Pelvic Infections in Women: Belgian guidelines Ameryckx L. (UZ Brussel) Degueldre M. (CHU St.Pierre) Donders G. (VVOG) Foidart J.M. (GGOLF-B) Jacquemyn Y. (UZ Antwerpen) Nisolle M. (CHU de Liège) Peetermans W. (UZ Leuven) Squifflet J.M. (CU Saint Luc) Verguts J. (UZ Leuven, coordinator) Weyers S. (UZ Gent) Outline 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Definition and classification Etiology, pathogenesis and risk factors Clinical evaluation Diagnostic testing Long term sequelae Tubo-ovarian abscess Clinical management Prevention of PID Follow up References 1. Definition and classification a. Definition Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is defined as an ascending infection from the endocervix of the uterus, fallopian tubes or ovaries often related to sexual contact. Therefore, other pelvic infections caused by surgery, during pregnancy or due to other abdominal processes are not, strictly considered, ‘PID’ and are not in the scope of this recommendation. This stringent diagnosis implying the need for sexual contact is controversial because very often only endogenous intestinal microorganisms can be recovered from the genital tracts of women with pelvic infections, and their sexual partners do not seem to be infected. b. Classification PID has characteristically been considered to have 3 grades of severity based on laparoscopic findings. PID grade 1 means there is either endometritis or erythema of the salpinx, or a combination of both. In a grade 2 PID, the salpinges are dark red and swollen (edema). In a grade 3 PID the salpinx is filled with pus (pyosalpinx) and exudation is found in the pelvis. Tubo-ovarian abcedation (TOA) is also PID grade 3 according to the definition. A tuboovarian complex is a name used for oedema of the salpinx which is adherent to the ovaria, uterus, pelvic wall, and/or bowel, but without abscedation. In clinical practice the grading is not always clear. 2. Etiology, pathogenesis and risk factors There are no Belgian data on prevalence, but a recent study showed an average incidence of 120.5 cases of PID with hospitilization per 100.000 women in Sweden over a 15 year period (1990-2004) with a decreasing trend where incidence is now 62.3 per 100.000 women1 Of women with symptomatic PID, 15-20% suffer complications requiring surgical intervention. The prevalence of asymptomatic PID is unknown. Whenever the cervical barrier becomes damaged, bacteria can ascend from the vagina to infect the upper genital tract2. The importance of this ascending route is emphasized by the finding that 75% PID of cases start during the first 7 days after menstruation 3;4. a. Etiology: A number of urogenital pathogens have established roles in PID. i. Chlamydia trachomatis In the mid 1970s it became clear that C. trachomatis was a frequent cause of PID. After a dramatic decline in prevalence of both incidence and complications (neonatal conjunctivitis, tubal factor infertility, ectopic pregnancy) as was noted in Europe5-9, and in many developed countries10;11 a resurge of C. trachomatis infected women appeared first in Sweden, and subsequently in other European countries12-14. This apparent increase may reflect better detection methods, higher sampling frequencies, or an increase in unsafe sexual practices in at risk populations15. Also, some formerly unknown strains were detected in Scandinavia that were not detected using routine PCR techniques12. Recently some fluoroquinolone-resistant strains have been discovered16. The incubation period for a C. trachomatis infection is 2-to-3 weeks. Once infected, C. trachomatis can remain silent for months if left untreated. The PID rate after an untreated infection is estimated to be 8-to-40%.7 It is estimated that approximately 70% of C. trachomatis infections remain asymptomatic. Asymptomatic salpingitis can cause tubal damage and subfertility without any clinical signs. After initial infection with C. trachomatis the risk of silent progression with intra-tubal scarring is high, in part due to up-regulation of heat shock proteins18. Chlamydia antigens can mimic the autologous human antigens triggering reflex production of heat shock proteins that normally provide a useful defense against nonspecific challenges such as extreme temperatures or environmental toxins. With recurrent infections and production of heat shock proteins nonspecific inflammation may be triggered by various causes, resulting in extensive scarring, even if no active Chlamydial organisms are present. The result is an increased risk of ectopic pregnancies and infertility18;19. Besides salpingitis, Chlamydia may also cause mucopurulent cervicitis, urethritis and endometritis. The diagnostic method of choice for detection of C. trachomatis is polymerase chain reaction’ (PCR)-based testing. These tests have an estimated sensitivity of 86%, a specificity of 99.5%, and provide the opportunity for simultaneous testing for N gonorrhoea 20;21 . Testing can be performed on urethral or cervical swabs, or on urine, produced without washing or desinfecting the urethra, preferably from the first void in the morning, or at least 4 hours after micturition. Care has to be taken that the first part of the sample is included. Alternative, but less accurate testing is antigen detection by ELISA. Culture methods have a specificity of 100%, but their sensitivity is only 50 to 80%. Chlamydial cervicitis or urethritis can be treated by single oral dose of 1 g azithromycin or 7 days of oral doxycycline (100 mg by mouth twice daily). During pregnancy, C. trachomatis can cause amnionitis and post-partum endometritis. Although off-label, azithromycin can be used safely during pregnancy, and represents the treatment of choice22. ii. Neisseria gonorrhoeae N. gonorrhoeae was the first identified cause of PID. Following availability of penicillin, gonorrhoea became less frequent. However, worldwide 1/3 of all PID cases are caused by N gonorrhoeae. The incubation period for a N. gonorrhoeae infection is 2-to-7 days. Although 30-60% of women harbouring N. gonorrhoeae have no symptoms, such asymptomatic carriers can transmit the infection to others. If not detected and treated, N. gonorrhoeae will cause PID in 10-30% of infected women7. Twenty-thirty % of the women harboring N. gonorrhoeae are also infected with C. trachomatis23. The most frequent symptoms include a yellow-green leucorrhoea and pelvic pain; on inspection a mucopurulent cervicitis is often visualized. Although PCR is very reliable and much faster, culture remains the best test for N. gonorrhoeae, as it also allows for sensitivity testing for antibiotics.21. Ideally, Thayer-Martin medium (chocolate agar with antibiotics inhibiting other bacteria) is used, providing 65-85% sensitivity for asymptomatic infections and 100%, specificity, but a regular chocolate agar can also be used. Fast transport is crucial, due to the short ex vivo survival time of N. gonorrhoeae. To increase sensitivity, the endocervical and/or urethral swab should be inoculated into a specific transport medium. Treatment options did include: 500 mg ciprofloxacin, 1g azithromycin, or ceftriaxon 125 mg IM of IV. However, increasing antimicrobial resistance to fluoroquinolones up to 47% in Belgium has been documented24;25. The CDC recommends ceftriaxone 125 mg IM or IV as the treatment of choice. In Belgium ceftriaxone is only available in a 1g formulation. iii. Facultative aerobic Gram negative bacteria Gram-negative rods, such as Escherichia coli, Enterobacter spp., Klebsiella spp., Proteus spp. and Gardnerella vaginalis, are often recovered in PID cases34. The etiology is unclear, as these organisms can also be seen as facultative pathogens and in cluster analysis their presence in the vagina was not a primary risk factor for PID35. iv. Aerobic Gram positive cocci Staphylococcus spp, Streptococcus spp (especially Streptococci Lancefield groups A and B) and Enterococcus sp. (Streptococci groups D and F) are often found as sole pathogens28, but as with Gram-negative rods, their exact role in the etiology is unclear. . v. Anaerobes Anaerobic bacteria, such as Bacteroides fragilis, Clostridium spp, and Peptostreptococcus, are present in many PID patients and are always treated26-30. Most, if not all, of these anaerobic bacteria are highly sensitive to nitro-imidazol. derivates (i.e., metronidazole, ornidazole, and tinidazole) and to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid. In the US, several life threatening cases with ascending Clostridium were observed after the use of vaginal misoprostol to induce an abortion31-33. As only vaginally applied misoprostol may cause this lethal infection34, it is advised to use it orally, as is common in Europe. vi. Tuberculosis Genital tuberculosis characteristically presents as a chronic, latent infection diagnosed in an infertility evaluation. The infection is often secondary to hematogenous spread from a nongenital source35. The fallopian tubes and endometrium are most often infected. When associated with ascites and peritonitis, genital tuberculosis can present a diagnostic dilemma often confused with carcinomatosis peritonitis or ovarian malignancies36-37. Confirmation requires biopsy with specific endometrial cultures, preferably during menstruation. Specific cultures of intra-abdominal abscesses may also lead diagnosis. If suspected, detection of tuberculosis in other organs such as the lungs can be helpful. Patients at high risk are immigrants, HIV-infected patients, imprisoned women, or patients with a history of alcoholor injection drug use. vii. Actinomyces Actinomyces israelii is a Gram-positive anaerobic bacterium usually recovered from the upper respiratory or gastrointestinal tracts. PID is rarely caused by this organism due to hematogenous spread from another location, or ascending infection from the vagina in women with copper-containing intrauterine contraceptive devices (IUCDs)38. Colonization of the lower genital tract is frequent in the presence of IUCDs and increases with duration of use 40 . 38- In rare cases severe pelvic infections may occur, mimicking pelvic malignancies41. Incidental detection of Actinomyces spp. on Pap smears does not need to be treated if asymptomatic. In contrast, if the IUCD is in place for longer than 4 years, or if the infection is found on more than one occasion during 12 months, then IUCD removal should be considered. After removal of the IUCD, infection usually disappears spontaneously without complications. A new IUCD can be inserted 1 or 2 months later. A. israelii is sensitive to penicillin, but once endometritis is present, treatment with low dose penicillin should be continued for weeks to months. Care has to be taken not to misdiagnose pelvic actinomycosis as a pelvic cancer, because infection can mimic locally extensive ovarian cancer, both on diagnostic imaging, or during surgical procedures like laparoscopy and laparotomy41-43. Attempts to remove the ovaries and uterus in patients with actinomyces have lead to lethal complications44 viii. Mycoplasma a. Mycoplasma hominis M. hominis is one of the smallest known bacteria. Because these bacteria do not have a cell wall, diagnosis cannot be made by microscopic examination of fresh vaginal fluid or Gram stains. Also, antibiotics inhibiting cell wall synthesis have no effect, and antibiotics targeting protein synthesis are recommended. The treatment of choice is 1g azithromycin once or doxycycline 100mg twice daily for 7 days25. Studies from the 1970s found M. hominis more often in fallopian tubes of women with clinical PID (4/50), but not in asymptomatic women (0/50) and serologic evidence linked Mycoplasma with PID45;46. Still, the exact role of M. hominis in PID remains controversial27. b. Mycoplasma genitalium Taylor-Robinson and co-workers showed that M. genitalium, a formerly Mycoplasma, was ubiquitous worldwide and was associated with pelvic infections47;48. Later studies clearly confirmed the link between M. genitalium and clinical PID in the absence of concomitant STIs, such as C. trachomatis and gonorrhea47;48. These findings supported different PID treatment regimens for women harboring M. genitalium, because metronidazole – doxycycline regimens had success rates of only 35-to-55% 52 . Furthermore, treatment with cefoxitin and doxycycline plus azithromycin does not provide reliable eradication of M genitalium53. Hence more studies about the pathogenesis and treatment of this novel microorganism seem warranted49. c. Ureaplasma urealyticum U. urealyticum is part of the normal genital flora of both men and women. It is found in about 70% of sexually active humans. It had also been described to be associated with a number of diseases in humans, including non-specific urethritis (NSU), infertility, chorioamnionitis, stillbirth, premature birth, and, in the perinatal period, pneumonia, bronchopulmonary dysplasia and meningitis. However, given the relatively low pathogenicity of the organism its role in some of these diseases remains contentious. c. Risk factors The risk of PID is related to the number of lifetime sexual partners of both the woman and her sexual partners54. Apart from this, the frequency of sexual contact increases the risk of bacterial vaginosis, a condition linked to STIs, such as C trachomatis, trichomoniasis and gonorrhea55 and with PID27. (Table 1) PID due to Chlamydia is primarily found in young women (15-25 years of age). In general PID is seldom encountered in women older than 35 years of age 56;57 . Possible explanations include an increased immunity, differences in sexual behaviors, or other factors. Use of barrier methods (e.g., condom, pessary, etc) is largely protective against PID. However, in some studies barrier contraception reduces transmission of C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae only by 50% 58;59 . This can be explained by the fact that protection against transmission is only significant in perfect users, an aim that is seldom achieved even in well controlled studies incorporating extensive counselling58;59. Oral contraceptives and intramuscular depot medroxyprogesterone also seem to protect against ascending infection and PID, but not against Chlamydial cervicitis60;61. Copper-containing IUCDs do not increase PID risk, unless the device is inserted in women with an STI 62;63 or when an older type of IUCD was used64 . Randomized studies found a lower PID risk with levonorgestrel-containing IUCDs than with copper-containing IUCDs65-67 3. Clinical presentation a. Medical history Specific information should be elicited about presence of fever during the last 2 weeks, general malaise, bilateral lower abdominal pain, or pain when moving or being transported. Genital symptoms should be evaluated including the amount and characteristics of vaginal discharge, post-coital bleeding, deep dyspareunia and abdominal pain with radiation to the interior thighs. Typically, the symptoms appear during the first 7 days after menses 2. Presence of predisposing and risk factors (described above) increase the likelihood of PID. At least one third of the patients with PID have irregular vaginal bleeding. If a patient presents with metrorrhagia, postcoital or intermenstrual bleeding and/or menorrhagia, PID should always be considered68. b. Clinical findings There is no clear consensus on the confirmatory clinical criteria supporting PID diagnosis. Minimal diagnostic criteria should include: 1) lower abdominal sensitivity and 2) painful adnexae or cervix on palpation. Urinary infection, lumbar disk disease and torsion of an ovary have to be excluded. A differential diagnosis has to be made and may alter according to age, presentation,… (Table 2) Additional criteria supporting PID diagnosis are: T°>38.5 °C, purulent cervical discharge, pelvic imaging (ultrasound, CT-scan) suggesting tubo-ovarian abscess, increased inflammatory parameters (e.g., elevated C-reactive protein, leucocytosis >10.000 /ml, elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, etc.), presence of C. trachomatis or N. gonorrhoeae, or histopathologic evidence of endometritis. In older studies, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, temperature above 38°C and adnexal tenderness were predictive for 65% of laparoscopy-confirmed PID. C-reactive protein represents a more accurate marker than the erythrocyte sedimentation rate for assessing inflammatory activity and is typically used for monitoring patients68. i. Abdominal examination During abdominal palpation, attention must be given to muscular resistance, rebound tenderness and pain on percussion. Pain localized in the right upper abdomen suggests possible perihepatitis with formation of local adhesions, also known as the Fitz-Hugh Curtis syndrome. In a first episode of PID, the pain never lasts longer than 2 weeks69. ii. Genital examination Redness and edema of the vulva, vagina and, most importantly, the cervix are suggestive for an infectious process. The vaginal discharge can vary from grayish watery and foamy, to yellow green and muco-purulent. An inflamed cervix has deep red to blue color, appears edematous and bleeds easily when touched. Typically, thick green-yellow mucus may be visible in the os. Even when the mucus appears clinically normal, mucopurulent cervicitis can be diagnosed microscopically even when the mucus appears clinically normal. Bimanual vagino-abdominal palpation may show motion tenderness of the uterus and pain upon pushing the uterus towards the abdomen. Tenderness and pain in the adnexal region is suspicious for severe PID; bilateral pain is more suggestive for this than unilateral tenderness or pain. Sensitivity of this criterion of uterine and/or adnexal tenderness is 96%, but specificity of this finding is extremely low (4%)70. Therefore, immediate initiation of antibiotics based on this symptom alone of uterine or adnexal tenderness would lead to a tremendous risk of overtreatment and should be discouraged Clinical diagnosis of PID is imprecise and misses one third of cases proven by laparoscopy. Therefore, laparoscopic diagnosis remains the ‘gold standard’, and in doubtful cases laparoscopy is advised before starting therapy. Cultures from vagina, cervix and urethra taken at the initial visit before starting therapy are sometimes crucial for adjusting the antibiotic choice if to the patients does not respond to treatment. iii. Fever Fever only occurs in 50% of women with PID. Therefore, fever not a reliable sign. Temperature above 38.5°C is always alarming and requires intensive diagnostic work-up. 4. Diagnostic testing a. Lab tests i. Serum Signs of acute infection are accompanied by leucocytosis above 10.000/ml. C-reactive protein is invariably increased and represents an excellent marker to follow the course of the disease and the effect of treatment. Even when clinical signs and leukocytosis resolve, persistence of elevated C-reactive protein suggests beginning abscess formation. Human chorionic gonadotropin (βHCG) should be evaluated to exclude ectopic pregnancy, imminent abortion or septic abortion, as these conditions may mimic PID. CA 125 is usually a marker for follow-up in other diseases, it can be used in post-menopausal women to exclude malignant intra-abdominal processes of ovaries, uterus, stomach, liver or pancreas, but CA 125 can be also be elevated in patients with endometriosis, PID and hepatitis, although the former 2 are only sporadically encountered after menopause. ii. Microbiology Cervical cultures for gonococci, aerobic bacteria, and PCR for Chlamydia (cervix, urethra and/or urine) should be performed, as well as urinary cultures. The use of molecular techniques for diagnosing infections has lead to a tremendous increase in accuracy of diagnosis and rapidity of obtaining results in comparison to often laborious, less sensitive and slow techniques of culturing the specimens obtained from patients. Especially mycoplasmata are very difficult to culture and much more easily detected by molecular techniques 71. In Australian STD clinics Ureaplasma parvum and urealyticum were recovered in 37% of cases, Mycoplasma genitalium in 1.3%, and M. hominis in 13.7%, but also unexpected and difficult to detect infections such as T. vaginalis (3.4%), varicella zoster virus (4.7%), cytomegalovirus (6%) and herpes virus infections (3.5%) were readily detected in cervical swabs by multiplex PCR’s72. On the other hand, in only 0.4% Streptococcus agalactiae (GBS) was confirmed, a very low rate suggesting that some primers may be suboptimal for certain microorganisms and pointing to the need of supplementary culture techniques in specific infections, such as GBS and N. gonorrhoeae71;72. Also the transportation fluid and the method of extraction can have a tremendous influence on the detection rate for microorganisms such as M. genitalium73. For M. genitalium culture techniques are too fastidious and difficult, PCR being the only practical way to detect these organisms71. Another interesting and rapid method for detecting M. hominis and U. urealyticum is the Mycoplasma Duo kit using A7 differential agar for the detection of M. hominis and U. urealyticum in clinical samples. Detection of the mycoplasmata is based on the specific metabolic properties of each organism to hydrolyse either arginine or urea. The Mycoplasma Duo test showed a significantly higher detection rate than did culture, although many of the culture-negative results may have been due to the presence of bacterial overgrowth74. Even when compared with PCR, the Mycoplasma Duo kit performed very well: a 96% agreement was found between this test and PCR for the detection of U. urealyticum in neonatal endotracheal aspirates75. The test is easy to get in Belgium and can be performed in routine laboratories not using DNA-based technology. In patients with PID, microscopic examination of a fresh endocervical smear reveals more than 30 leucocytes per high power field, or more than 10 per epithelial cell76. Increased leucocytosis is very sensitive (91%) and has a high negative predictive value (94.5%) for diagnosis of cervicitis. However, this examination lacks specificity (26.3%) thereby erroneously diagnosing PID in 3 out of 4 women. Two additional microscopic criteria can provide additional help the concomitant finding of abnormal vaginal flora whereby the lactobacilli are replaced by cocci or anaerobic morphotypes (AVF, Lactobacilli grade 3)77, and the finding of palisades of leucocytes lining up in the cervical mucus (Fig. 3). Although the latter sign is considered typical, it has not yet been adequately validated in large clinical studies. Absence of leukocytosis, certainly if in the presence of Lactobacilli, however, almost with certainty excludes cervicitis and PID78. During laparoscopy samples from the retro-uterine pouch of Douglas and endotubal swabs are recommended for aerobic, anaerobic and Chlamydial cultures or PCR. If there is a suspicion of tuberculosis, a biopsy, with a specific request for the pathologist, is necessary. Initially, as PID should be considered a potential STI. Therefore screening for possible concomitant STI’s is recommended. This includes blood tests for HIV, hepatitis B/C and syphilis as well as cervical testing for HPV infection. Obviously this is not obligatory for pelvic infections secondary to a surgical intervention, delivery or known gastrointestinal infectious process. Clinical diagnosis of PID is difficult due to the lack of accuracy (sensitivity and specificity) of all present tests. However, the potential risk for severe sequelae legitimates a low threshold for a clinical diagnosis. A number of tests may provide further support for PID diagnosis. b. Imaging techniques i. Ultrasonographic examination After clinical examination, pelvic ultrasound is the next step in the PID diagnosis. Neither sensitivity nor specificity is well defined. The level of severity of the infection is the basis of the sonographic grading of PID, representing a useful complement to the clinical findings. It should also be stressed that ultrasound signs can be completely absent, but it may be useful in the differential diagnosis with other causes of abdominal pain. 1. Mild to moderate PID Uterus is painful on palpation with the abdominal or endovaginal probe. The adnexal regions may be normal, with the fallopian tubes not visible or the fallopian tubes are visualized exhibiting increased vascularity with Doppler flow examination. The tubal wall is thicker than normal (>5mm) and may show the characteristic “cog wheel sign,” in which the inner lining of the salpinx appears like a cog wheel (Figure 1). In the pouch of Douglas (retrouterine pouch) some fluid may be seen. 2. Severe PID Sonographic findings are more evident, with the uterus extremely sensitive on touch with the probe. There is a vast amount of exudate present in the abdomen. The fallopian tube is extended with inhomogeneous purulent fluid, sometimes with fluid-air levels (pyosalpinx) and pseudo-septation. In cases of chronic salpingitis, the pyosalpinx will gradually be replaced by anechogenic fluid and a “beads-on-a-string” image typical for a hydrosalpinx: the remnants of the endosalpingeal plicae are seen as small excrescences against the tubal wall (Figure 2). With extension, the tubal wall becomes thinner (<3mm), Later in the process, peritoneal pseudo cysts form due to inclusion of peritoneal fluid in pockets of adhesions of the bowel, internal genitals and pelvic wall. Patients with tubo-ovarian abscess exhibit collections of pus with a thick, hypervascularised wall surrounding an inhomogeneous echogenic fluid, sometimes with air /fluid levels. When a tubo-ovarian complex has formed, the tubes, uterus and ovaries are all stuck together and cannot be moved or palpated separately: they move ‘en bloc’ on pressure from the vaginal probe. Pelvic adhesions can be responsible for the “flapping sail” sign, usually reflecting large amounts of pelvic fluid confined by the loose adhesions. A painful, retroverted and fixated uterus often result from reduced mobility of the uterus caused by such adhesions. The typical ultrasonographic appearance of such a fixated retroplicated uterus is sometimes called the “ear-sign”, due to the appearance of the uterus resembling an auricle. ii. Computerized tomography (CT)-scan CT is not considered a first line examination. But by scanning a larger area CT can provide additional information in selected cases. Indications for a CT scan in the diagnosis of pelvic inflammatory processes are outlined in Table 3. Thrombosis of the ovarian vein is most often seen in the postpartum period, (frequency 1/3000), but is also a known complication of pelvic surgery and PID. Eighty to ninety % of the thromboses are encountered at the right side. To detect this complication CT-scan is superior to echo-Doppler79. iii. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) NMR images showing parametrial inflammation are very specific: T2 weighted images suppressing fat densities show a fuzzy hyper-intense zone (so called “halo”) with intensification on T1 weighted images. Abscedation is seen as a thick-walled mass filed with fluid in the adnexal area. Pyosalpinx also presents a very clear appearance of a twisted and dilated fluid-filled structure. The content of such abscesses are lightly hyper-intense on T1 weighted images and hypo-intense on T2 weighted images, indicative of blood or inflammatory debris80. c. Endometrial biopsy An endometrial biopsy is a possible diagnostic tool, but there is insufficient evidence to use this as a routine test. Acute endometritis mostly appears after surgery or delivery with placental remnants, but is may also be the departure point for ascending PID. Pathological findings include micro abscesses and neutrofiles in the endometrial glands. Chronic endometritis can begin as an acute endometritis but can also occur after insertion of an IUD or after radiotherapy. Pathological finding is the presence of plasma cells in the endometrial stroma. 5. Long-term sequelae Tubal infertility represents a major worldwide outcome after PID81. The pathogenesis is best studied in women with recurrent Chlamydial infections causing immune modulation (i.e., immune system does not ‘see’ the latent intracellular infection) and subsequent intratubal scarring. Because such recurrent infections often remain asymptomatic these infections typically often cause substantially more damage than clinically suspected (cfr supra). A particular set of signs and symptoms due to intra-abdominal adhesion formation is the socalled Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome (figure 3). This syndrome reflects a peri-hepatitis with upper abdominal pain, and typical adhesions found on laparoscopy. Other STIs, like gonorrhea and perhaps M. genitalium (see above), may cause tubal infertility after a single PID episode, but fertility is usually well preserved in women with a first PID episode who had prompt treatment. Ectopic pregnancy represents a second important consequence of mucosal damage to the fallopian tubes. Ectopic pregnancies are linked to a history of PID, presence of Chlamydia antibodies82 and Chlamydia induced heat shock protein 60 and 70 reactivity83;84. The tubal damage or ectopic pregnancy risk after infection with M genitalium is not fully elucidated yet85, but identification of Mycoplasma at laparoscopy for PID, either in the lower genital tract or the upper genital tract, is a risk factor for later ectopic pregnancy86. The absolute risk of EUG remains low at around 1%.87 Chronic pelvic pain is the third major long-term complication of PID. Around 30% of women suffer from chronic pelvic pains after a symptomatic or asymptomatic PID episode of PID88. Differential diagnosis includes: interstitial cystitis, pelvic congestion syndrome and endometriosis.89;90. 6. Tubo-ovarian abscess A tubo-ovarian abscess (TOA) is the ultimate attempt of the body to conceal a life threatening infection. Pathogenesis. TOA can originate from either ascending PID (primary TOA) or as a consequence of surgery or an intestinal infectious process. One has to be aware that a TOA always can mimic or complicate a malignant process, especially in postmenopausal women (secondary TOA)91. There are no known risk factors that promote TOA development after PID. The inflammatory reaction caused by ascending aerobic bacteria causes endothelial damage and intra-tubal adhesions in which bacteria, debris and leukocytes accumulate. Once large enough, this accumulation will not allow sufficient oxygen to diffuse into the center of the abscess. Within 24-to-48 hours anaerobes and facultative anaerobic microorganisms can thrive in this anaerobic environment (the so-called ‘anaerobic shift’). Diagnosis. The most prominent clinical findings include abdominal and pelvic pain, present in over 90% of affected women, followed by fever and leucocytosis in 60-80%92. The “gold standard” for diagnosis is ultrasonography (see above). TOA, with cystic structures and often air/fluid levels should be clearly distinguished from a ‘tubo-ovarian complex’, where edema, adhesions and inflammation are present, leading to more heterogeneous and hypervascularized sonographic findings. Patients with tubo-ovarian complex often respond well to sensitive to antimicrobial therapy (>95%), in contrast to patients with TOA (see below). Differential diagnosis includes dermoid or endometriosis cyst. This can be particularly difficult, especially if secondary infection is present, as often in the case of endometriosis. Management: ubi pus, ibi evacuatur ? More than 80% of the women who do not respond to appropriate PID therapy have TOAs. Still, some authors report cure rates as high as 75% with antibiotics alone93. From four to six centimeters an abscess will still need drainage in about 15%, up to 10 centimeters drainage is eventually necessary in up to 70%. Therefore, the need for laparoscopic intervention and timing of this intervention remain controversial. Surgical drainage is required if the TOA does not respond to medical therapy. This can be done laparoscopically94, by CT- or ultrasound-guided percutaneous aspiration95;96, or more recently also by transvaginal puncture97. These procedures should only be done with broad antibiotic coverage, as the drainage procedure may disseminate infection97. As diagnostic work-up to exclude malignancy is crucial in post-menopausal women, laparoscopy is always mandatory in this group. Conservative treatment is only possible if patient is well informed that close follow up is needed and surgical intervention may still prove necessary. Resolution of a TOA can take weeks to months. Weekly follow up with bimanual examination and ultrasonography are necessary, especially during the first weeks. Patients should be instructed about possible relapse of the TOA. The duration of the antibiotic treatment will be depending on clinical progression and CRP. In our opinion the need for a uni- or bilateral removal of the adnexae depends upon age and results after antibiotic treatment. 7. Clinical management Treatment goals are to treat the most important causative microorganisms and minimize sequelae of PID. Because most women with early PID do not have major complaints, delayed diagnosis and effective therapy often increase the likelihood of adhesions and late sequelae. It is important to examine and treat partners even if they have no definite symptoms. All partners should be treated with Azithromycine 1 g orally. a. Antibiotics Empirical antibiotic therapy based on the expected microorganisms should start before the cultures results are available. Local resistance patterns vary in different areas. Most empiric treatment regimens combine agents to treat aerobic and anaerobic bacteria as well as C. trachomatis. The indications for intravenous therapy coincide with those for hospital admission (see later). When the patient is a-febrile and C-reactive protein is decreasing oral therapy is substituted for 10 to 14 days. Although other regimens may be effective, most guidelines are consistent with the recommendations in Table 398. In general, therapy should be prolonged to limit the chance for relapse. Reassessment is recommended after 48 to 72 hours. If the patient is not responding as expected, reassessment of the patient is mandatory before alternative therapy and/or hospital admission should be considered. For mild PID antibiotics are given for 14 days, while for severe PID several weeks of therapy may be necessary. As noted above, increasing antimicrobial resistance, especially to fluoroquinolones, has been documented for N. gonorrhoeae in many areas including in Belgium. Treatment should therefore always include ceftriaxone 125 mg IM or IV and this for all cases of PID. Recent reports demonstrated that moxifloxacin 400mg once daily is effective for mild PID with proven activity against anaerobic bacteria. This regimen has shown similar cure rates to ofloxacin plus metronidazole and to ciprofloxacin plus doxycycline and for uncomplicated PID99;100. Resistance by some anaerobic bacteria (B. fragilis, Peptostreptococcus) and enterobacteriaceae against clindamycin is increasing25. Doxycycline is active against gram positive and negative aerobic infections as well as against C. Trachomatis. Specific therapy testing is indicated when the microorganisms and their antibiotic sensitivity are known. However, care has to be taken to assure anaerobic coverage. Also, it is important to consider the possibility that non-cultivated germs (i.e., those not detected by standard culture techniques) may also be present, necessitating alternative therapy if the patient does not improve as expected. b. Hospitalization Indications for hospitalization are summarized in Table 4. For PID grade 1 and 2, cure rates were similar for ambulatory treatment and hospitalization 101. Intravenous fluids are indicated for patients with vomiting or ileus. Thrombosis prophylaxis is also indicated with low molecular heparin for hospitalized patients. c. Indications for laparoscopy Laparoscopy is not very accurate in PID grades 1 and 2, and is not able to diagnose the presence of endometritis unless it is combined with hysteroscopy and endometrial sampling for histological examination. However, in doubtful cases, or when the patient does not improve or deteriorates, (clinically or by increase of the inflammatory parameters after 72 hours of antibiotic therapy), laparoscopy is indicated. During laparoscopy intra-abdominal cultures can be taken, and other possible pathology, such as endometriosis, can be assessed. Excessive rinsing with saline is advised and if abscesses are encountered, these should be drained and extensively rinsed. In our opinion whenever abscesses are present a drain should be left postoperatively for at least 24 hours to allow further drainage of the pus and to prevent new localization of the infection. 8. Prevention a. Screening Standard STI screening and treatment policies offer the potential for substantially reducing a PID rates102. In high risk groups of women (e.g., sex workers, abused women, women with a history of PID, women undergoing counseling for abortion…) routine screening for Chlamydia and other STIs is recommended103-105 Other groups that is likely to benefit from screening are teenagers at schools, women attending family planning clinics and/or consulting for contraception106;107. Women attending the clinic for an abortion or HSG can benefit from screening for bacterial vaginosis and cervicitis before the procedure. b. Sexual education Abstinence is the most secure guarantee of avoiding PID, at least according to the strict definition wherein PID is considered to be an STD108. The “Abstain, Be faithful and use Condom” (ABC) recommendation has been successful in some settings such Uganda109 and in US military clinics110. However, many barriers must be addressed to make safe sex practices an accepted and commonly adopted approach111. 9. Follow up After the initial PID episode, it is important to monitor inflammatory parameters and any abscess or mass seen on ultrasound. Officially, there is no need to retest for Chlamydia after recommended treatment. However, some guidelines (i.e., Belgian Societies of Gynecology and Obstetrics) test of cure testing is strongly advised because persistence of a Chlamydia infection is seen in 10-15% of cases. Patients with persistent symptoms or doubtful compliance to therapy should also be tested again 3 weeks post treatment. Earlier re-testing may lead to false negative (still viable Chlamydia in low numbers) or false positive (shedding of non viable Chlamydia) results. Frequent complications of PID include chronic pelvic pain, dyspareunia, infertility (RR x6 after 1 episode, x17 after 2 episodes) and ectopic pregnancy. Every woman experiencing a PID episode should be aware of these risks. Unfortunately, no study has compared rates of such long-term sequelae after different treatment regimens. Table 1. Risk factors for acquiring PID PID: pelvic inflammatory disease, STD: sexually transmitted disease, AAP: abortus arte provocatus, D&C: dilatation and curettage, HSG: hysterosalpingography, IUD: intra uterine device, IVF: in vitro fertilization, IUI: in uterine insemination Past history PID or STD New partner Multiple sex partners Age: Sexually active teens are 3 times more likely to develop PID than women 25 to 29 years old. Instrumentation of the uterus with interruption AAP / D&C of cervical barrier HSG Insertion IUD within last 6 weeks IVF/IUI Table 2. Differential diagnosis of PID (not exhaustive) The importance can change according to age, presentation,… Gynaecologic origin Non gynaecologic origin Adnexal tumor Acute enteritis Congestions / thrombosis Appendicitis Dysmenorrhea Bowel perforation Ectopic pregnancy Cancer from bowel, bladder, peritoneum,… Endometriosis Cholecystitis Extruding myoma Crohn’s disease Missed abortion Diverticulitis Necrosis of myoma Irritable bowel syndrome Ovarian / adnexal tortion Lead intoxication Ovulation Lumbar disc disease Pelvic infection Nephrolithiasis Rupture of teratoma Pyelonefritis Septic abortion Radio-enteritis Uterine or adnexal adhesions Sickle crisis Ulcerative colitis Table 3. Indications for CT-scan in patient suspected of a pelvic infection Adequate sonography not possible (stenotic vagina) Uncertain diagnosis on clinical and sonographical grounds Failing antibiotic therapy To complete full staging of inflammatory process e.g. perihepatitis (Fitz-Hugh-Curtis) Detection of possible complications, e.g. septic trombo-phlebitis Differential diagnosis with other intra-abdominal conditions (e.g. appendicular plastron, dermoid cyst, ovarian endometriosis…) Table 4. Antibiotics of choice in women with pelvic infections Cervicitis Daycare Option 1 Option 2 Azithromycin 1 g PO Single dose 5-nitro-imidazole 2 x 500 mg PO 7 days Ceftriaxon 1g IM or IV Single dose + Azithromycine 1g PO Single dose Salpingitis / PID duration of therapy may differ according to clinical / hematological evolution (i.e. abscess: therapy up to 6 weeks recommended) Ambulatory Option 1 Ceftriaxon 1g IM or IV Single dose Moxifloxacin 400 mg PO 10-14 days (5-nitro-imidazole) 2 x 500 mg PO 10-14 days association of 5-nitro-imidazole in case of an overt anaerobic infection can be warranted (i.e. abscess) Option 2 Ceftriaxon 1g IM or IV Single dose Levofloxacine 500 mg PO 10-14 days 5-nitro-imidazole 2 x 500 mg PO 10-14 days Hospitalisation Switch to ambulatory setting possible after 48 hours IV therapy in case of clinical / hematological improvement Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Ceftriaxon 1g IM of IV Single dose Levofloxacine 500 mg IV 10-14 days 5-nitro-imidazole 1 g IV 10-14 days Ceftriaxon 1g IM of IV Single dose Amoxi-Clav 4 x 1 g IV 10-14 days Levofloxacine 500 mg IV 10-14 days Ceftriaxon 1g IM of IV Single dose Amoxi-Clav 4 x 1 g IV 10-14 days doxycycline 2 x 100 mg PO 10-14 days 5-nitro-imidazole: metronidazole (Flagyl®), ornidazole (Tiberal®), tinidazole (Fasigyn®) Amoxi-Clav: Augmentin®, Clavucid®, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid generic Azithromycin : Zitromax®, azithromycin generic Ceftriaxon: Rocephine®, ceftriaxon generic Doxycycline: Vibratab®, doxycycline generic Levofloxacine: Tavanic® Moxifloxacin: Avelox® Table 4. 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