1984 hakkinen aerobic, anaerobic and performance in power athletes

European Journal of
pApplied
hysiology
Eur J Appl Physiol (1984) 53:97-105
and Occupational Physiology
9 Springer-Verlag 1984
Neuromuscular, anaerobic, and aerobic performance characteristics
of elite power athletes
K. H/ikkinen 1, M. Al6n 2, and P. V. Komi 1
1 Department of Biology of Physical Activity, University of Jyvfiskyl~i, SF-40100 Jyvfiskylfi 10
2 Department of Health Sciences, University of Jyvfiskylfi, SF-40100 Jyvfiskylfi 10
Research Unit for Sport and Physical Fitness, SF-40700 Jyv/iskyl~ 70, Finland
Summary. Various aspects of neuromuscular, anaerobic, and aerobic performance capacity were investigated in four powerlifters, seven bodybuilders, and
three wrestlers with a history of specific training for
several years. The data (means + SD) showed that
the three subject groups possessed similar values for
maximal isometric force per unit bodyweight
(50.7 + 9.6, 49.3 + 4.1, and 49.3 + 10.9 N/kg,
respectively).
However, significant (P < 0.05) differences were
observed in the times for isometric force production, so that e.g., times to produce a 30% force
level were shorter for the wrestlers and bodybuilders
(28.3 + 3.1
and
26.4 + 6.6 ms)
than
that
(53.3 + 23.7 ms) for the powerlifters. Utilization of
elastic energy by the wrestlers was significantly
(P < 0.05) better than that of the other two subject
groups, as judged from differences between the
counter-movement and squat jumps at 0, 40, and
100kg's loads. No differences were observed
between the groups in anaerobic power in a l-rain
maximal test, but the values for Vo2 max were higher
(P < 0.05) among the wrestlers and bodybuilders
(57.8 + 6.6 and 50.8 + 6.8 ml 9kg -1 9min -1) as compared
to the
powerlifters
(41.9 + 7.2 ml
9kg -1 9min-i). Within the limitations of the subject
sample, no differences of a statistical significancy
were observed between the groups in fibre distribution, fibre areas, or the area ratio of fast (FT) and
slow (ST) twitch fibres in vastus lateralis. In all
subjects the vertical jumping height was positively
(P < 0.01) correlated with the FT fibre distribution,
and negatively with the time of isometric force
production (P < 0.05). Maximal force was correlated
(P < 0.001) with thigh girth. Muscle cross-sectional
area did not correlate with mean fibre area. It was
assumed that the selected aspects of neuromuscular,
anaerobic, and aerobic performance capacity may be
Offprint requests to: K. H/ikkinen at the above address
influenced by muscle structure, but also specifically
and/or simultaneously by training lasting for several
years.
Key words: Neuromuscular performance - Anaerobic power - Aerobic capacity - Strength training Muscle hypertrophy
Introduction
Powerlifting, bodybuilding, and wrestling are events
which all place special demands on the entire
neuromuscular system. Maximal voluntary force
production in these athletes is therefore high (MacDougall et al. 1982). In addition, the physiological
requirement is expected to be demanding, both
anaerobically and aerobically.
The influence of different training stimuli on the
neuromuscular system can, however, be characterized by changes in maximal strength (Komi and
Buskirk 1972; Hfikkinen and Komi 1981), in isometric force-time characteristics (Hfikkinen et al.
1980, 1981; Viitasalo et al. 1981b) and in force-velocity curves (Ikai 1970; Caiozzo et al. 1981). The
elastic properties of the muscles may also be under
the influence of special training (Bosco and Komi
1982). A limited amount of information is, however,
available regarding the influence of several years of
special training on various aspects of neuromuscular
performance. On the other hand, it is well known that
anaerobic and aerobic performance capacities differ
between various sportsmen and events (Komi et al.
1977; Rusko et al. 1978). It is of physiological interest
to know how these performance traits compare with
those of neuromuscular performance in powerlifters,
bodybuilders, and wrestlers who differ in their
training backgrounds.
It is well documented that when a skeletal muscle
is subjected to a high intensity training programme,
98
K. Hfikkinen et al.: Performance characteristics of elite power athletes
e.g., in powerlifting and bodybuilding, it responds to
these loads by increasing the cross-sectional area of
the muscle (Tesch and Larsson 1982). In humans it
has been shown that this increase in total muscle size
is in part due to the enlargement of both fast (FT) and
slow twitch (ST) fibres with a greater degree of
hypertrophy occurring in the FT fibres (Thorstensson
1976; MacDougall et al. 1980; Hfikkinen et al. 1981;
Komi et al. 1982). However, less is known about the
time course of training induced hypertrophy or of its
limits.
The present investigation was undertaken to
examine the influence of specific long-term exercise
stress on various aspects of neuromuscular, and
anaerobic, and aerobic performances, and of histochemical muscle fibre characteristics in powerlifters,
bodybuilders, and wrestlers.
Methods
Subjects
The male subjects volunteered for the study were four powerlifters, seven bodybuilders, and three wrestlers of Finnish national
level. They had been training for competitive activity in their
special sports event for an average of 6.5 years. Of the 14 subjects,
10 were among the three best athletes in their particular sports in
Finland, and the remaining four subjects were of lower national
level. Table 1 presents the physical characteristics of the subject
groups.
Testing
Neuromuscular performance. As a functional performance test of
maximal force, the barbell squat lift was used. In this test the
subject raised himself up from a full squat position with load on his
shoulders. The trunk were kept straight, and no preliminary
countermovement was allowed (Hfikkinen and Komi 1981).
An electromechanical dynamometer (Komi 1973) was used to
measure the maximal bilateral isometric force and various
force-time and relaxation-time parameters of the leg extensor
muscles. The testing contractions were performed at knee and hip
angles of 100~ and 110~, respectively. The subjects were carefully
instructed to perform the contractions at the maximally produced
rate of force development as well as to relax after the contraction as
quickly as possible. The force in each contraction was recorded on
magnetic tape (Racal Store 7) and analyzed with a HP 21MX
computer system. In the force-time analyses (Hfikkinen et al.
1980), in the relative scale, the times needed to increase the force
from 10% to 30%, 60%, and 90% were calculated. In the absolute
scale the corresponding calculations were performed from the
force level of 100 N to that of 500, 1,500, and 2,500 N. In addition
the maximal rate of force development (N/s) was calculated
(Viitasalo et al. 1980). The relaxation-time curve was analyzed in
the relaxation phase of the contraction with a starting force level of
85% (Viitasalo et al. 1980). The times needed to relax the force to
60%, 30%, and 10% as well as the rate of maximal relaxation (N/s)
were cal,zulated.
In addition to the isometric measurements, various maximal
voluntary vertical jumps were tested on a force-platform (Komi et
al. 1974). The tests included a squat jump (SJ) from a static
semisquatting position with no preliminary countermovement, and
a countermovement jump (CMJ) from a standing position with a
preliminary countermovement (Komi and Bosco 1978). In all
jumping conditions, the subjects kept their hands on the hips
throughout the entire jump. In addition to this the subjects
performed the respective squat and countermovement jumps with
the load (Bosco and Komi 1979b). In these jumps on the
force-platform the barbell was kept on the shoulders and loads of
20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 kg were used. The hands were gripped
tightly on the barbell during these jumping conditions. Finally the
subjects were tested on the force-platform by various drop jumps.
In these tests the subjects dropped from heights of 20, 40, 60, 80,
and 100 cm onto the platform with subsequent jumps upwards
(Komi and Bosco 1978). From these drop jumps the best dropping
height (BDH) and height of rise of the center of gravity in the best
drop jump (BDJ) were also calculated. The former denoted the
average dropping height which gave the highest performance which
was described by the latter. All the jumping performances of the
study were recorded on magnetic tape. The flight time measured
from the force signal was used for calculating the height of rise of
the body center of gravity [h(C.G.)] (Asmussen and Bonde-Petersen 1974; Komi and Bosco 1978).
Anaerobic performance. The anaerobic power of the subjects was
tested by a one-minute maximal bicycle ergometer (Monark) test
(Sz6gy and Cherebetiu 1974). The friction force on the ergometer
was 1/13 of the body weight of the subject. The power output
(W x kg -1) was calculated using the number of revolutions and the
frictional resistance.
Aerobic performance, Max Vo2 was determined on the bicycle
ergometer. The intensity of exercise was increased every 2nd min
in the beginning b.y 60 W and in the end by 30 W until exhaustion.
Oxygen uptake (Vo2) was measured using an automated system
(Beckman MMC). The highest value during the test was taken as
the maximum oxygen uptake.
Physical characteristics. In the anthropometric measurements the
percentage of fat in the body and the fat-free weight were
estimated from the measurements of skinfold thickness (Durnin
and Rahaman 1967). The measurements of the thigh and arm girths
were obtained with a tape applied around the relaxed muscles. The
mean values of the right and left thigh and arm were taken as
maximum girths.
Muscle fibre characteristics. Muscle biopsies were obtained from
the vastus lateralis muscle with a needle biopsy technique
(Bergstr6m 1962). Histochemical staining for myofibrillar ATPase
(Padykula and Herman 1955) were used to classify the fibres as fast
twitch (FT) or slow twitch (ST) (Gollnick et al. 1972). For the
calculation of fibre areas and the FT/ST area ratio, 10 representative fast and 10 slow cells were selected. This selection always
took place from the same area, in which the cross-section appeared
perpendicular to the fibre orientation. The sample was reflected by
a microscope onto a digital board which was connected to a
computer. The outlines of the cells were stored in the system,
which calculated the average cell areas for the FT and ST cell
groups separately (Viitasalo and M~kkinen 1980). From the FT%
and FT/ST values the relative area occupied by the FT cells in the
total fibre area was calculated (%FT fibre area; Viitasalo et al.
1980).
Statistical methods. Standard statistical methods were used for the
calculation of means, standard deviations, standard errors, and
coefficients of correlation. Differences between the values of the
subject groups were tested for significance by Student's t-test.
K. Hfikkinen et al.: Performance characteristics of elite power athletes
Results
Physical characteristics
Table 1 presents the physical characteristics of the
three subject groups. The mean age, mass, height,
fat-free weight, and thigh girth did not differ
significantly between the groups. The percentage of
body fat of the wrestlers was 12.7 + 5.4, which was
significantly (P < 0.05) less than the respective value
of 19.9 + 5.4 of the powerlifters, but similar to that of
t3.4 4- 3.9 of the bodybuilders. The arm girth of the
bodybuilders was 39.0 + 2.6 cm, which was significantly greater than those of 37.1 4- 1.7 cm (P < 0.05)
and 32.8 + 3.1 cm (P < 0.01) of the powerlifters and
wrestlers respectively.
99
42.0 + 12.5, respectively, but the values did not differ
significantly. The mean areas of FT and ST muscle
fibres were similar in all of the three groups, as well as
the FT/ST area ratios and the % F T fibre areas, as
shown in Table 2.
Neuromuscular performance
The results of maximal forces and isometric
force-time and relaxation-time curves are presented
in Table 3. No group differences were observed in the
maximal force parameters. The values of maximal
bilateral isometric force per bodyweight (N/kg) were
50.7 + 9.6, 49.3 _+ 4.1, and 49.3 _+ 10.9, respectively,
for the powerlifters, bodybuilders, and wrestlers. The
average force-time curves both in the relative and
absolute scales differed between the groups, so that
the times to produce certain submaximal forces were
significantly (P < 0.05-0.01) longer in the powerlifters than in the other two groups. Figure i presents the
Muscle fibre characteristics
The FT percentage of the powerlifters, bodybuilders,
and wrestlers were 60.0 _+ 13.3, 58.6 _+ 13.1, and
Table 1. Physical characteristics of the subject groups. The values indicate the mean + SD
Variable
Age (years)
Mass (kg)
Height icm)
Fat (%)
Fat-free weight (kg)
Thigh girth (cm)
Arm girth (cm)
Subject groups
Significance
of difference
Powerlifters
(PL)
(n = 4)
Bodybuilders
(BB)
(n = 7)
Wrestlers
(W)
(n = 3)
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
25.5
89.4
i73.6
19.9
71.4
60.7
37.1
5.0
7.3
5.0
5.4
4.8
1.5
1.7
25.6
87.6
176.9
13.4
75.8
60.4
39.0
5.2
6.3
3.4
3.9
5.8
2.4
2.6
24.0
77.5
173.3
12.7
67.1
56.7
32.8
2.0
17.0
10,5
5.4
10.4
6.1
3.1
NS
NS
NS
PL/BB: P < 0.05
NS
NS
PL/BB: P < 0.05
BB/W: P < 0.01
Table 2, Muscle fibre characteristics of the subject groups. The analysis was performed from the biopsy samples
taken from the vastus lateralis muscle. The fibre areas represent arbitrary but in relative terms correct values.
The absolute values could not be computed because of unavailability of an appropriate calibration method in the
computerized analysis
Variable
FT%
FT area
(arbitrary units)
ST area
(arbitrary units)
FT/ST area ratio
%FT area
Subject groups
Significance
of difference
Powerlifters
( n - 4)
Bodybuilders
(n = 7)
Wrestlers
(n = 3)
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
60.0
2.86
13.3
0.16
58.6
3.57
13.1
1.18
42.0
2.66
12.5
0.35
NS
NS
2.24
0.28
2.45
0.65
2.26
0.38
NS
1.29
76.7
0.16
23.3
1.34
73.6
0.23
24,1
1.18
48.7
0.12
11.2
NS
NS
]+0
i +~
100
90
.....5
(%}
0
#
,~, i
entire force-time curves for all the three groups. In
the relaxation phase of the isometric contraction the
only difference (P < 0.05) between the groups was in
the time to relax the force to 10%, which was shorter
in the wrestlers (75.5 +_ 4.1 ms) than in the powerlifters (151.8 + 53.1 ms).
The heights of rise of the center of gravity of the
subject groups in the squat, countermovement, and
drop jumps are shown in Table 4. No group differences were observed in these results and the highest
performances were observed in CMJ in all of the
subject groups. The average values of CMJ for the
powerlifters, bodybuilders, and wrestlers were
FORCE/WEIGHT
(N/kg)
~
60
30
K. Hfikkinen et al.: Performance characteristics of elite power athletes
40
i
i
0
i
200
i
i
400
1.~"
i
600
TIME ( m s )
Fig. 1. Average isometric force-time curves in the relative scale and
average values for maximal isometric force per weight of the
subject groups. The force-time curves are drawn as a function of
time up to a force level of 90% of maximum. (A = powerlifters,
9 = bodybuilders, [] = wrestlers)
LOAD
(kg)
~
100"
80
50
A0
LOAD
(kg)
[ifters
LOAD
(kg)
BodybuiLders
100
2O
0
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
SJ ~o-'u
0
7;, i
10
i
I
i
20
30
40
HEIGHT OF RISE OF C.G.
i
100
80
~,, i
10
i
i
i
20
30
40
HEIGHT OF RiSE OF CO.
(cm)
Fig. 2. Average load-vertical jumping height
(of rise of center of gravity) curves in the
squatting (SJ) and countermovement (CMJ)
jumping conditions of the subject groups
0
I
i
i
i
10
20
30
/
I
40
HEIGHT OF RISE OF C O
(cm)
(cm)
Table 3. Maximal muscle strength, isometric force-time, and force-relaxation characteristics of the subject groups
Variable
Subject groups
Significance
of difference
Powerlifters
(n = 4)
Mean
Squat lift (kg)
Maximum bilateral
isometric strength (N)
Isometric strength/
body mass (N/kg)
SD
Bodybuilders
(n = 7)
Wrestlers
(, = 3)
Mean
Mean
SD
SD
207.5
4,492.0
34.3
655.2
183.0
4,329.7
23.6
590.4
147.5
3,229,0
37.3
1,730.3
NS
NS
50.7
9.6
49.3
4.1
49.3
10.9
NS
3O%
53.3
23.7
26.4
6.6
28.3
3.1
60%
151.0
39.8
96.3
21.2
91.3
29.9
90%
633.3
137.5
392.6
118.6
308.7
94.6
500 N
1,500 N
2,500 N
40.5
103.8
184.3
21.9
52.5
80.9
22.0
55.4
116.7
6.2
11.5
24.3
24.7
67.0
188.0
3.5
16.1
85.8
Force-times (ms)
Rate of maximal
force development ( N / s )
Relaxation-times (ms)
60%
30%
10%
Rate of maximal
relaxation (N/s)
26,568
26.0
59.5
151.8
49,050
12,042
4.2
10.5
53.1
11,406
40,291
26.6
62.3
120.0
49,867
8,359
4.7
13.1
12.0
7,783
31,065
28.7
52.7
75.7
49,863
11,589
7.4
5.5
4.1
18,570
PL/BB:
PL/W:
PL/BB:
PL/W:
PL/BB:
PL/W:
PL/BB:
PL/BB:
PL/BB:
P<
P <
P <
P <
P <
P <
P<
P<
P<
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
NS
NS
NS
PL/W:
NS
P < 0.05
K. Hfikkinen et al.: Performance characteristics of elite power athletes
39.0 _+ 9, 44.4 + 5, and 42.7 + 6 cm, respectively.
Figure 2 presents the average load-jumping height
curves of the three groups in the SJ and CMJ
conditions. Figure 3 demonstrates the difference in
performance between CMJ and SJ. This difference
was always greatest in the wrestlers, as compared
with the powerlifters and bodybuilders. At the 0, 40,
and 100 kg loads this difference was statistically
significant (P < 0.05).
Anaerobic and aerobic performance
Table 5 presents the results of anaerobic power and
max I)o2. No group differences were observed in
anaerobic power. During the 1-min test the average
power values (W. kg -1) of the powerlifters, bodybuilders, and wrestlers were 6.4 + 1.0, 6.6 + 0.5, and
7.1 + 0.8 W, respectively. Maximum oxygen uptake (ml. kg -1. min -1) of the wrestlers was
57.8 + 6.6ml, which was significantly ( P < 0.05)
higher than that of 41.9 + 7.2 ml for the powerlifters.
The respective value of 50.8 + 6.8 ml of the bodybuilders was also greater (P < 0.05) than that of the
powerlifters. Table6 summarizes the correlation
(cm) 5.0t
&.0
3.0
2,0
1.0
0
0 kg
20kg
&Okg
fiOkg
80kg
101
lOOkg
Fig. 3. Mean (+ SE) differences in vertical jumping heights (of rise
of center of gravity) between the countermovement and squat
jumps (performed with the loads of 0 - 1 0 0 kg) of the subject
groups. (A = powerlifters, O = bodybuilders, [] = wrestlers)
Table 4. Mean (_+ SD) values of height of center of gravity in squatting (SJ) and countermovement (CMJ) jumps
and in dropping (D J) jumps from different dropping heights (20-100 cm) of the subject groups. The best
dropping height (BDH) and the best dropping jump (BDJ) are also shown in the table
Variable
Squat jump (cm)
Countermovement
jump (cm)
Subject groups
Significance
of difference
Powerlifters
(n = 4)
Bodybuilders
(n = 7)
Wrestlers
(n = 3)
Mean
Mean
Mean
SD
SD
SD
38.0
39.0
7.0
9.2
39.7
44.4
3.2
5.4
37.0
42.7
5.9
6.4
NS
NS
Dropping jumps (cm)
20 cm
40 cm
60 cm
80 cm
100 cm
28.8
30.3
29.3
29.0
29.0
5.1
4.3
3.8
2.5
2.1
29.6
32.3
33.0
31.7
28.7
3.6
3.2
4.7
3.8
7.2
31.3
31.7
31.7
29.7
29.0
1.0
2.3
6.0
6.5
4.3
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
Best dropping height (cm)
50.0
30.0
62.9
39.0
40.0
28.0
NS
Best dopping jump (cm)
30.7
1.6
33.9
1.0
33.7
1.6
NS
Table 5. Aerobic and anaerobic performance characteristics of the subject groups
Variable
l)o2max
min -1)
(1 9
( m l . k g 1 . m i n ~)
Anaerobic power
(W. min- 0
(W. kg 1 . min 1)
Subject groups
Significance
of difference
Powerlifters
(n = 4)
Bodybuilders
(n = 7)
Wrestlers
(n = 3)
Mean
Mean
Mean
3.74
41.9
570.5
6.4
SD
0.40
7.2
57.6
1.0
4.44
50.8
577.9
6.6
SD
0.62
6.8
48.3
0.5
4.42
57.8
541.3
7.1
SD
0.58
6.6
71.3
0.8
NS
PL/BB: P < 0.05
PL/W: P < 0.05
NS
NS
K. Hfikkinen et al.: Performance characteristics of elite power athletes
102
6. Correlation coefficients between anaerobic
(W. kg-1 . rain-1) and aerobic (ml 9kg-I 9min-1) performance
and selected muscle fiber and neuromuscular performance characteristics (n = 14; P < 0.05, r = 0.53)
Table
FT%
%FT area
Isometric force/weight
Force-time 500 N
Anaerobic
power
Aerobic
capacity
- 0.02
0.13
0.14
- 0.22
- 0.05
0.08
- 0.01
- 0.35
coefficients between anaerobic and aerobic performance and selected muscle fibre and neuromuscular
performance characteristics. No significant correlations were observed.
Discussion
The present study with the athletes from various
power events demonstrated that despite the similarity
in maximal strength there can be differences in the
time for force production and in utilization of stored
elastic energy. In addition, the present data indicate
that these various aspects of neuromuscular as well as
anaerobic and aerobic performance capacity may be
influenced specifically and/or simultaneously by
training lasting for several years.
The data of the physical characteristics of the
subject groups presented in Table 1 are in line with
previous experiments (Katch et al. 1980; Spitler et al.
1980) demonstrating that bodybuilders possess big
limb circumferences and low per cent body fat. The
wrestlers are also known to possess low per cent body
fat (Widerman and Hogan 1982) and this was
confirmed in the present study. This should also be
true with powerlifters, but the present subjects
possessed a surprisingly high per cent body fat. These
special features of body composition of athletes in
power events are obvious reflections of long-term
exercise stress and dietary procedures.
The present data about muscle fiber characteristics did not demonstrate any differences between the
three groups 9 This was true regarding the F T % and
the FT and ST fibre areas and their ratio. As could be
expected (MacDougall et al. 1982) the average areas
of FT fibres were larger than ST areas especially
among bodybuilders and powerlifters. A greater
degree of hypertrophy of the FT fibres as compared
to ST fibres has been shown in several training studies
with high resistance loads (MacDougalt et al. 1980;
Hfikkinen et al. 1981; Komi et al. 1982).
As seen from Table 3 and Fig. 1, the three groups
did not differ with respect to maximal voluntary
strength, but did show differences in the time for
force production. Training of powerlifters involves
exercises of high intensity and slow contraction
velocity. This is likely to lead to adaptation of the
neuromuscular system to produce high forces relatively slowly, as seen from the force-time curve.
Possible changes in firing frequencies and/or recruitment patterns (Salmons and Vrbova 1969) of the
motor units may have changed the contraction
characteristics of the whole muscle or muscle group.
Consequently it can be questioned seriously whether
the term "powerlifting" is a correct one to characterize the event. On the other hand, the training of
bodybuilders and especially that of wrestlers involves
more submaximal loads with higher contraction velocities, and adaptation of the neuromuscular system for faster force production may be
obvious. These special changes in force-time curve
caused by different training stimuli have been
demonstrated during controlled training experiments (Hfikkinen et al. 1980, 1981; Viitasalo et al.
1981b).
Training of wrestlers involves also various jumping drills etc. which also means the repeated occurrence of stretch-shortening cycles. It has been
previously demonstrated (Komi and Bosco 1978) that
differences can exist in the utilization of stored elastic
energy during stretch-shortening cycles. Figure 3
clearly demonstrates that the wrestlers utilized more
elastic energy than the other two subject groups in the
present study. In line with this result, it has been
shown (H/ikkinen and Komi 1983) that strength
training alone does not cause any changes in the
elastic properties of the muscle, but it may increase
the tolerance for high stretching loads. However, the
present results shown in Table 4 failed marginally to
demonstrate statistically significant differences in the
best dropping heights.
The higher values of the wrestlers for 12o2max as
compared to the bodybuilders and powerlifters are
expected. Training methods and the competitive
demands in wrestling differ from those of the other
two subject groups in energy production from
oxidative processes. In the anaerobic test, on the
other hand, there were no significant differences
between the groups in energy production from
anaerobic glycolysis. One might have expected
greater values among the wrestlers than those found
(7.1 + 08. vs 6.4 + 1.0, and 6.6 + 0.5 W). The limited number of subjects in the present study and/or
the present training background of the subjects may
have, however, influenced both the anaerobic and
aerobic data. These aspects may also be some of the
reasons why the present data failed to conform with
the finding of Gollnick et al. (1972) or Rusko et al.
(1978) that Vo2max and fibre composition are
K. Hfikkinen etal.: Performance characteristics of elite power athletes
103
salo and Komi 1978; Bosco and Komi 1979b;
Viitasalo et al. 1981a). The results presented in Fig. 4
are in line with these observations, although effects of
training and muscle structure may be mixed and
difficult to distinguish from each other.
While it is reported that increase in total muscle
size is in part due to the enlargement of individual
muscle fibres (MacDougall et al. 1980; Hfikkinen et
al. 1981; Komi et al. 1982) the time course of
training-induced hypertrophy or its limits is less
known. In fact, it has been suggested (MacDougall et
al. 1982) that there may be an optimal or ceiling size
for cross-sectional fibre area for fibres undergoing
hypertrophy. This interpretation was made due to the
fact that fibre areas in highly trained body-builders
did not exceed those in control subjects (see also
Tesch and Larsson 1982). Within the limitations of
the subject sample and of the methodology for the
determination of fibre areas (see Viitasalo and
Mfikinen 1980; Viitasalo et al. 1980) the present
results tend to support this suggestion. This is due to
the observation that there was no significant correlations between mean fiber area and maximal isometric force or thigh girth. Therefore muscle
cross-sectional area was not clearly reflected in the
present study in mean fibre area (r -- 0.32, NS) (see
Hfiggmark et al. 1978; Schantz et al. 1981) but in
maximal strength (r = 0.82, see Fig. 4). These results
might suggest, in line with some previous reports
(MacDougall et al. 1982; Tesch and Larsson 1982),
that some degree of fibre hyperptasia may have
occurred which may be related to chronic heavy
resistance training.
interrelated. This was also the case between anaerobic power and the selected neuromuscular variables,
which indicates the importance of specific components of neuromuscular and energy yielding processes
(see also Komi et al. 1977).
It is well documented (Ikai and Fukunaga 1968;
Schantz etal. 1983) that muscle cross-sectional area is
of importance for maximal voluntary strength. The
present results, shown in Fig. 4, tend also to support
this, although thigh girth is of course influenced by
bone size and the quantity of subcutaneous fat. The
relationship between muscle fiber composition and
maximal isometric force is, however, somewhat
complicated, in part due to the limitations of the
method of muscle biopsy for fibre type determination
(see Elder et al. 1982; Bomstrand and Ekblom 1982).
In some studies (Komi et al. 1977; Tesch and
Karlsson 1978), significant positive correlations have
been found between maximal isometric force and FT
percentage of the muscle, but there are also negative
correlations (Kroll et al. 1980) and data (Thorstensson 1976; Viitasalo et al. 1981a) supporting the
presence of no correlation at all (see Fig. 4 of the
present study). The possible effect of muscle structure on maximal force may therefore be masked by
specific training. Moreover, in the isometric contraction time for absolute force production is often very
tong, and therefore the type of the working motor
units may be of less importance. On the other hand,
when the time of force production is short, or high
speeds in concentric contractions are used, muscular
structure seems to be of greater importance in
determinating the rate of force development (Viita-
600084
B
553
iSOMETRIC fORCE/WEiGHF
" (N/kg)
r~=_:02]
ins
i
60 0
5000.0/I
/ oo ~
o
$00
55.0
550
o
o
o
500
o
o
o
c~
Z-0.0
50.0
PERCENT
Fig. 4. Interrelations between maximal bilateral
isometric force per weight and the FT
percentage of the vastus lateralis muscle A,
between maximal isometric force and the thigh
girth B, between the vertical jumping height
of the squat jump and the FT percentage of
the vastus lateralis muscle C and between the
vertical jumping height of the countermovement
jump and time of isometric force production
to the force level of 500 N D. (& = powerlifters, O = bodybuitders, [] = wrestlers)
o
o
c~
~*5Q
500
FT
700
500
FIBRES
55 0
700
THIGH GIRTH ( c m ]
O
s00
SOUAT
(cm)
JUMP
550
c~
~50
o
o
35.o
30a
i~P~0"O5
450 !
o
~0
500
COUNTER MOVEMENT
JUMP
(crn) O
~'
O
3501
e
n= 14 I
30.0
400
50.0
PERCENT
60,0
FT
FIBRES
700
J
20.0
~
300
i
&0.0
i
50.0
L
50.0
ESOMETRIC FORCE-TIME 5OQ N ( m s l
104
K. Hfikkinen et al.: Performance characteristics of elite power athletes
In summary, our data indicate that, despite the
similarity of maximal strength, differences may be
observed in time of force production and in utilization
of stored elastic energy. The selected aspects of the
neuromuscular as well as anaerobic and aerobic
performance capacity may be influenced by muscle
structure but also specifically and/or simultaneously
by training lasting for several years.
Acknowledgements. Supported in part by a grant from the Ministry
of Education, Finland. We also thank Miss Pirkko Puttonen, Miss
Ursula Salonen, Mr. Ensio Hakala, Mr. Heikki Kauhanen and Mr.
Paavo Rahkila for theis skillful technical assistance.
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Accepted July 12, 1984