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Biochemical Engineering Journal 172 (2021) 108033
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Biochemical Engineering Journal
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/bej
Progress and perspective of enzyme immobilization on zeolite
crystal materials
Huaxin Zhang a, b, c, *, Zhengbing Jiang a, Qinghua Xia b, Dan Zhou a, b, **
a
State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, PR China
Ministry-of-Education Key Laboratory for the Synthesis and Application of Organic Functional Molecules, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, PR China
c
Hubei Key Laboratory of Drug Synthesis and Optimization, Jingchu University of Technology, Jingmen, Hubei, 448000, PR China
b
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Enzyme catalysis
Covalent bonding
Crosslinking
Hierarchical pores
Cascade reaction
Zeolites play irreplaceable roles in the industrial catalysis field due to their diverse pore structures and special
physical and chemical properties, which are also one type of the most attractive inorganic materials for the
immobilization of enzymes. In this review, the research progress of enzyme immobilization on molecular sieve
crystal materials, including the immobilization methods and applications in chemistry, biomedicine, energy and
environment areas, are reviewed. Strategies for constructing delaminated zeolites, hierarchical zeolites and
hollow-structured zeolites to effectively immobilize enzymes are summarized. Meanwhile, primary perspectives
on future zeolite-enzyme composites are proposed.
1. Introduction
Enzymes are a kind of biological macromolecules with catalytic ac­
tivity, which are essentially proteins with the exception of a few ribo­
zymes. Some enzymes require additional inorganic or organic cofactors
to realize full activity, such as urease, laccase, carbonic anhydrase,
peroxidase, etc. Owing to high catalytic activity (usually more than 107
times of inorganic catalyst), high specificity, and mild action conditions,
enzymes are by far the most ideal selective catalysts for more than 5000
types of reactions and play an important role in chemical, pharmaceu­
tical, food and other industrial processes [1]. However, this kind of
catalysts from living cells bear poor stability and reusability, which are
unacceptable in large-scale industrial applications. As a result, scientists
began to overcome these limitations by immobilizing enzymes on the
surfaces of various support materials [2].
Some key factors such as the effectiveness of immobilization
methods, the mass transfer efficiency of the materials, the operational
stability, and the activity retention rate, need to be taken into account
when selecting materials used to immobilize the enzyme [3]. So far, a
variety of materials have been employed for enzyme immobilization [4],
including polymer nanofibers [5], carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [6], mes­
oporous silica [7,8], graphene and graphene oxide [9], magnetic
nanoparticles [10–12], metal organic framework compounds (MOFs)
[13–17], natural biopolymers [18,19], metal nanoparticles [20], metal
oxides [21,22], metal hydroxides [23,24], biochar [25], zeolites [26,
27], etc. Among them, zeolites, as a kind of traditional inorganic ma­
terials, have become ideal carrier materials for enzyme immobilization
owing to their diverse pore structures, adjustable surface properties,
excellent thermal stability, relatively low cost and good environmental
compatibility. Though only the external surface of zeolites can be
exploited to immobilize enzymes, researchers still do a great deal of
attempts on this subject. The immobilization of enzyme on zeolite has
involved many fields, such as chemistry, biomedicine, energy and
environment, as shown in Fig. 1.
As support materials, zeolites can maintain the activity of enzymes to
achieve their recycle in industrial reactors, can improve the stability
(including thermal stability, pH stability, storage stability) of enzymes
[28,29], and in some circumstances can even enhance the catalytic ac­
tivity of enzymes [30,31]. In addition, as zeolites themselves are
excellent chemical catalytic materials, their combination with biocata­
lyst enzymes may sometimes give rise to promoting effects, or achieve
chemo-enzymatic cascade reactions [32]. For example, Vennestrøm
et al. [33] anchored glucose oxidase (GOx) on the surface of TS-1 by
glutaraldehyde (GA) coupling, a titanium silicalite molecular sieve with
chemical catalytic activity, composing a bifunctional catalyst. The
byproduct of the oxidation of β-D-glucopyranosyl catalyzed by GOx,
* Corresponding author at: Hubei Key Laboratory of Drug Synthesis and Optimization, Jingchu University of Technology, Jingmen, Hubei, 448000, PR China.
** Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, PR China.
E-mail addresses: h.x.zhang@yeah.net (H. Zhang), d.zhou@hubu.edu.cn (D. Zhou).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2021.108033
Received 2 February 2021; Received in revised form 8 April 2021; Accepted 15 April 2021
Available online 21 April 2021
1369-703X/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H. Zhang et al.
Biochemical Engineering Journal 172 (2021) 108033
H2O2, was in situ used for the epoxidation of allyl alcohol which was the
substrate of TS-1. Smeets et al. [34] entrapped the cross-linked enzyme
aggregates (CLEAs) of GOx into hollow microspheres composed of TS-1
nano-crystals, realizing similar in situ tandem reaction. In recent years,
literature concerning the immobilization of enzymes on molecular
sieves has begun to increase. In this paper, the progress of immobiliza­
tion of different kinds of enzymes on molecular crystal sieves with
different topological structures in recent 30 years is summarized, as
shown in Table 1. The immobilization methods and potential applica­
tions in biomedicine, chemistry, energy and environment are reviewed.
The strategies for building immobilized enzymes on zeolites with special
properties such as delaminated zeolites, hierarchical zeolites and
hollow-structured zeolites are introduced. The research prospect of
zeolite-enzyme composite materials is also discussed.
For example, Zhang et al. [74] proposed that the recognition between
the iron atoms in the Fe-ZSM-5 skeleton and the phosphates in the
phospho-phytase promoted immobilization.
Equilibrium cations often affect the immobilization yield and cata­
lytic activity of the immobilized enzyme [30]. de Vasoncellos et al. [61]
demonstrated that gismondine (NaP) exchanged by Cu2+, Zn2+ and Ni2+
was more effective in the immobilization of Rhizomucor miehei lipase,
showing a promoting effect for catalyzing transesterification reactions.
A flavin oxidoreductase immobilized on Ni2+ impregnated X-type
zeolite derived from coal fly ash exhibited good activity for the
biochemical decomposition of 4-chlorophenol (4-CP) [27]. Li et al. [88]
investigated the effects of nine equilibrium cations (Ca2+, Sr2+, Mg2+,
Na+, K+, NH4+, Fe3+, Cu2+ and Zn2+) on the procoagulant activity of
zeolite Y, and found that Ca2+, Sr2+ and Mg2+ had significant promoting
effects, while Cu2+ and Zn2+ showed anticoagulant activities, indicating
that the interaction between thrombin and different equilibrium cations
was quite different.
Organosilane modification of zeolites is also a common strategy to
regulate enzyme adsorption and enzyme activity [62]. Mitchell et al.
[53,54] grafted 3-aminopropyl and 3-mercaptopropyl onto mesoporous
ZSM-5 and found that silanization was conducive to improving the
retention rate of lipase in catalytic application.
It is worth noting that some enzymes can hardly retain their activity
after being adsorbed by zeolites. For example, Yagiz et al. [89] found
that the catalytic activity of lipase lipozyme-TLIM for transesterification
of waste edible oil with methanol to methyl ester was almost completely
lost after being adsorbed on 13-X, 5A, FM-8 and AW-300. Therefore,
prior to enzyme adsorption, it is often necessary to design the structure
and surface properties of zeolites to regulate their interaction with
enzyme, so as to ensure that enzymes will not be inactivated after
adsorption.
2. Immobilization methods for enzymes on zeolites
2.1. Adsorption/Deposition
Adsorption method to fix enzyme on the surface of zeolites bears the
advantages of simplicity, rapidity, good reproducibility and no toxic
compounds incorporation. It is especially suitable for constructing bio­
sensors based on zeolite-enzyme composites, because these advantages
are particularly important for the standardization and further largescale production of biosensors [85]. In essence, the strength of adsorp­
tion depends on the affinity between enzyme protein and molecular
sieve surface [86], which can be adjusted by changing the composition
or surface properties of zeolite [87]. The ratio of Si/Al or SiO2/Al2O3 is
one of the important factors that affect the surface properties of mo­
lecular sieves. In general, the lower the Si/Al ratio (the higher the
aluminum content), the stronger the hydrophilicity and ion exchange
performance of the zeolites [36]. Kirdeciler et al. [81] found that the
enhancement of hydrophobicity and B-Acidity leading by the increase of
Si/Al ratio resulted in enhanced response of conductivity biosensor
modified by zeolite Beta and urease to urea. Calgaroto et al. [60]
determined the adsorption of porcine pancreatic lipase on MCM-22 with
Si/Al ratios of 15, 25 and 50, respectively. It was found that immobilized
enzyme on MCM-22 with Si/Al ratios of 25 showed the highest immo­
bilization yield and better catalytic activity, which was attributed to the
proper acidity and porosity of the material. In addition, heteroatoms in
the skeleton may also contribute to the adsorption of enzyme proteins.
2.2. Covalent bonding
In order to prevent enzymes from leaching from the surface of zeo­
lites and impairing their reusability, various protein linking techniques
are used to anchor enzymes on the surface of material through covalent
bonds, namely covalent bonding method, or crosslinking method. The
free amino group, carboxyl group, hydroxyl, sulfydryl, phenolic hy­
droxyl and imidazole group in the enzyme proteins are all active groups
that can be used for crosslinking. Corresponding reactive groups can also
Fig. 1. Research and application of immobilization of enzymes on zeolites.
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H. Zhang et al.
Biochemical Engineering Journal 172 (2021) 108033
Table 1
Summary of published results on enzymes immobilized by zeolite crystalline materials.
Enzyme
Zeolite
Structure code
Immobilization method (Activity
retention)
Application
Ref.
α-amylase
α-chymotrypsin, thermolysin
A
Y
A, X, Y, M, ZSM-5
GA coupling (58.44 %)
Adsorption (>100 %)
Deposition
Starch hydrolysis
Peptide syntheses in organic solvents
Butyl acetate alcoholysis
[35]
[30]
[36]
NaY
LTA
FAU
LTA, FAU, FAU,
MOR, MFI
FAU
Adsorption
Butyl acetate alcoholysis
NaA, NaY
NaY
A, X, Y
NaY
X
LTA, FAU
FAU
LTA, FAU, FAU
FAU
FAU
Butyl acetate alcoholysis
Triglycerydes hydrolysis
Tricaprylin hydrolysis
p-nitrophenyl butyrate hydrolysis
4-chlorophenol degradation
NaY
TS-1
FAU
MFI
Adsorption/deposition (80 %)
Deposition
Deposition
Adsorption
Nickel ions-assisted adsorption
(64 %)
Adsorption
GA coupling
[37,
38]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[28]
[27]
DAY
NaY
FAU
FAU
TS-1
CBV-100
MFI
FAU
NaY
Sodalite
FAU
SOD
X
FAU
Heulandite
NaY, DSY, DAY
[Si, B]-MFI
HEU
FAU
MFI
Beta
*BEA
ZSM-5
ZSM-5
Silicalite-1
Silicalite 1, ITQ-2
Silicalite 1, ITQ-6
Silicalite 1, ITQ-2, ITQ-6,
FAU
Faujasite, Modernite
MFI
MFI
MFI
MFI, MWW
MFI, FER
MFI, MWW, FER,
FAU
FAU, MOR
MCM-22
Gismondine
TS-1, GIS, LTA, BEA, X
Y
NaY
NaY
Pure-silica MFI
RUB-15
NaY
ZSM-5
NaY
ITQ-2, ITQ-6
CBV-100
MWW
GIS
MFI, GIS, LTA,
*BEA, FAU
FAU
FAU
FAU
MFI
RUB
FAU
MFI
FAU
MWW, FER
FAU
13X
FAU
Phospho-phytase
ZSM-5
MFI
Ribonuclease Binase
Clinoptilolite, chabazite,
natrolite
Silicalite-1
NaA, CaA
NaX
W
HEU, CHA, NAT
Adsorption (35 %)
Adsorption (>100 %)
Extrudate-shape NaY in a RPBR
Adsorption
Adsorption (9.8 %)
Nano-Au tethering (>100 %)
Adsorption (79.77 %)
Nano-Au tethering (>100 %)
GA coupling
Solid-binding peptide linker (0
%–105.2 %)
Fixed bed columns of zeolites
(25.6 %)
Heteroatom (Fe)-phytase
coordination
Adsorption
MFI
LTA
FAU
MER
Silica sol–gel tethering
GA coupling (82 %, 85 %)
GA coupling (2.76 times)
Adsorption
Clinoptilolite
Silicalite, Beta
Beta, A
Silicalite
Beta, L, silicate-1,
HEU
MFI, *BEA
*BEA, LTA
MFI
*BEA, LTL, MFI
Deposition
Deposition
Deposition
Adsorption
Adsorption
Cutinase
Flavin oxidoreductase
Glucose oxidase
Glucose oxidase, HRP
β-glucosidase, β-annanase,
β-xylanase
HRP
Laccase
Lipase
Lysozyme
Pepsin
Protease
Penicillin G Acylase
PGM1, IPS, IMP, MIOX, Udh,
Nox
Phosphatase
Trypsin
Tyrosinase
Urease
Adsorption
Rhodium-dispersed GOx carbon
paste
CLEAs entrapped (50 %)
Solid-binding peptide linker +
CLEAs
Gelatin entrapment (59 %)
GA crosslinking
(145 %)
Adsorption
(83 %)
GA coupling
Adsorption
GA coupling (146 %)
Coating in stainless steel porous
discs
Adsorption, GA coupling
Adsorption (95 %)
Adsorption (>100 %)
Adsorption
Adsorption
Adsorption (>74 %)
Adsorption
Adsorption (51.2 %)
Adsorption (>100 %)
GA coupling
3
Glucose biosensor
Glucose oxidation + allyl alcohol
epoxidation
Glucose biosensor
Glucose biosensor
[42]
[33]
Glucose oxidation + olefin epoxidation
Biomass polysaccharides hydrolysis
[34]
[45]
Phenol electro-oxidation
Pollutant (Direct Red 23)
bio-degradation
Dyes (RB19; AB225) decolorization
[46]
[47,
48]
[29]
Dyes (Reactive Red 120) degradation
Bisphenol A biodegradation
Vinyl propionate and 1-butanol
transesterification
Vinyl propionate and 1-butanol
transesterification
p-nitrophenyl esters hydrolysis
p-nitrophenyl butyrate hydrolysis
Alkyl esters hydrolysis
Fatty acids transesterification
Biodiesel production (transesterification)
Triglycerides hydrolysis
[49]
[50]
[51]
Triolein hydrolysis; Oleic acid
esterification
Oleic acid and ethanol esterification
Soybean oil to biodiesel
Microalgae oil ethanolysis
transesterification to FAEEs
Palm oil hydrolysis
M. lysodeikticus cells hydrolysis
Micrococcus lysodeikticus cells disruption
Coatings for implantable devices
Micrococcus lysodeikticus cells disruption
Casein digestion
Milk coagulation/cheese production
Hb digestion
Hydrolysis of penicillin G
Glucose-1-phosphate to glucaric acid
[59]
p-nitrophenyl phosphate salt (pNPP)
dephosphorylation
Phytate-phosphorus utilization
[73]
Carrying therapeutically active enzyme
[75]
Protein digestion (BSA and Cyt-C)
L-DOPA production
L-DOPA production
Oral sorbent for the removal of urea in
uremia
Urea Biosensor
Urea Biosensor
Urea Biosensor
Urea Biosensor
Urea Biosensor
[76]
[77]
[78]
[79]
[43]
[44]
[52]
[53]
[54]
[55]
[56]
[57]
[58]
[60]
[61]
[62]
[63]
[64]
[65]
[66]
[67]
[68]
[69]
[70]
[71]
[72]
[74]
[80]
[81]
[82]
[83]
[84]
H. Zhang et al.
Biochemical Engineering Journal 172 (2021) 108033
be introduced onto zeolites through the silanization reaction with the
surface hydroxyl groups, which provides the possibility for crosslinking
of enzymes and zeolites. The selection of crosslinking method needs to
consider the effectiveness of crosslinking reaction, the crosslinking
yield, the retention rate of enzyme activity and the simplicity of oper­
ation. At present, the most commonly used method for covalent
connection between enzymes and zeolites is the glutaraldehyde cross­
linking method [48]. Its major procedures involves (1) the introduction
of active amino groups on the surface of zeolites through the silane re­
agent (aminopropyl-3-ethoxysilane, aminopropyl-3-methoxysilane,
etc.), (2) the transformation of amino groups into aldehyde groups by
reaction with glutaraldehyde, (3) the anchoring of enzymes through
reaction of aldehyde groups with the free amino group in enzyme pro­
tein (mainly ε-ammonia of lysine), and (4) the reduction reaction with
sodium borohydride or sodium cyanoborohydride to stable the linking
bonds, as shown in Fig. 2a. It must be pointed out that the 4th step
(reduction of the imine to the amine) is not always needed and even
sometimes strongly deleterious [90].
At present, the above-mentioned glutaraldehyde coupling method
has successfully achieved the immobilization of a variety of enzymes on
the surface of zeolites with different topological structures, including
glucose oxidase@MFI [33], amylase@LTA [35], laccase@SOD [47,48],
lipase@MFI [51,62], lipase@GIS/LTA/BEA/FAU [62], penicillin acy­
lase@MWW/FER [71], etc. The enzymes in all these examples maintain
certain catalytic activity after immobilization.
In addition to the glutaraldehyde crosslinking method, there are also
some other successful crosslinking agents, such as glymo [91] and eth­
ylenediamine [49]. For example, Celikbicak et al. [49] introduced
amino groups via ethylenediamine to poly (2-chloroethyl acrylate)
generated on the surface of heulandite by surface initiated atom transfer
radical polymerization (SI-ATRP), followed by tethering Trametes ver­
sicolor laccase through glutaraldehyde crosslinking to catalyze dye
degradation.
Metal ions or metal nanoparticles are sometimes used as bridges to
anchor enzymes to zeolites, as they have special affinity with both en­
zymes and carriers or functionalized carriers [92]. Mukhopadhyay et al.
successively anchored pepsin [68] and fungal protease [70] onto
amino-functionalized zeolite NaY using Au nanoparticles as bridges,
forming the enzyme-nanogold-zeolite biocatalysts, which were applied
to catalyze the digestion of casein and hemoglobin.
Recently, molecular biology techniques have also been reported as
covalent attachment strategies to construct enzyme-zeolite composite
biocatalysts. Care and Petroll et al. [45,72] reported a special amino acid
sequence which can firmly bind to silicon-based materials. They fused
this sequence to the C-terminal or N-terminal of enzymes using genetic
engineering techniques to produce bifunctional fusion proteins,
achieving immobilization of a variety of industrially-significant en­
zymes. In their practice of converting glucose-1-phosphate (G1P) into
glucaric acid, six enzymes including phosphoglucomutase (PGM),
myo-inositol-3-phosphate synthase (IPS), inositol-1-monophosphatase
(IMP), myo-inositol oxygenase (MmMIOX), uronate dehydrogenase
(Udh) and NADH oxidase (Nox), were immobilized on CBV-100 to
catalyze the two-batch reaction of upper and the lower pathway, as
shown in Fig. 3.
The major problem for zeolite’s functionalization is that zeolites
intrinsically have few surface defects (e.g. silanols) on their surface,
which limits the maximum degree of functionalization. In view of this
limitation, Zhang et al. found that piranha solution treatment can effi­
ciently increase the amount of silanol on zeolite [93].
2.3. Entrapment
The entrapment method used for immobilization of enzyme on
zeolite can be divided into three situations. The first one is to use
additional materials to encapsulate enzymes onto zeolites. For example,
gelatin was used by Carvalho et al. [46] to encapsulate horseradish
peroxidase on the surface of NaY to prepare composite electrode for
electrocatalytic oxidation of phenol. Many biosensors based on
zeolite-enzyme complexes have also used similar encapsulation
methods. The second type is to seal enzymes in other materials by mo­
lecular sieve. For example, Marthala et al. [52] fixed lipase in the
gradient pores of stainless steel cakes by suction filtration, and sealed
with a layer of zeolite Beta on the surface of the steel cake to prevent the
leakage of the enzyme. The experimental results showed that the mac­
ropores of stainless steel cakes maintained the natural state of the
enzyme, and the Beta coating effectively prevented the leakage of
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of enzyme immobilization on zeolite through chemical methods. a) Typical steps of glutaraldehyde coupling method for covalently
anchoring enzyme on zeolite surface. b) Entrapment of CLEAs in the constructed additional mesopores or macropores in conventional microporous zeolites.
4
H. Zhang et al.
Biochemical Engineering Journal 172 (2021) 108033
Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of the production of glucaric acid (GlucA) from glucose-1-phosphate (G1P) through a two-batch reaction of the upper and lower
pathway. Respective enzyme concentration in U/mL, MIOX pre-activation with Fe and Cys, the immobilised NAD+ regeneration system (Nox-L) and conversion of
glucaro-1,4-lactone to glucaric acid (GlucA) are shown. Enzymes PGM-L, IPS-L, IMP-L, LUdh and Nox-L were used either as free enzymes or immobilised onto zeolite
while MmMIOX was used as free enzyme. RT, room temperature [72].
Reprinted with permission from ref [72]. Copyright 2020 Elsevier.
enzymes. The third strategy is to form cross-linked enzyme aggregates
(CLEAs) through enzymes themselves, which makes their swollen ag­
gregates entrapped the mesopores or macropores of zeolite [53], or in
their hollow structure [34], similar to the idea of "ship in a bottle", as
shown in Fig. 2b.
synthesized 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl-L-alanine (L-DOPA) from L-tyrosine
under the catalysis of tyrosinase on zeolite A and X, respectively. Xing
et al. [30] employed α-chymotrypsin and thermophilic bacterial pro­
teinase on various Y zeolites, realizing peptide syntheses in organic
solvent.
In chemical synthesis area, lipases (including keratinase) are one
type of the most frequently used enzymes, which have a wide range of
sources and varieties. It can catalyze the hydrolysis, alcoholysis, ester­
ification, transesterification and reverse synthesis of tricaprylin and
other esters. For example, Serralha et al. [36–39] successfully catalyzed
the alcoholysis of butyl acetate and n-hexanol with cutinase or recom­
binant cutinase immobilized on zeolite Y, A, X, M, ZSM-5, etc., respec­
tively. Gonçalves et al. [40,41] deposited cutinase from Fusarium solani
pisi on zeolite A, X, Y and catalyzed the hydrolysis of tricaprylin.
Mitchell et al. [53,54] reported the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl ester
catalyzed by lipase immobilized on porous ZSM-5. Macario et al. [55,56,
58] demonstrated the catalytic activity of the lipase immobilized on
silicalite-1, ITQ-2, ITQ-6 and other zeolites in hydrolysis of triglycerides,
the transesterification of olive oil and the hydrolysis of alkyl esters.
In addition, the lipases immobilized on the molecular sieve crystal
have been successfully used to catalyze the transesterification of vinyl
propionate and n-butanol [51], the esterification of oleic acid and
glycerol [59], the esterification of oleic acid and ethanol [60], the hy­
drolysis of palm oil [63], and the transesterification of microalgae oil to
ethyl fatty acids (FAEEs) [62], etc. Zeolite-enzyme composites have also
been applied in the field of drug synthesis [71] and enantiomeric
3. Application of immobilized enzymes on zeolites
3.1. Chemical field
Heterogeneous enzyme catalysis based on molecular sieves is an
important branch of catalysis, which has been divided into biomolecule
conversion and chemical synthesis. In the aspect of biomolecular
transformation, the reactions are mainly catalyzed by various proteases,
amylases, lysozymes, etc. For example, a pepsin [68] and a fungal pro­
tease [70] were respectively fastened to zeolite NaY by Mukhopadhyaya
et al. to catalyze the hydrolysis of casein and hemoglobin. Kumari et al.
[69] used a brinjal leaf protease adsorbed on mesoporous ZSM-5 to
promote milk coagulation in cheese production. Huang et al. [76]
tethered trypsin on silicalite-1 to effectively catalyze the transformation
of bovine serum protein and cytochrome C. Chang et al. [64] and Lee
et al. [65] immobilized lysozyme on NaY to successfully disrupt Micro­
coccus lysodeikticus cells. α–amylase covalently attached on zeolite A by
Talebi et al. [35] exhibited higher stability than free state in catalysis for
the hydrolysis of water-soluble starch. In the aspect of biomolecule
synthesis, Seetharam et al. [77] and Donato et al. [78] successfully
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H. Zhang et al.
Biochemical Engineering Journal 172 (2021) 108033
resolution [94].
It is worth mentioning that research about enzyme immobilization
on zeolite has achieved good results, many of which have been applied
in industrial flow reactors [35,95]. Zeolites are found to be superior to
many other carriers such as PA6 [38,39], which is mainly related to the
possibility of generating and regulating the acid-base, electrostatic and
hydrophobic-hydrophilic character. Meanwhile, the versatile pore
structures on zeolite surface can provide appropriate grasp power for
different sidechains of enzymes, which facilitates the immobilization
and activity retention. Furthermore, compared to other supports, the
stability, biocompatibility and economy of zeolites are also competitive,
some of which can even be directly obtained from natural environment.
All the advantages abovementioned determine the broad prospects of
zeolite-enzyme biocatalysts in industrial application.
3.4. Environmental field
Research on the degradation of toxic substances in the environment
by zeolite immobilized enzyme has attracted increasing attention in
recent years. Laccase, catalase, flavoenzyme and some other oxidore­
ductase have frequently been immobilized on zeolites and used for dyes
decolorization and phenols biodegradation. For example, Celikbicak
et al. [49] reported a Trametes versicolor laccase on the Heulandite
connected by the hairy polymer, which continuously catalyzed the
degradation of Reactive Red 120. RB 19 and AB 225 were degraded
under the catalysis of laccase on zeolite X [29]. Mahmood et al. [47,48]
successively immobilized laccase on sodalite combined with carbon
nanotubes (CNTs) and graphite oxide (GO) to degrade dye DR23, and
the results implied the addition of CNTs and GO promoted the electron
transfer of catalytic sites. Different zeolite Y were employed by Taghi­
zadeh et al. [50] to fix laccase for degradation of bisphenol A. The
degradation of 4-chlorophenol was effectively catalyzed by flavinase
immobilized on zeolite X [27]. Carvalho et al. [46,100] found that NaY
had a positive effect on the activity of HRP in the oxidation of phenols,
based on which, gelatin/HRP/NaY/graphite composite electrode was
prepared to realize the electrocatalytic oxidation of phenols. Besides,
lipase immobilized on zeolite has also been reported to catalyze the
degradation of waste cooking oil [89].
3.2. Biomedical field
Many zeolites have good biocompatibility and thus have many po­
tential or practical applications in the fields of biotechnology and
medicine [96,97]. Many enzymes with medicinal value can be fixed by
zeolites to prepare enzyme-zeolite composites, which can improve the
stability of enzyme and realize the delivery or slow release of medicinal
enzymes. A stable urease-zeolite oral sorbent microcapsule prepared by
Cattaneo et al. [79] removed up to 80 % of urea in less than one hour.
Khojaewa et al. [75] found that the complexes of a ribonuclease binase
with clinoptilolite and chabazite showed enhanced antitumor activity in
comparison with enzymes and supports separately, revealing the
application potential of binase-zeolite complexes in treating colorectal
cancer or malignant skin neoplasms.
Biosensors based on zeolite-enzyme composites are widely used as
biosensors for the detection of glucose [44], urea [80,81] and other
metabolites. Soldatkin et al. [82,83,85,98] have performed systematic
work in this field and they have constructed biosensors for the deter­
mination of urea, glucose, glutamate, acetylcholine, sucrose and other
substrates by immobilization of urease, glucose oxidase, glutamate ox­
idase, acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, mutarotase, invertase
etc. on zeolites including clinoptilolite, silicalite, beta, A, L etc.
In addition, lysozyme on pure-silica MFI was proved to possess antibacterial and anti-infection activity and was thought to be an applicable
coating for implantable devices, which could improve the success rate of
transplantation [66]. The hemostasis function of zeolites also has also
been proved to be related to enzyme adsorption. Li et al. [88] noticed
that the procoagulant performance of zeolite A, Y, X, Beta and MOR was
significantly improved when their cations were exchanged into Ca2+,
which was found to be the result of promoting effect of Ca2+ on the
adsorption of plasma proteins.
4. Enzyme immobilization by zeolites with special structures
The micropores of traditional microporous zeolites are too small to
accommodate enzyme molecules, so enzymes can only be fixed on the
outer surface of the zeolites. However, the external specific surface of
general microporous zeolites is very limited, which restricts their
application in enzyme immobilization to a certain extent. Therefore, to
increase the ratio of external surface area to internal surface area, and to
improve the efficiency of enzyme immobilization, researchers prepared
many special zeolite materials, such as delaminated zeolites, hierarchi­
cal zeolites and hollow zeolites. Compared to conventional microporous
zeolites, these zeolites with special structure or morphology can provide
either larger external surface to load more enzyme molecules or addi­
tional hollow space to accommodate enzymes or their aggregates.
Consequently, they are gaining increasing attention.
4.1. Delaminated zeolites
Delaminated zeolites, usually refer to two-dimensional molecular
sieve materials with nano lamellar structure. Compared with the threedimensional structure of traditional zeolites, the two-dimensional nano
lamellar materials release more surface area, especially the outer surface
area, which effectively increases the ratio of external surface area to
internal surface area and is conducive to improve their loading capa­
bility to enzyme. Roth et al. [101] made a detailed summary on the
progress of synthesis methods for two-dimensional zeolites, in which
they classified the preparation methods of two-dimensional zeolites into
three categories: hydrothermal synthesis, surfactant-templated synthe­
sis and zeolite partial hydrolysis method. Among the 237 types of
skeleton structure included in the international zeolite structure data­
base at present, more than 10 types of molecular sieves, such as AFO,
CAS, CDO, FER, HEU, MFI, MWW, NSI, OKO, PCR, RRO, RWR, SOD, can
form layered structure. In theory, these delaminated molecular sieves
can be synthesized directly, or post-synthesized through swelling, pil­
laring, stripping, ultrasound and other appropriate chemical or physical
treatment. Among them, the preparation technology of delaminated
zeolites with FER, MFI and MWW framework are relatively mature, and
some of them have been used to fix enzyme molecules [56–58].
Corma et al. [71] first proposed the strategy of enzyme immobili­
zation by delaminated zeolites. They treated the layered precursor
Ferrierite with surfactant and prepared delaminated zeolite ITQ–6. After
the introduction of amino group by alkylation, β - galactosidase and
3.3. Energy field
In the energy field, immobilization of enzyme on zeolites is mainly
used in the production of biodiesel. Macario et al. [57] prepared bio­
diesel through transesterification reaction catalyzed by Rhizomucor
miehei lipase fixed by silicalite-1 and ITQ-6. Vasoncellos et al. [61]
synthesized methyl ester by transesterification of soybean oil catalyzed
by Rhizomucor miehei lipase immobilized on different ion exchanged
gismondine, Na-P, Cu-P, Zn-P and Ni-P. It was found that the enzyme
activity of Ni-P-enzyme complex was better than that of other com­
plexes, and the promoting effect of Ni-P/200-ENZ complex on soybean
oil transesterification was observed. Considering the outstanding per­
formance of zeolite-enzyme modified electrode in the field of biosensor,
it is speculated that zeolite-enzyme composites may have development
potential in the field of biofuel cell [99]. Zeolites in these applications
not only serve as supports for enzymes to improve their thermal sta­
bility, pH stability, storage stability and reusability, but also in some
circumstances enhance the catalytic activity of enzymes, playing
increasingly significant roles.
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H. Zhang et al.
Biochemical Engineering Journal 172 (2021) 108033
penicillin acylase (PGA) were fixed on the surface of ITQ-6 by electro­
static adsorption and glutaraldehyde crosslinking, respectively,
achieving high immobilization yield and enzyme activity retention rate.
Furthermore, the stability of enzyme immobilized on ITQ was found to
be higher than that on amorphous silica or in free state.
Kawai et al. [67] compared the immobilization of lysozyme by
RUB-15 zeolite and its delamination form, RUB-15-nano, proving that
lysozyme adsorbed on RUB-15-nano retained higher activity.
lipase immobilization yield and efficiency. The correlation between
mesoporous specific surface area, adsorption capacity to lipase and
corresponding activity of biocatalyst proved that the mesopore played
an important role in immobilization processes. The surface modification
of mesoporous ZSM-5 resulted in improved enzyme immobilization ef­
ficiency, catalytic activity and reusability of enzyme compared with
unmodified counterparts, and lipase immibilized on mercaptan func­
tionalized mesoporous ZSM-5 is the most effective biocatalyst. Mean­
while, the functionalized MCM-41 exhibited lower enzyme uptake than
functionalized mesoporous ZSM-5 despite its higher specific surface area
of mesoporous, which could be attributed to the limited accessibility of
its one-dimensional mesopores, inferior to the interconnected meso­
pores of mesoporous ZSM-5.
In 2009, Choi et al. [103] first reported a bottom-up strategy for
one-pot synthesis of hierarchical ZSM-5 microspheres assembled by MFI
ultra-thin nanosheets using tumbling crystallization method in the
presence of a dual functional surfactant (C22-6-6). After that, Marthala
et al. [51,104] successfully synthesized similar pure silicon,
aluminum-containing and boron-containing MFI structure by static
crystallization method, and the synthesized boron-containing hierar­
chical MFI nanosheet microspheres was used for enzyme immobiliza­
tion. The results suggested that lipase, covalently linked to MFI
microspheres by glutaraldehyde crosslinking method, showed high ac­
tivity in the transesterification of vinyl propionate with butanol.
Zhou et al. [105] first synthesized a type of hierarchical zeolite
microsphere constructed by MWW nano-sheet through a one-step
method. It was found that the surface roughness and groove angles be­
tween the lamellae were favorable for protein loading, which suggested
these hierarchical crystalline materials might be ideal supports for
enzyme immobilization [93].
4.2. Hierarchical zeolite
Introducing mesopores and macropores into the traditional micro­
porous zeolites to conventional microporous zeolites, can not only
reserve the inherent size, shape and transition state selectivity of zeo­
lites, but also increase the external surface which can be utilized to load
enzymes. More importantly, the introduced mesopores and macropores
can reduce the diffusion resistance of substrates, and promote their mass
transfer. This will increase the contact opportunity between substrates
and enzymes, and subsequently improve the catalytic efficiency of
immobilized enzymes. So. More and more attention has been paid to the
synthesis of hierarchical zeolites and their application in enzyme
immobilization [54,74]. Jia et al. [102] reviewed the top-down and
bottom-up synthesis strategies of introducing mesopores/macropores
into microporous zeolites, in which the top-down strategy is mainly
achieved by desilication or dealumination, and the bottom-up strategy is
mainly synthesized under template (soft or hard) or template-free
conditions.
Taghizadeh et al. [50] adopted the top-down strategy to prepare two
hierarchical zeolites, the desilicated and dealuminated forms of NaY,
named DSY and DAY, respectively. The products were successfully used
to adsorb laccase and then applied for degradation of bisphenol A, as
shown in Fig. 4. The results showed that the immobilization yield and
efficiency of DSY and DAY for laccase were significantly improved in
comparison to microporous NaY as a portion of laccase have entered the
constructed mesopores. The immobilization yield and efficiency of DAY
to laccase were the highest, reaching 81.12 ± 1.32 % and 98.56 ± 2.93
%, respectively. Moreover, the hierarchical carrier also improved the pH
stability, catalytic stability and reusability of laccase.
Desilicated and dealuminated mesoporous ZSM-5 was prepared by
Mitchell and Pérez-Ramírez [53] using the top-down strategy and used
to immobilize lipase after surface treatment by organosilanes and
glutaraldehyde, as shown in Fig. 5. The results indicated that meso­
porous ZSM-5 was obviously superior to pure microporous ZSM-5 in
4.3. Hollow zeolites
Hollow zeolites are a kind of special inorganic materials. On one
hand, the microporous crystal structure ensures their good hydrother­
mal stability, chemical stability, acidity and shape selectivity. On the
other hand, the hollow structure provides a unique space for encapsu­
lation of other materials. Moreover, the overall size of the particles is
usually large, the thickness of shell wall can be adjusted by controlling
the synthesis conditions [106], which is convenient for design and
operation. Therefore, hollow zeolites have great research and applica­
tion potential, especially in the fields of encapsulated metal catalyst
[107] and drug delivery [108]. Pagis et al. [109] reviewed the synthesis
Fig. 4. Desilicated Y (DSY) and dealuminated Y (DAY) was prepared from NaY by top-down strategy and the products were used to immobilize laccase for bisphenol
A degradation [50].
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H. Zhang et al.
Biochemical Engineering Journal 172 (2021) 108033
Fig. 5. Immobilization of lipase enzymes on ZSM-5 zeolites with varying surface and textural properties [53].
Reprinted with permission from ref [53]. Copyright 2011 Elsevier.
strategies of hollow zeolites, which are mainly divided into three cate­
gories. In the first category, inorganic or organic inert templates (carbon
powder, polymer, liquid drop, etc.) are used as crystallization supports
which are removed after core-shell structure forms; In the second cate­
gory, template materials (amorphous SiO2 ball, zeolite crystal, etc.) are
not only the supports but also the species participating in the secondary
crystallization to constitute shell; In the third category, the heteroge­
neous nuclei of zeolite are dissolved to generate hollow structures.
However, enzyme molecules can hardly cross through the shell of
conventional hollow zeolites. Then how to enter into the cavity to make
use of their hollow structures becomes a key issue. Spray drying tech­
nology was employed by Smeets et al. [34] to construct hollow zeolite
Fig. 6. Schematic representation of the synthesis strategy used for (a) the preparation of hollow zeolite microspheres formed by the aggregation of TS-1 crystals using
the aerosol method, (b) the immobilization of glucose oxidase on the aerosol-made material by the formation of entrapped cross-linked enzyme aggregates (CLEAs)
[34].
Reprinted with permission from ref [34]. Copyright 2020 RSC.
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H. Zhang et al.
Biochemical Engineering Journal 172 (2021) 108033
microspheres through aerosol-assisted assembly of TS-1 nanocrystals.
Glucose oxidase (GOx) passed through the porous silica shell with
embedded TS-1 nanocrystals to get into the hollow space and then was
precipitated and cross-linked after the treatment of ethyl lactate and
glutaraldehyde. The formation of cross-linked enzyme aggregates
(CLEAs) made GOx entrapped in the cavities of as-synthesized hollow
zeolite microspheres, forming a bifunctional catalyst with both chemical
and enzymatic catalytic activity, as shown in Fig. 6. The cavity of zeolite
was not only the nest for enzymes, but also an effective inorganic
catalyst. H2O2 generated in glucose oxidation reaction catalyzed by GOx
directly participated in the epoxidation of olefin catalyzed by TS-1. The
immobilization of the combined CLEAs of GOx and horseradish perox­
idase (HRP) was also discussed. Obviously, this enzyme immobilization
strategy may also be applicable to other zeolite nanocrystals, or even
other types of catalytic materials. Recently, Debecker’s group developed
their spray drying strategy and prepared the combination of TS-1
nanocrystals and GOx in only one step [110].
Declaration of Competing Interest
5. Conclusion and perspective
References
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the financial supports by Open Funding Project of
the State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering
(SKLBEE2020019), National Natural Science Foundation of China
(U20A20122, 22072038, 21571055), Scientific Research Project of
Hubei Education Department (T2020023, Q20184305), Fund of Jing­
men Science and Technology Project (ZDCX2017004, 2020ZDYF002),
Wuhan Science and Technology Bureau (2019010701011415), Key
Program (ZD201902) and Porous Materials Preparation & Application
Innovation Team Project in Jingchu University of Technology.
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Immobilization of enzymes on zeolites can improve the stability of
enzymes (including pH, heat, storage, etc.), reduce the cost by recovery
and reuse of biocatalyst, and sometimes enhance their activity, which
consequently exhibits broad industrial application prospects. Zeolites
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In the aspect of material design,aforementioned zeolites with special
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