99th percentile of the daily maximum 1-hr average must not exceed 213 ppb. eNot to be exceeded more than seven times per year. fThe three-year average of the weighted
annual mean concentration must not exceed the standard. gThe three-year average of the 99th percentile of the daily maximum 8-hr average must not exceed 61 ppb. hThe
three-year average of the weighted annual mean concentration must not exceed the respective standard. iThe three-year average of the 99th percentile of the 24-hr concentrations
must not exceed 96 ppb. jThe three-year average of the 99.7th percentile of the 24-hr concentrations must not exceed the respective level. kThe three-year average of the
99.73th percentile of the 1-hr concentrations must not exceed the respective level.
awma.org
awma.org
Copyright 2011 Air & Waste Management Association
august
2011em
august
2011
em2929
health, while the secondary standards are designed
to protect the ecosystems (see Table 1).
Figure 1. Annual minimum,
maximum, and mean average SO2 concentrations
based on 12 sites in the
northern and central regions
of Chile, 1993 to 2009.
Chilean Standards
The Chilean Air Quality Standards have been
defined (and have not changed) since 1994, due to
the creation of CONAMA (the Chilean equivalent
of the U.S Environmental Protection Agency) the
same year, and set both primary and secondary
concentration limits for air pollutants. The primary
standards are designed to protect the human
Similar to the United States, areas that are in
exceedance of the standards are designated as
non-attainment areas. The designation of a nonattainment area contains the precise geographic
area it spans. But there are some differences
between the United States and Chile. In Chile, an
area is designated as a “latent” non-attainment
area, when the pollutant concentrations are
between 80 and 100% of the standard, and as a
“saturated” non-attainment area, when the pollutant concentration exceeds the set standard. These
designations of latent or saturated area form the
basis of the atmospheric prevention plans (APP)
or atmospheric decontamination plans (ADP),
respectively. These plans are similar in scope to the
U.S. State Implementation Plans (SIPs).
Latent and Saturated Areas in Chile
The atmospheric contamination problem was, for
many years, almost exclusively limited to Santiago;
however, many mining zones and other northern,
central, and southern cities in Chile have begun to
Table 2. Chilean zones with severe air quality problems.
Area
Designation
Pollutants
Plan/Year a
Antofagasta
Tocopilla City
Saturated Zone, 2007
PM10
ADP in elaboration
Antofagasta
Surrounding zone of CODELCO’s
Chuquicamata Foundry
Saturated Zone, 1991
PM10, SO2
ADP, 1993, 2001
Atacama
Surrounding zone of CODELCO’s Potrerillos
Foundry, Salvador Division
Saturated Zone, 1997
PM10, SO2
ADP, 1999
Atacama
Surrounding zone of Hernán Videla Lira
Foundry, Tierra Amarilla and Copiapó cities
Saturated Zone, 1993
SO2
ADP, 1995
Coquimbo
Andacollo city
Saturated Zone, 2009
PM10
ADP in elaboration
Valparaíso
Vantanas Industiral Complex of Puchuncaví
and Quintero cities
Saturated Zone, 1993
PM10, SO2
ADP, 1993
Metropolitan Region
of Santiago
Santiago Metropolitan area
Saturated Zone
Latent Zone
PM10, O3,
SO2 NO2
ADPP b, 1996, 2004,
2010
Bernardo O’Higgins
Surrounding zone of Caletones Founfry, el
CODELCO’s el Teniente Division, Mostazal,
Codegua, Machalí, and Requínoa cities
Saturated Zone, 1994
PM10, SO2
Rancagua city
Saturated Zone, 2009
Region
Northern Chile
Central Chile
Bernardo O’Higgins
ADP in elaboration
PM10
ADP in elaboration
Southern Chile
Maule
Talca city
Saturated Zone, 2010
PM10
Biobío
Concepción Metropolitan area
Latent Zone, 2007
PM10
ADP in elaboration
Araucanía
Temuco City and Padre Las Casas
Saturated Zone, 2005
PM10
APP in process
ADP, 2010
Notes: aYear enacted and subsequent revision years; bADPP = Atmospheric Decontamination and Prevention Plan.
3030em
emaugust
august
2011
2011
Copyright 2011 Air & Waste Management Association
awma.org
awma.org
show air quality problems, with severe health consequences for the population. Table 2 shows that
the atmospheric contamination problem in the
main non-attainment regions in Chilean urban and
mining northern zones is largely due to the high
levels of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter
(PM10) from copper foundries and coal-burning
power plants; in the central zone, the concerns are
due to PM10, ozone (O3), and SO2 coming from
mobile and point sources; while in Chilean southern
urban zones, the main pollutant is PM10 produced
by residential wood combustion (RWC). Besides
these zones that have been declared as saturated
or latent, there are some cities in southern Chile
(e.g., Chillán, Coyhaique, Talca, Valdivia, and Osorno),
where PM10 monitoring studies and campaigns
have started showing alarming air quality results,
compared with those from Temuco city.4 These
non-attainment zones cover approximately 40,000
km2, where approximately 6,800,000 inhabitants
are exposed to air pollution.
Air Quality Trends
The specific geographical and meteorological conditions of Chile, plus the anthropogenic emissions
have resulted in high atmospheric levels of PM10,
PM2.5, O3 and SO2, and remain a severe problem
since the 1990s. As a result, communities exposed
to high concentrations of these pollutants have
been associated with a rise in mortality and morbidity.5-29 Fortunately, in some industrial centers and
cities, pollution levels have drastically decreased by
the measures established in Chilean regulations.
For example, the annual SO2 concentrations in the
copper mining areas of the north and central
regions of Chile decreased substantially (by 77%)
from 1993 to 2009 (see Figure 1). However, the
concentrations of SO2 have remained flat or increased from 2004 to 2009 due to the construction of more coal power plants as a result of the
expansion of the copper industry and its demand
for energy.
billion by volume (ppbv) 8-hr moving average of Figure 2. Annual average
concentrations of PM10 and
2009 in Santiago.30
PM2.5 (in µg/m3) in SantiIn some southern urban zones, the control meas- ago, Chile, 1989-2009.
ures have not been as successful as in Santiago,
because the sources are different and the ADP
began only in 2010. Temuco, for example, has
serious PM problems due to RWC. Since 2002,
this city has experienced degrading air quality (see
Figure 2), with PM10 concentrations increasing
each year, and exceeding the annual and daily
standards systematically, becoming worse each
year.31 Temuco’s ADP and the National Strategy to
control de RWC smoke were implemented in
2010 to help solve this problem.
Figure 3. Air quality in
Temuco (a) PM10 annual
average and (b) 98 percentile and maximum of
Since 1991, the air quality research in Chile has 24-hr.
Past Research Focus
and Future Needs
focused initially on data analysis,32-34 and health
effects for short-term exposure.21, 26-29 Subsequently,
Source: Chilean Environmental
Ministry.
Figure 2 shows the evolution of air quality in Santiago, from 1989 to 2009, where annual average
concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 decreased by
33% and 54%, respectively. The percentage of
PM10 reduction was less than PM2.5 because the
coarse fraction emitted by non-point sources (like
RWC) has experienced an increase of 11%. The
O3 is still high with a maximum of 93 parts per
awma.org
Copyright 2011 Air & Waste Management Association
august 2011 em 31
it has expanded to important research topics in
establishing and improving forecasting models,31, 35-40
emission inventories and air quality photochemical
modeling,41-51 receptor models,52-55 increased studies
in health effects for cardio-respiratory diseases produced by PM and carbon monoxide exposure in
Santiago, Temuco, Talcahuano, and Hualpén,5-15
policy-making studies,34, 56-61 indoor air quality,56
and chemical description and monitoring networks.32-33, 46, 62-74
While past research has contributed to our understanding, it is obvious that more research is needed
to develop better understanding of the sources and
their characteristics to aid in better pollution control.
Owing to the geographical challenges of reducing
air pollution in Chile, better air quality management tools are needed in the urban and industrial
areas to further protect human health. While most
of the studies in Chile have focused on PM10,
further analysis should be done for PM2.5 and
ultrafine particles, mainly chemical characterization,
aerosols formation, better air pollution control technologies, and air quality and local climate change
modeling.
Chile recently released a new PM2.5 standard,
which will take effect on January 1, 2012. As we
look forward into the future, the importance of
research cannot be neglected. There is a dire need
for detailed ambient and source characterization
through improved monitoring and modeling
efforts thereby helping to meet the challenge. em
References
1. Chile country profile; BBC News. See http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1222764.stm (accessed May 2011).
2. Human and Income Poverty: Developing Countries; United Nations Development Programme. See http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/indicators/25.html
(accessed May 2011).
3. IMACEC Marzo 2011; Chilean Central Bank: Santiago de Chile, 2011.
4. Diaz-Robles, L.A.; Schiappacasse, L.N.; Ortega, J.C.; Davila, S.; Pinaud, J.P.; Careceda-Balic, F. The Involution of the Air Quality in Temuco City,
Chile, a Fine Particulate Matter Challenge. Presented at the 104th A&WMA Annual Conference & Exhibition, Orlando, FL, 2011.
5. Sanhueza, P.; Pizarro, J.; Vargas, C.; Torreblanca, M.; Passalacqua, M. Health Risk Estimation due to Carbon Monoxide Pollution at Different Spatial
Levels in Santiago, Chile; Environ. Monit. Assess. 2010, 167 (1-4), 165-173.
6. Dales, R.E.; Cakmak, S.; Vidal, C.B. Air Pollution and Hospitalization for Venous Thromboembolic Disease in Chile; J. Thromb. Haemost. 2010,
8 (4), 669-674.
7. Cakmak, S.; Dales, R.E.; Vidal, C.B. Air Pollution and Hospitalization for Epilepsy in Chile; Environ. Int. 2010, 36 (6), 501-505.
8. Sanhueza, P.A.; Torreblanca, M.A.; Diaz-Robles, L.A.; Schiappacasse, L.N.; Silva, M.P.; Astelle, T.D., Particulate Air Pollution and Health Effects for Cardiovascular and Respiratory Causes in Temuco, Chile: A Wood-Smoke-Polluted Urban Area; J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2009, 59 (12), 1481-1488.
9. Díaz-Robles, L.; Silva, M.P.; Etcharren, P.; Guerrero, M.; Ortega, J.C. Análisis de Efectos en Mortalidad y Morbilidad por Contaminación Atmosférica
en Comunas de Concepción Metropolitano; CONAMA Biobío: Talcahuano y Hualpén, 2009.
10. Dales, R.E.; Cakmak, S.; Vidal, C.B. Air Pollution and Hospitalization for Headache in Chile; Am. J. Epidemiol. 2009, 170 (8), 1057-1066.
11. Cakmak, S.; Dales, R.E.; Blanco, C. Components of Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality in Chile; Int. J. Occup. Env. Heal. 2009, 15 (2), 152-158.
12. Grass, D.; Cane, M. The Effects of Weather and Air Pollution on Cardiovascular and Respiratory Mortality in Santiago, Chile, during the Winters
of 1988-1996; Int. J. Climatol. 2008, 28 (8), 1113-1126.
13. Bell, M.L.; O’Neill, M.S.; Ranjit, N.; Borja-Aburto, V.H.; Cifuentes, L.A.; Gouveia, N.C. Vulnerability to Heat-Related Mortality in Latin America: A
Case-Crossover Study in Sao Paulo, Brazil, Santiago, Chile, and Mexico City, Mexico; Int. J. Epidemiol. 2008, 37 (4), 796-804.
14. Prieto, M.J.; Mancilla, P.; Astudillo, P.; Reyes, A.; Roman, O. Excess Respiratory Diseases in Children and Elderly People in a Community of Santiago
with High Particulate Air Pollution; Rev. Med. Chile 2007, 135 (2), 221-228.
15. Cakmak, S.; Dales, R.E.; Vidal, C.B. Air Pollution and Mortality in Chile: Susceptibility Among the Elderly; Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115
(4), 524-527.
16. Bell, M.L.; Davis, D.L.; Gouveia, N.; Borja-Aburto, V.H.; Cifuentes, L.A. The Avoidable Health Effects of Air Pollution in Three Latin American Cities:
Santiago, Sao Paulo, and Mexico City; Environ. Res. 2006, 100 (3), 431-440.
17. Sanhueza, P.; Vargas, C.; Mellado, P. Impact of Air Pollution by Fine Particulate Matter (PM10) on Daily Mortality in Temuco, Chile; Rev. Med.
Chile 2005, 134 (6), 754-761.
18. Pino, P.; Walter, T.; Oyarzun, M.; Villegas, R.; Romieu, I. Fine Particulate Matter and Wheezing Illnesses in the First Year of Life; Epidemiology 2004,
15 (6), 702-708.
19. Zamorano, A.; Marquez, S.; Aranguiz, J.L.; Bedregal, P.; Sanchez, I. Association of Acute Bronchiolitis with Environmental Variables; Rev. Med.
Chile 2003, 131 (10), 1117-1122.
20. Rojas-Bracho, L.; Suh, H.H.; Oyola, P.; Koutrakis, P. Measurements of Children’s Exposures to Particles and Nitrogen Dioxide in Santiago, Chile;
Sci. Total Environ. 2002, 287 (3), 249-264.
21. Cifuentes, L.; Borja-Aburto, V.H.; Gouveia, N.; Thurston, G.; Davis, D.L. Assessing the Health Benefits of Urban Air Pollution Reductions Associated
with Climate Change Mitigation (2000-2020): Santiago, Sao Paulo, Mexico City, and New York City; Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109, 419-425.
22. Caceres, D.; Adonis, M.; Retamal, C.; Ancic, P.; Valencia, M.; Ramos, X.; Olivares, N.; Gil, L. Indoor Air Pollution in a Zone of Extreme Poverty of
Metropolitan Santiago; Rev. Med. Chile 2001, 129 (1), 33-42.
23. Adonis, M.; Gil, L. Indoor Air Pollution in a Zone of Extreme Poverty of Metropolitan Santiago, Chile; Indoor Built Environ. 2001, 10 (3-4), 138-146.
24. Cifuentes, L.A.; Vega, J.; Kopfer, K.; Lava, L.B. Effect of the Fine Fraction of Particulate Matter Versus the Coarse Mass and Other Pollutants on
Daily Mortality in Santiago, Chile; J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2000, 50 (8), 1287-1298.
25. Cifuentes, L.; Moreira, S. Estimation of the Health Damages—Exposure to Particulate Matter Air Pollution in Santiago, Chile; Epidemiology 2000,
11 (4), S105-S105.
26. Sanhueza, P.; Vargas, C.; Jimenez, J. Daily Mortality in Santiago and Its Relationship with Air Pollution; Rev. Med. Chile 1999, 127 (2), 235-242.
27. Ostro, B.D.; Eskeland, G.S.; Sanchez, J.M.; Feyzioglu, T. Air Pollution and Health Effects: A Study of Medical Visits Among Children in Santiago,
Chile; Environ. Health Perspect. 1999, 107 (1), 69-73.
32 em august 2011
Copyright 2011 Air & Waste Management Association
awma.org
28. Ilabaca, M.; Olaeta, I.; Campos, E.; Villaire, J.; Tellez-Rojo, M.M.; Romieu, I. Association between Levels of Fine Particulate and Emergency Visits
for Pneumonia and Other Respiratory Illnesses Among Children in Santiago, Chile; J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 1999, 49, 154-163.
29. Ostro, B.; Sanchez, J.M.; Aranda, C.; Eskeland, G.S. Air Pollution and Mortality: Results from a Study of Santiago, Chile; J. Expo. Anal. Env. Epid.
1996, 6 (1), 97-114.
30. AQI Air Quality Index Map. See www.mma.gob.cl/1257/w3-propertyvalue-16214.html (accessed May 2011).
31. Diaz-Robles, L.A.; Ortega, J.C.; Fu, J.S.; Reed, G.D.; Chow, J.C.; Watson, J.G.; Moncada-Herrera, J.A. A Hybrid ARIMA and Artificial Neural Networks
Model to Forecast Particulate Matter in Urban Areas: The Case of Temuco, Chile; Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42 (35), 8331-8340.
32. Jorquera, H.; Palma, W.; Tapia, J. An Intervention Analysis of Air Quality Data at Santiago, Chile; Atmos. Environ. 2000, 34 (24), 4073-4084.
33. Didyk, B.M.; Simoneit, B.R.T.; Pezoa, L.A.; Riveros, M.L.; Flores, A.A. Urban Aerosol Particles of Santiago, Chile: Organic Content and Molecular
Characterization; Atmos. Environ. 2000, 34 (8), 1167-1179.
34. Romero, H.; Ihl, M.; Rivera, A.; Zalazar, P.; Azocar, P. Rapid Urban Growth, Land-Use Changes and Air Pollution in Santiago, Chile; Atmos. Environ.
1999, 33 (24-25), 4039-4047.
35. Alvarado, S.A.; Silva, C.S.; Caceres, D.D. Modeling Critical Episodes of Air Pollution by PM10 in Santiago, Chile: A Comparison of the Predictive
Efficiency of Parametric and Non-Parametric Atatistical Models; Gac. Sanit. 2010, 24 (6), 466-472.
36. Perez, P.; Salini, G. PM2.5 Forecasting in a Large City: Comparison of Three Methods; Atmos Environ 2008, 42 (35), 8219-8224.
37. Perez, P.; Reyes, J., An integrated neural network model for PM10 forecasting. Atmos. Environ. 2006, 40 (16), 2845-2851.
38. Perez, P.; Palacios, R.; Castillo, A. Carbon Monoxide Concentration Forecasting in Santiago, Chile; J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2004, 54 (8), 908-913.
39. Jorquera, H.; Perez, R.; Cipriano, A.; Espejo, A.; Letelier, M.V.; Acuna, G. Forecasting Ozone Daily Maximum Levels at Santiago, Chile; Atmos.
Environ. 1998, 32 (20), 3415-3424.
40. Prendez, M.M.; Egido, M.; Tomas, C.; Seco, J.; Calvo, A.; Romero, H. Correlation between Solar-Radiation and Total Suspended Particulate Matter
in Santiago, Chile - Preliminary Results; Atmos. Environ. 1995, 29 (13), 1543-1551.
41. Jorquera, H.; Castro, J. Analysis of Urban Pollution Episodes by Inverse Modeling; Atmos. Environ. 2010, 44 (1), 42-54.
42. Olivares, G.; Strom, J.; Johansson, C.; Gidhagen, L. Estimates of Black Carbon and Size-Resolved Particle Number Emission Factors from Residential
Wood Burning based on Ambient Monitoring and Model Simulations; J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2008, 58 (6), 838-848.
43. Montecinos, S. Simple Air Quality Model for a Plane Source; Atmosfera 2008, 21 (2), 147-170.
44. Perez, C.; Jimenez, P.; Jorba, O.; Sicard, M.; Baldasano, J.M. Influence of the PBL Scheme on High-Resolution Photochemical Simulations in an
Urban Coastal Area Over the Western Mediterranean; Atmos. Environ. 2006, 40 (27), 5274-5297.
45. Schmitz, R. Modelling of Air Pollution Dispersion in Santiago de Chile; Atmos. Environ. 2005, 39 (11), 2035-2047.
46. Rappengluck, B.; Schmitz, R.; Bauerfeind, M.; Cereceda-Balic, F.; von Baer, D.; Jorquera, H.; Silva, Y.; Oyola, P. An Urban Photochemistry Study
in Santiago de Chile; Atmos. Environ. 2005, 39 (16), 2913-2931.
47. Olivares, G.; Gallardo, L.; Langner, J.; Aarhus, B. Regional Dispersion of Oxidized Sulfur in Central Chile; Atmos. Environ. 2002, 36 (23), 3819-3828.
48. Jorquera, H. Air Quality at Santiago, Chile: A Box Modeling Approach-I. Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxides, and Sulfur Dioxide; Atmos. Environ.
2002, 36 (2), 315-330.
49. Jorquera, H. Air Quality at Santiago, Chile: A Box Modeling Approach II. PM2.5, Coarse, and PM10 Particulate Matter Fractions; Atmos. Environ.
2002, 36 (2), 331-344.
50. Tuia, D.; de Eicker, M.O.; Zah, R.; Osses, M.; Zarate, E.; Clappier, A. Evaluation of a Simplified Top-Down Model for the Spatial Assessment of
Hot Traffic Emissions in Mid-Sized Cities; Atmos. Environ. 2007, 41 (17), 3658-3671.
51. Perez-Roa, R.; Castro, J.; Jorquera, H.; Perez-Correa, J.R.; Vesovic, V. Air Pollution Modelling in an Urban Area: Correlating Turbulent Diffusion
Coefficients by Means of an Artificial Neural Network Approach; Atmos. Environ. 2006, 40 (1), 109-125.
52. Jorquera, H. Source Apportionment of PM10 and PM2.5 at Tocopilla, Chile (22A degrees 05’ S, 70A degrees 12’ W); Environ. Monit. Assess. 2009,
153 (1-4), 235-251.
53. Morata, D.; Polve, M.; Valdes, A.; Belmar, M.; Dinator, M.I.; Silva, M.; Leiva, M.A.; Aigouy, T.; Morales, J.R. Characterisation of Aerosol from Santiago,
Chile: An Integrated PIXE-SEM-EDX Study; Environ. Geol. 2008, 56 (1), 81-95.
54. Kavouras, I.G.; Koutrakis, P.; Tsapakis, M.; Lagoudaki, E.; Stephanou, E.G.; Von Baer, D.; Oyola, P. Source Apportionment of Urban Particulate
Aliphatic and Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Using Multivariate Methods; Environ. Sci. Technol. 2001, 35 (11), 2288-2294.
55. Kavouras, I.G.; Koutrakis, P.; Cereceda-Balic, F.; Oyola, P. Source Apportionment of PM10 and PM2.5 in Five Chilean Cities Using Factor Analysis;
J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2001, 51 (3), 451-464.
56. Ruiz, P.A.; Toro, C.; Caceres, J.; Lopez, G.; Oyola, P.; Koutrakis, P. Effect of Gas and Kerosene Space Heaters on Indoor Air Quality: A Study in
Homes of Santiago, Chile; J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2010, 60 (1), 98-108.
57. Escobedo, F.J.; Nowak, D.J. Spatial Heterogeneity and Air Pollution Removal by an Urban Forest; Landscape Urban Plan 2009, 90 (3-4), 102-110.
58. Escobedo, P.J.; Wagner, J.E.; Nowak, D.J.; De la Maza, C.L.; Rodriguez, M.; Crane, D.E, Analyzing the Cost Effectiveness of Santiago, Chile’s Policy
of Using Urban Forests to Improve Air Quality; J. Environ. Manage. 2008, 86 (1), 148-157.
59. Molina, M.J.; Molina, L.T. Megacities and Atmospheric Pollution; J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2004, 54 (6), 644-680.
60. Chen, T.Y.; Simpson, I.J.; Blake, D.R.; Rowland, F.S. Impact of the Leakage of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) on Santiago Air Quality; Geophys.
Res. Lett. 2001, 28 (11), 2193-2196.
61. Graftieaux, P.; Vergara, W.; Johnson, T. Global Environment Facility Support for Sustainable Transport - Early Lessons from World Bank-Assisted
Projects in Mexico City, Mexico; Santiago, Chile; and Lima, Peru; Transportation in Developing Countries 2003, 18 (46), 9-13.
62. Moreno, F.; Gramsch, E.; Oyola, P.; Rubio, M.A. Modification in the Soil and Traffic-Related Sources of Particle Matter between 1998 and 2007
in Santiago de Chile; J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2010, 60 (12), 1410-1421.
63. Pedrero, P.; Tardon, C.; Lopez, E. Descriptive Mathematical Techniques to Study Historical Data: An Application to Sulfur Dioxide Pollution in the
City of Talcahuano - Chile; Atmos. Environ. 2009, 43 (40), 6279-6286.
64. Sax, S.N.; Koutrakis, P.; Rudolph, P.A.R.; Cereceda-Balic, F.; Grarnsch, E.; Oyola, P. Trends in the Elemental Composition of Fine Particulate Matter
in Santiago, Chile, from 1998 to 2003; J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2007, 57 (7), 845-855.
65. Iglesias, P.; Jorquera, H.; Palma, W. Data Analysis Using Regression Models with Missing Observations and Long-Memory: An Application Study;
Comput. Stat. Data An. 2006, 50 (8), 2028-2043.
66. Gramsch, E.; Cereceda-Balic, F.; Oyola, P.; von Baer, D. Examination of Pollution Trends in Santiago de Chile with Cluster Analysis of PM10 and
Ozone Data; Atmos. Environ. 2006, 40 (28), 5464-5475.
67. Koutrakis, P.; Sax, S.N.; Sarnat, J.A.; Coull, B.; Demokritou, P.; Oyola, P.; Garcia, J.; Gramsch, E. Analysis of PM10, PM2.5, and PM2.5-10 Concentrations in Santiago, Chile, from 1989 to 2001; J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2005, 55 (3), 342-351.
68. Rubio, M.A.; Oyola, P.; Gramsch, E.; Lissi, E.; Pizarro, J.; Villena, G. Ozone and Peroxyacetylnitrate in Downtown Santiago, Chile; Atmos. Environ.
2004, 38 (29), 4931-4939.
69. Jorquera, H.; Orrego, G.; Castro, J.; Vesovic, V. Trends in Air Quality and Population Exposure in Santiago, Chile, 1989-2001; Int. J. Environ. Pollut.
2004, 22 (4), 507-530.
70. Gramsch, E.; Ormeno, I.; Palma, G.; Cereceda-Balic, F.; Oyola, P. Use of the Light Absorption Coefficient to Monitor Elemental Carbon and PM2.5
- Example of Santiago de Chile; J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 2004, 54 (7), 799-808.
71. Silva, C.; Quiroz, A. Optimization of the Atmospheric Pollution Monitoring Network at Santiago de Chile; Atmos. Environ. 2003, 37 (17), 2337-2345.
72. Tsapakis, M.; Lagoudaki, E.; Stephanou, E.G.; Kavouras, I.G.; Koutrakis, P.; Oyola, P.; von Baer, D. The Composition and Sources of PM2.5
Organic Aerosol in Two Urban Areas of Chile; Atmos. Environ. 2002, 36 (23), 3851-3863.
73. Gallardo, L.; Olivares, G.; Langner, J.; Aarhus, B. Coastal Lows and Sulfur Air Pollution in Central Chile; Atmos. Environ. 2002, 36 (23), 3829-3841.
74. Cereceda-Balic, F.; Kleist, E.; Prast, H.; Schlimper, H.; Engel, H.; Gunther, K. Description and Evaluation of a Sampling System for Long-Time
Monitoring of PAHs Wet Deposition; Chemosphere 2002, 49 (3), 331-340.
awma.org
Copyright 2011 Air & Waste Management Association
august 2011 em 33