International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT (Darío Luis Banegas, Griselda Beacon etc.) (z-lib.org)

INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON
ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
res the emergence of disruptive digital technologies such as robotics,
chnology and 3D printing and their impact on human lives and jobs in
ntury societies. Incorporating a cutting edge area studies perspective, it
enges and long term implications of the rise of ‘Tech Giants’ such as Alibaba,
through the lens of past industrial revolutions, looking back at the
hnologies and industrial developments - the steam engine, electrification,
oduction, and the rise of digital technology - upon which the modern world
gates the mirror profiles of the world’s largest tech companies in the US and
oogle, Alibaba and Amazon, Wechat and Facebook) and provides a unique
h Giants with 19th century colonial empires and monopolistic trading
s of political-economic dominance. A key tool for instructors and students
s on Technological History, Digital Technology and Cultures, New Media,
China Studies, this book provides practical guidance on how readers can
o face key workplace and societal challenges in a virtually interconnected
ch Giant monopoly.
or Lecturer at the Singapore University of Social Sciences, Research Fellow
versity of Singapore and Visiting Lecturer at Waseda University of Tokyo,
uated from Cornell University and NUS in History and Japanese Studies, and
us positions at NUS, the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the Singapore
ement. Lim is a historian by training and also an area study specialist (on
a and Japan), and he combines teaching across world history, energy and
ries, (North) East Asian history, East Asian studies (Japan and China),
contemporary China studies with a policy research portfolio focused on
elopments in Japan, Hong Kong and China.
International
Perspectives on
Diversity in ELT
Edited by
Darío Luis Banegas
Griselda Beacon
Mercedes Pérez Berbain
International Perspectives on English Language
Teaching
Series Editors
Sue Garton, Aston University, School of Languages and Social
Sciences, Birmingham, UK
Fiona Copland, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK
Global meets local in Palgrave’s exciting new series, International Perspectives on English Language Teaching. This innovative series is truly international, with each volume providing the opportunity to compare and learn
from experiences of researchers and teachers around the world; is based on
cutting edge research linked to effective pedagogic practice; shows how developing local pedagogies can have global resonance. Each volume focuses on
an area of current debate in ELT and is edited by key figures in the field,
while contributors are drawn from across the globe and from a variety of
backgrounds.
More information about this series at
http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14843
Darío Luis Banegas · Griselda Beacon ·
Mercedes Pérez Berbain
Editors
International
Perspectives
on Diversity in ELT
Editors
Darío Luis Banegas
School of Education
University of Strathclyde
Glasgow, UK
Griselda Beacon
IES en Lenguas Vivas Juan
Ramón Fernández
Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
Mercedes Pérez Berbain
Instituto Superior del
Profesorado Joaquín V. González
Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching
ISBN 978-3-030-74980-4
ISBN 978-3-030-74981-1
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1
(eBook)
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Cover illustration: Luigi Spezia/Alamy Stock Photo
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Series Editors’ Preface
Schooling is perhaps one of the most recognisable of human social activities and instantly conjures up standard images of a room, tables and
chairs/benches/mats facing one way, a board, lots of young people and one
older one, who does most of the talking. Of course, the reality is somewhat
more varied—classrooms come in a range of different configurations, students
can be all ages and the number of students in a class might be 3 or 300.
Nevertheless, the notion that education is best achieved through schooling is
a global hegemony, formed on the underlying principle that one size fits all.
Given this universal model of education, it is not surprising that for many
years, recognition of students’ individual needs was overlooked, which is not
to say that classrooms were full of homogenous learners who were taught
in one way by the teacher. Classrooms have always been full of a diverse
group of students and teachers have always worked hard to ensure that all
have a good education. However, this century has seen a turn towards understanding and addressing the individual in an educational movement that has
become known as differentiation. Recent scholarship in this field has allowed
us to identify areas that can affect how a student accesses schooling and is
successful at it, providing policymakers, teacher educators and teachers with
new lenses through which to investigate and understand diversity in learning
and teaching.
What are some of these lenses? In the early days, ability, special educational needs and, in our field, English language level, were three ways that
students were recognised as being different from each other. Teachers tried
v
vi
Series Editors’ Preface
to attend to these differences by, for example, setting easier and more difficult questions for a reading text, by changing task outcomes for different
groups or by setting different kinds of homework. More recently, other lenses
have been introduced. Socio-economic background, gender, sexuality, race,
language background, motivation, learning preferences and culture can all
affect how students do schooling and how they learn. This list could be potentially daunting for teachers who are now expected not only to deliver the
curriculum but also to ensure that it is made accessible to students in a range
of differentiated approaches.
Nonetheless, all teachers understand and value inclusion, “a process that
helps overcome barriers limiting the presence, participation and achievement
of learners” (UNESCO, 2017, p. 13). Differentiation is a process through
which teachers can effect inclusion. The chapters in this volume provide
insights into approaches developed by teachers and teacher educators to do
so. Given that differentiation is still a relatively recent focus of attention
in English language teaching and research is limited, the volume is therefore extremely timely. Specifically, the focus in this edited collection is on
addressing diversity in English language teaching in three key areas: interculturality, gender and special educational needs. As the editors explain in their
introductory chapter, these are of particular personal interest. They are also
interrelated as they all focus on learners’ and teachers’ wellbeing (Mercer &
Gregersen, 2020) and on social justice. The range of countries represented is
impressive, from Argentina to Germany and from Poland to the Philippines;
the contexts are also wide-ranging, from secondary schools to teacher education programmes and from undergraduate courses to those to support deaf
and hard of hearing students. It is hoped that these contributions might help
us all to consider how we can ensure a differentiated approach for inclusion
in our classrooms, wherever we are in the world.
Birmingham, UK
Stirling, UK
Sue Garton
Fiona Copland
References
Mercer, S., & Gregersen, T. (2020). Teacher wellbeing. Oxford University Press.
UNESCO (2017). A guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education. UNESCO.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank our families, colleagues, and the series editors Sue
Garton and Fiona Copland, for their guidance and support. We would also
like to thank the chapter contributors for their patience and engagement
throughout the writing and editing process.
vii
Contents
Introduction: Diversity in ELT
Mercedes Pérez Berbain, Darío Luis Banegas, and Griselda Beacon
1
Interculturality
Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT
Melina Porto and Javier Arguiano
21
Promoting Understanding of Diversity by Taking a Critical
Intercultural Stance
Carlo Granados-Beltrán
37
Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences in the ESL/EFL
Classroom
Darren K. LaScotte and Bethany D. Peters
55
“Let’s Play ‘Sok Says’, Not ‘Simon Says’”: Evaluating
the International and Intercultural Orientation of ELT
Materials for Cambodian Secondary Schools
Roby Marlina
Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity: The
Queer Case of LGBTIQ* Issues in English Language Teaching
Thorsten Merse
73
91
ix
x
Contents
Gender
Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom: Teachers’ Beliefs,
Doubts, and Insecurities in Exploring Sexual Identities
in Cyprus
Dimitris Evripidou
Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk in the Gender Identity
Construction of Filipino Children
Rafaella R. Potestades
Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities
Tanja McCandie
113
131
153
Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing Comprehensive
Sexuality Education in the ELT Classroom
Paola Cossu, Gabriela Brun, and Darío Luis Banegas
173
Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular They: Inclusive
EFL Teacher Education
Carolyn Blume
191
Special Education Needs
The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach
to Differentiation
Anssi Roiha and Jerker Polso
211
Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and Responses to Working
with English Learners with Special Educational Needs
Robert J. Lowe, Matthew Y. Schaefer, and Matthew W. Turner
229
Dyslexia and Its Role in the Teaching Reform in China
Stuart Perrin
247
A Challenge, a Must, an Adventure: English as a Foreign
Language for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students
Ewa Domagała-Zyśk and Anna Podlewska
265
English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge
and Classroom Practices of ADHD
Neşe Cabaroğlu and Merve Tohma
283
Contents
xi
Diversity in ELT: Present and Future
Griselda Beacon, Mercedes Pérez Berbain, and Darío Luis Banegas
301
Index
317
Notes on Contributors
Javier Arguiano is an advanced student of the English Teaching Programme
at Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is pursuing a career in secondary
school English language teaching.
Darío Luis Banegas is a Lecturer in TESOL at the University of Strathclyde
and an Associate Fellow with the University of Warwick. In Argentina, he
is involved in online initial English language teacher education. He is an
active member of ELT teacher associations in Argentina (FAAPI) and the
UK (IATEFL). His main teaching and research interests are: CLIL, action
research, and teacher development.
Griselda Beacon is a Lecturer in American Literature at Universidad de
Buenos Aires and in literature, visual and performative arts at several staterun Teacher Training Colleges in Buenos Aires, Argentina. A NILE (Norwich
Institute for Language Education) consultant trainer in the UK, she has an
M.A. in Literature in English and Foreign Language Teaching from PhilippsUniversität Marburg, Germany. She co-authored Together, an Oxford University Press coursebook series for secondary school tailor-made for Argentina.
Her special interests include literature in ELT, visual and performative arts,
creativity, CLIL, young learners, and intercultural education.
Carolyn Blume is a Junior Professor for Teaching and Learning with Digital
Media in the Dortmunder Competence Center for Teaching and Learning
(DoKoLL) of the Technical University Dortmund. She is also a member by
xiii
xiv
Notes on Contributors
courtesy of the Department of Cultural Studies (English). Prof. Blume draws
on her experiences as a teacher and school administrator in the USA and
Germany to inform her understanding of EFL teacher education as it pertains
to inclusion and digitally mediated foreign language learning.
Gabriela Brun is a Graduate Teacher of English and a teacher educator in
Argentina. She holds a diploma in Feminism and Gender. Her main interests
are interculturality, CSE, and initial teacher education.
Neşe Cabaroğlu is a Lecturer in the English Language Teaching Department at Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey. She received a Ph.D. degree
from the University of Reading, UK. Her research revolves around issues
related to teacher education, teacher cognition, student teacher learning, and
professional development.
Paola Cossu is a Graduate Teacher of English and a licenciada en Lengua
Inglesa (Universidad de Belgrano). She is also a teacher educator and a facilitator in the CPD programme for the Ministry of Education in Buenos Aires
province, Argentina. Her main interests lie in CSE, teacher development and
didactics in higher education.
Ewa Domagała-Zyśk is a researcher and English teacher of the deaf and
hard of hearing, working at the Department of Special Education at John
Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Poland. Her research interests are
connected with special educational needs in the context of school and social
inclusion and methodology of teaching of deaf and hard of hearing students
(surdoglottodidactics).
Dimitris Evripidou teaches English language modules at the University of
Cyprus. He completed his undergraduate studies at Lancaster University
and postgraduate studies at Middlesex University and Lancaster University.
His main research interests focus on the interrelationships among Language
Education, Sociolinguistics, and gender identities.
Carlo Granados-Beltrán is the Academic Director of the BA in Bilingual
Education at Institución Universitaria Colombo Americana (ÚNICA) and
the President of the Colombian English Teachers Association (ASOCOPI).
He holds a PhD in Education from Universidad Santo Tomás in Bogotá,
Colombia. He also holds and MA in British Cultural Studies and ELT
from the University of Warwick and an MA in Applied Linguistics from
Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas.
Darren K. LaScotte is a Teaching Specialist in the Minnesota English
Language Program at the University of Minnesota (USA), where he teaches
Notes on Contributors
xv
English as a second language to international students in both the Intensive English Program and Academic English Program. Within the broader
scope of applied linguistics, his research focuses on second language acquisition and use, and on the resulting implications for teaching and learning. He
has published on topics of language use and variation, the construct of voice
and heteroglossia, and second language instruction and assessment. He is coauthor (with Bethany Peters) of the textbook Intercultural Skills in Action:
An International Student’s Guide to College and University Life in the United
States (University of Michigan Press). Other recent publications appear in
the Modern Language Journal , Journal of Second Language Studies, and TESOL
Journal .
Robert J. Lowe is a Lecturer in the Department of English Communication at Tokyo Kasei University. He is the co-author of Teaching English as
a Lingua Franca: The Journey from EFL to ELF (DELTA Publishing, 2018),
co-editor of Duoethnography in English Language Teaching: Research, Reflection,
and Classroom Application (Multilingual Matters, 2020), and author of Uncovering Ideology in English Language Teaching: Identifying the ‘Native Speaker’
Frame (Springer, 2020). His work has appeared or is forthcoming in ELT
Journal, Language Teaching, and Applied Linguistics Review.
Roby Marlina is a Language Specialist (Teacher-Educator) with the
Training, Research, Assessment and Consultancy Department at SEAMEORELC, Singapore. His research interests lie in Curriculum and Pedagogy of
English as an International Language/World Englishes, TESOL, and International Education. His works have appeared in international peer-reviewed
journals such as Asian Englishes, RELC Journal , World Englishes, Multilingual Education, International Journal of Educational Research, andAsian EFL
Journal ; and various edited books on themes including Teaching EIL and
Global Englishes Teacher Education. His edited book, The Pedagogy of English
as an International Language: Perspective from Scholars, Teachers, and Students
(2014), was published by Springer International Publishing. He is also the
author of a monograph entitled Teaching English as an International Language:
Implementing, Reviewing, and Re-Envisioning World Englishes in Language
Education (2018), published by Routledge (Taylor and Francis Group).
Tanja McCandie has been involved in English education for over 20 years
and has worked in various contexts in Canada, the UK, and Japan. She is the
founder of www.equalityeltjapan.net, is a university teacher, a teacher trainer,
and an author. Her research interests include gender, teacher education, and
leadership.
xvi
Notes on Contributors
Thorsten Merse is a postdoc researcher in the field of teaching English as
a foreign language at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU) Munich,
Germany. His doctoral research titled Other Others, Different Differences:
Queer Perspectives on Teaching English as a Foreign Language pinpointed a
queer-informed renegotiation of ELT pedagogy. Further research interests
include the digital transformation of ELT, diversity pedagogy, critical theory
and literature education.
Mercedes Pérez Berbain is a former lecturer at Joaquín V. González and
Juan Ramón Fernández Colleges of Education in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
She holds an M.A. in Education from Oxford Brookes University, UK and
is involved in English language teacher Education (ESSARP, OUP, Pilgrims).
Her main interests include ELT to young learners and teacher development.
Stuart Perrin is currently Associate Principal of the Xian Jiaotong-Liverpool
University Entrepreneur College (Taicang), a new education venture and
campus built around technology-based education through concepts of AI and
industry 4.0. Previous positions that he has held in the university include
Dean for Learning and Teaching, and Director of the Language Centre
(2012–2016). In this role, he was responsible for over 150 English language
teachers, and developing the English for Academic Purposes provision for
the university, as well as ensuring that students met UK English language
entry requirements for those who may study at its UK partner, the University of Liverpool. He was also responsible for initiating discussion on greater
inclusivity with regard to language. Stuart has previously worked in EAP
and management positions in language centres at Queen Mary, University
of London, and Brunel University.
Bethany D. Peters is faculty in the School of Education at Greenville
University (USA), where she teaches M.A. courses in the Teaching English as a
Second Language (TESL) track. She has over 14 years of experience teaching
English as a second language to international students at the University of
Minnesota, where she also created instructional resources and a resource
website to support faculty in various disciplines who teach international
students. Her research focuses on intercultural communication and group
work, faculty development, and internationalising the curriculum. She is coauthor (with Darren LaScotte) of the textbook Intercultural Skills in Action:
An International Student’s Guide to College and University Life in the United
States (University of Michigan Press).
Anna Podlewska is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Foreign
Languages at the Medical University of Lublin, Poland, where she has been
Notes on Contributors
xvii
teaching English and Polish for Medical Purposes to students of medicine
and allied health sciences since 2007. She is also affiliated with the Institute
of Pedagogy at the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Poland.
Jerker Polso, M.Ed., M.B.A. is a principal and special education teacher
who has worked as a teacher and trainer in all levels of education in Finland.
He has mostly worked in primary school as a classroom teacher and a special
education needs teacher. Jerker has also worked in in-service training for
teachers and principals internationally. Currently, he is the vice-principal
of a Finnish comprehensive school. Alongside work, he writes his doctoral
dissertation in in-service teacher training and education exports.
Melina Porto is a researcher at the National Research Council (CONICET)
in Argentina, Professor at Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP)
(Argentina) and Honorary Research Fellow at the University of East Anglia
(2019-–2021). She was Visiting Academic at the University of East Anglia
from 2012 to 2018. She holds an M.A. ELT from Essex University (thesis
supervised by Henry Widdowson), a Ph.D. from UNLP (thesis supervised
by Miguel Montezanti and Michael Byram) and a postdoctoral degree in
Humanities and Social Sciences (Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina).
Her research addresses the intercultural dimension of English language
teaching and intercultural citizenship education in the foreign language
classroom.
Rafaella R. Potestades is currently working for an education-based
nongovernmental organisation in the Philippines. She graduated with a
degree in the Bachelor of Arts and Letters in English Language Studies from
the University of Santo Tomas, Philippines. She is currently completing
her Master’s degree in Women and Development at the University of the
Philippines Diliman. Her current areas of research interests centre on the
construction of gender discursive identities in various social interactions
found in schools, social media, and pop culture.
Anssi Roiha, Ph.D. works as a Lecturer at the University of Turku, Finland,
where he trains future teachers. Previously, he has worked as a teacher and
student support specialist in an International Baccalaureate school in the
Netherlands and as a special class teacher in Finland. Differentiation is a
core component in Anssi’s teaching philosophy and he has published widely
on the topic. Anssi’s other research interests include CLIL and intercultural
education.
Matthew Y. Schaefer has worked as an English language teacher and
academic manager in France, Italy, Spain, the UK, and Japan, including at
xviii
Notes on Contributors
private language schools and primary, secondary, and tertiary education. He
holds an M.A. TESOL from Nagoya University of Foreign Studies and a
DELTA. He has published book chapters and journal articles on reflective
practice and creating a framework for accommodating students with disabilities, among other topics. His current research interests include course design,
syllabus evaluation, and speaking assessment.
Merve Tohma is a Lecturer in English in the Vocational School of Higher
Education at Çağ University, Mersin, Turkey. She completed her teacher
training at the Faculty of Education, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey. She
received an M.A. degree from Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey. Her M.A.
thesis examined elementary school English teachers’ knowledge of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), classroom management and the
teaching strategies applied in EFL classroom settings. Her research interests
include special education needs as well as issues relating to second language
learning.
Matthew W. Turner is an English Language Lecturer at Toyo University.
His current research interests include reflective practice, continuing professional development, podcasting in language teacher education, accessibility,
and support for learners with special educational needs. Matthew is a cocreator of The TEFLology Podcast and coordinator of Japan Association of
Language Teaching’s (JALT) Teacher Development SIG.
Abbreviations and Acronyms
5D
ADHD
BA
CDA
CEFR
CLIL
CPD
CSE
DHH
E(S)AP
ECC
EFL
EIL
ELP
ELT
EMI
ESL
ESP
FPDA
HOTs
ICC
ICC
ICT
INTERSECT
JALT
5-Dimensional Model
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Bachelor of Arts
Critical Discourse Analysis
Common European Framework of Reference
Content and Language Integrated Learning
Continuing Professional Development
Comprehensive Sexual Education
Deaf and Hard of Hearing
English for (Specific) Academic Purposes
Expanding Circle Countries
English as a Foreign Language
English as an International Language
European Language Portfolio
English Language Teaching
English Medium Instruction
English as a Second Language
English for Specific Purposes
Feminist Post-Structuralist Discourse Analysis
Higher Order Thinking Skills
Inner Circle Countries
Intercultural Communicative Competence
Information and Communications Technology
Interactions for Sex Equity in Classroom Teaching
Japan Association of Language Teachers
xix
xx
Abbreviations and Acronyms
JVU
L1
LGBTIQ*
LGBTQ+
LGBTQIA+
LMS
LOTs
MoE
MoEYS
OCC
OCED
PISA
PM
PSTs
SEN
SLA
SOGIE
SOGIESC
SRH
STEM
TEIL
TNE
UDL
UK
UN
UN CRPD
UNDP
VLE
ZPD
Joint Venture University
First Language
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender/transsexual, Intersex, and
Queer/questioning identities and experiences. The asterisk represents further self-definitions.
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual, Queer and other communities
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Intersexual, Asexual,
and other genders
Learning Management System
Lower Order Thinking Skills
Ministry of Education
Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports of the Kingdom of
Cambodia
Outer Circle Countries
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development
Programme for International Student Assessment
Programme Manager
Pre-service Teachers
Special Educational Needs
Second Language Acquisition
Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Expression
Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Expression, and Sex
Characteristics
Sexual and Reproductive Health
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
Teaching English as an International Language
Transnational Education
Universal Design for Learning
United Kingdom
United Nations
United Nations’ Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
United Nations Development Programme
Virtual Learning Environment
Zone of Proximal Development
List of Figures
Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity: The
Queer Case of LGBTIQ* Issues in English Language Teaching
Fig. 1
A snapshot from a digital story
104
Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing Comprehensive
Sexuality Education in the ELT Classroom
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
My family is small
Poster of a female mechanic
Word cloud
Poster presented by a group of participants in the workshop
181
183
183
186
Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular They: Inclusive
EFL Teacher Education
Fig. 1
Examining learner products
198
The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach to
Differentiation
Fig. 1
The 5-dimensional model of differentiation (Adapted
from Roiha & Polso, 2020)
214
xxi
List of Tables
“Let’s Play ‘Sok Says’, Not ‘Simon Says’”: Evaluating the
International and Intercultural Orientation of ELT Materials
for Cambodian Secondary Schools
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
TEIL-informed analytic scheme for textbook evaluation
Representation of users of English in English G7
Representation of phonological norms in English G7
Cultural references in English G7
78
80
82
84
Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom: Teachers’ Beliefs,
Doubts, and Insecurities in Exploring Sexual Identities in
Cyprus
Table 1
Teachers’ background information
117
Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk in the Gender Identity
Construction of Filipino Children
Table 1
Gender narratives identified and accepted in the classroom
141
Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities
Table 1
Participants’ information
157
xxiii
xxiv
List of Tables
Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing Comprehensive
Sexuality Education in the ELT Classroom
Table 1
Table 2
Topics and resources
Summary of lesson plans
184
185
Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular They: Inclusive
EFL Teacher Education
Table 1
Gender-sensitive EFL teacher preparation unit overview
196
Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and Responses to Working
with English Learners with Special Educational Needs
Table 1
Participants’ background information
233
Dyslexia and Its Role in the Teaching Reform in China
Table 1
English communication skills in the academic context
254
English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge and
Classroom Practices of ADHD
Table 1
Educational interventions frequently used in the ELT teacher
education classroom
291
Introduction: Diversity in ELT
Mercedes Pérez Berbain, Darío Luis Banegas,
and Griselda Beacon
Why a Volume on Diversity?
In 2019, we, the three editors of this volume, engaged in a fruitful exchange
of voice messages, emails, and face-to-face meetings as we toyed with the
idea of a project that would enable synergistic professional growth among
us three. We agreed on working on an edited collection that we would like
to read ourselves as a self-initiated form of professional development on a
pervasive topic which was concerning us all: diversity—or rather the lack of
it in English language teaching (ELT). Boosted by our growing motivation
in dialogue, we also agreed to work on a book that could contribute to the
profession by bringing together different voices, different contexts, different
frameworks, i.e. diverse lived experiences in ELT. We recognised that we
could not include all the possible themes or complexities that (the lack of )
M. Pérez Berbain (B)
Instituto Superior del Profesorado Joaquín V. González, Ciudad de Buenos Aires,
Argentina
D. L. Banegas
School of Education, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
e-mail: dario.banegas@strath.ac.uk
G. Beacon
IES en Lenguas Vivas Juan Ramón Fernández, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_1
1
2
M. Pérez Berbain et al.
diversity brings about, but the volume would be a picture that portrays some
aspects of ELT practice and beyond. We also acknowledged that attending
to diversity in ELT poses several challenges as it may increase teachers’ workload since diversity inherently leads to deploying a wider range of strategies,
tools, and practices, and it necessitates quality time, support, and preparation,
which are a luxury in less-resourced settings.
A thorough review of English language teaching publications addressed to
teachers for their professional development showed us that there is, with a few
exceptions (e.g., Douglas, 2019), a paucity of handbooks or reference books,
which illustrate, reflect on, and problematise how diversity may be crystallised
in English language teaching. Aware of this lacuna, we put together an open
call for potential contributors as a democratic approach to include diversity
in terms of themes, geographical locations, and educational contexts.
Indeed, the volume seeks to
• Provide English language educators with situated accounts and culturally responsive activities around diversity and inclusion for their own
professional practices.
• Offer informed accounts related to the following areas: (1) interculturality,
(2) gender, and (3) special education needs in different levels of formal
education.
• Reflect on opportunities and challenges around diversity in ELT.
• Raise awareness on themes across the curriculum and on wider social issues.
Drawing on contemporary educational underpinnings, mostly sociocultural theory (Lantolf & Poehner, 2014) and critical pedagogy (Giroux,
2020; López-Gopar, 2019; Ospina & Ramírez-López, 2016), we take a broad
stance on diversity as “an inherent property of the ESL [English as a second
language] classroom” (Liu & Nelson, 2017, p. 1). In this volume, we seek to
explore three areas associated with diversity: (1) interculturality, (2) gender,
and (3) special education needs. Albeit arbitrary and linked to our professional interests, these three areas are often interrelated since the three look at
all learners’ and teachers’ wellbeing (Mercer & Gregersen, 2020) as well as
the welfare and socially just development of local and global communities.
That said, the volume does not cover the full spectrum that such areas entail
(e.g. race, religion, age, ethnic minorities, or heritage languages).
In this chapter, we pull together the key unifying concerns included in
the volume. Drawing on the recent literature in the field of (language)
education, we concentrate on discussing diversity (often juxtaposed with
inclusion), interculturality, gender, and special education needs. The chapter
Introduction: Diversity in ELT
3
also describes the structure of the volume and includes a brief summary of
each chapter.
Diversity and Inclusion
According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, 2002), diversity is a collective strength and the success
of sustainable human development rests on the recognition and promotion
of local knowledge. While UNESCO’s view of diversity is closely associated with protecting and promoting cultural diversity, mainly indigenous
knowledge and indigenous languages, their vision may serve the purposes
of understanding diversity as the representation of human existence and the
whole universe of social practices, cultural wealth, and literacy capital that it
encompasses (Trigos-Carrillo, 2019). In the field of education, this focus on
cultural diversity may be associated with the notion of culturally relevant and
sustaining pedagogies (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Paris & Alim, 2017).
In social sciences, the term diversity is often used to describe the composition of a group by paying attention to differences among the group members
(Roberson, 2006). Such differences may be observable such as linguistic
repertoire, accent, age, ethnicity, or gender, or non-observable such as the
beliefs or cultural systems. In other words, diversity describes what makes us
different. If we take any classroom, the group will be diverse even when we
think they all share the same socioeconomic background or belong to the
same age group or race. Diversity is an inherent characteristic of any group
(Liu & Nelson, 2017). They may stand together driven by a common denominator, but their individual selves will bear differences that contribute to the
group dynamics in multi-faceted ways.
While acknowledging differences is a vital step to raise awareness of the
complex and overlapping contexts found within and outside schools, it may
not be enough, as we need to recognise that within diversity we may have put
together the oppressor and the oppressed (Freire, 1970). From a social justice
perspective, the notion of diversity is reoriented to recognise inequality, mitigate the consequences of exclusion, and dismantle injustice. Social justice
attempts to disrupt inequalities based on (re)distribution of resources, democratic participation as well as gender and sexuality, ethnicity, religion, cultural
practices, languages, and non-conforming identities (Lamb et al., 2019). In
this volume, we agree that English as an additional language is no longer
a luxury; it is a means through which to have access to a wider range
of intercultural practices (Hall, 2016). Therefore, we view diversity within
4
M. Pérez Berbain et al.
inclusive education to accommodate cultural practices, gender and special
education needs in English language teaching as topics of discussion and,
more importantly, as curriculum enactment.
Inclusion may be defined as “a process that helps overcome barriers
limiting the presence, participation and achievement of learners” (UNESCO,
2017, p. 13). In the context of education, inclusion seeks to “remove the
barriers limiting the participation and achievement of all learners, respect
diverse needs, abilities and characteristics and […] eliminate all forms of
discrimination in the learning environment” (UNESCO, 2019). This aim
is aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 2030,
particularly Goal 4, which aims to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality
education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (UN, 2016a).
Drawing on Roberson (2006), inclusion in education may be understood as
the extent to which learners and teachers can access equity education and
quality resources, influence decision-making processes (e.g. participation in
curriculum change), and the degree to which they feel part of the educational system. Equity seeks to ensure fair treatment, equality of opportunity,
and fairness in access and participation in education for all (UNESCO,
2017). Hence, inclusive education is about how to support everyone’s sense
of belonging and value as a person (Petriwskyj, 2010).
In ELT, efforts for diversity and inclusion, usually at the level of research
more than practice, are not new. For example, in 1999, Pennycook edited a
special issue on critical approaches in ELT (Pennycook, 1999) in which the
authors tap into issues such as minorities, identity, and queer pedagogies to
contribute to the fair representation of diversity through transformative pedagogies of engagement. However, the incorporation of an inclusive agenda
in ELT seems to be moving slowly. Kubota et al. (2003) have also raised
concerns about diversity and inclusion in the field as they have noted that
learners’ individual backgrounds, experiences, and perceptions are seldom
discussed in class or employed to inform the curriculum. In a recent study
with higher education learners, Ramezanzadeh and Rezaei (2019) found
that second language (L2) learners wish they could engage more in critical
dialogue with marginalised voices as well as mainstream ones.
How is Diversity Understood in This Volume?
The preceding section exhibits the interrelationship between diversity and
inclusion, and shows a shift in the literature from diversity to inclusion.
Introduction: Diversity in ELT
5
Nevertheless, as the title of this volume shows, we propose holding on to
the construct of diversity. These are some of the reasons:
• Diversity is an inherent trait of human beings as part of a plural humanity,
evidenced in identities, perspectives, cultures, beliefs, endeavours, contexts,
intentions, needs, and languages. Hence, diversity needs to inform the
construction of the learning environment, syllabi, and curricula, “affording
full accessibility to all” (Kormos & Smith, 2012, p. 12).
• Learning environments which acknowledge diversity through critical pedagogy endeavour towards a more inclusive society (Banegas & Villacañas de
Castro, 2016; Freire, 1970).
• A critical approach to diversity exposes (often unconscious) bias, prejudice, discrimination, inequity, and injustice—a springboard for “lifelong
learning opportunities for all” (UN, 2016b) and for promoting curiosity
and respect for others (Beall, 2019).
• Embodying diversity in the language classroom and increasing critical
consciousness counteract hegemonic dominance by giving learners a
chance to mobilise intercultural competencies and exercise democratic
principles (Chan & Coney, 2020; Reckermann, 2020).
• Celebrating diversity allows us “to rediscover our common humanity
through our very diversity” (UNESCO, 2002, p. 5).
Interculturality
The intricate relationship between language and cultures is now an integral
part of the ELT agenda, challenging more traditional approaches in which
linguistic input is anchored in a cultural vacuum. The intercultural communication process entails negotiating cultural knowledge and creating new
meanings. This is what Bhabha (1994) calls an inbetween space. In the field
of ELT, Kramsch (1993) expands on Bhabha’s cultural concept and coins the
term third place or third culture to refer to the process learners undergo when
they make sense of the world by challenging their own cultural identities
through learning other languages.
In the same vein, the model of intercultural communicative competence
(ICC) (Byram, 1997; López-Jiménez & Sánchez Torres, 2021) highlights
one inherent characteristic of foreign language teaching: “the experience of
otherness” (Byram, 1997, p. 4), which compels foreign language learners
to experience the familiar and unfamiliar through the medium of another
6
M. Pérez Berbain et al.
language. ICC looks at the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in various cultural contexts. It aims to enable students to develop the
ability to decentre, to challenge their own worldviews, to accept ambiguity
and uncertainty, and to empathise with other perspectives of the world. This
model has become the basis for the Council of Europe’s recommended system
of validation of language ability for the promotion of democratic citizenship
(CEFR, 2018).
In the last decades, intercultural education has been challenged to stretch
and expand the inter cultural spectrum to embrace a fairer representation of
diversity. This has been done through transformative pedagogies of engagement (Pennycook, 1999) with an intersectional lens (Collins, 2015). These
pedagogies intend to cater for the needs of silenced voices stemming from
former colonial contexts, or underprivileged ethnic and/or linguistic minority
groups, as well as socially disadvantaged ones (Kumaravadivelu, 2016; Spivak,
1988). In Latin America, for example, critical interculturality seeks to
challenge hegemonic views of social privilege through a decolonial (ELT)
pedagogy which exposes imposed relations of power, a heritage of European
imperialism, and denounces social, political, and ethnic inequality (Mignolo,
2000; Walsh, 2010).
The intersectional lens foregrounds the many possible variables in identity construction, such as race, age, ethnicity, education, social class, religion,
nationality, (native) languages, among others, which are likely to intersect
with the three main areas of this volume. Keeping these intersections in mind
contributes to bringing to light how the many layers of privilege and oppression articulate in society and affect learners’ access to quality education. Thus,
diversity manifests itself in the intersection of the multiple dimensions of
identity construction (Collins, 2015; Crenshaw, 1991).
More recently, a vibrant and effervescent field, queer intercultural education in ELT, has emerged to claim for the inclusion of diversity in the
active construction of the learners’ gender and sexual identities. Queer pedagogy challenges heteronormative cultural practices and has contributed to the
inclusion of the voices of the LGBTIQ+ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual,
Intersexual, Queer, and others) community in EFL classrooms. Critical analyses of teaching materials, gender roles, and language use have exposed the
(lack of ) representation of the diversity in gender and sexual identities in the
world of ELT (Evripidou, 2020; Gray, 2013; Merse, 2015; Nelson, 2009;
Paiz, 2019).
Hence, contemporary intercultural education in ELT has become a very
dynamic and intersectional field, which proposes a dialogue among cultures,
mediated by foreign languages. It aims to embrace diversity and to work
Introduction: Diversity in ELT
7
towards decentring and developing empathy to give visibility and to empower
silenced minorities to break free from all sorts of inequalities and oppressive
forces.
Gender
In line with the broader constructs of diversity and inclusion, in this volume,
we conceptualise gender as a cultural and dynamic construct. Gender may
be seen as a social institution, a system of power relations, a performance of
identity, and a result of actions (Evripidou, 2020; Widodo & Elyas, 2020).
In other words, gender is about being and doing in particular ways. Gender
is different from sex, which refers to biological traits, but cannot be directly
equated to sexuality. Yet, Butler (1993, 1999) problematises sex as a cultural
norm and an ideal construct materialised over time and shaped by regulatory
norms. In this volume, the lens is focused on gender and sexuality.
Baxter (2013) views both gender and sexuality as broad, fluid, and multifaceted terms that are present in all humans. Humans can be thus seen as
gendered and (a)sexual beings and both gender and sexuality inform people’s
identities. In this volume, gender is discussed drawing on critical, feminist,
and queer theories. These theories “challenge how gender and sexual identities can be understood within and across different languages and cultures,
create[s] spaces where critical discussions around the sociocultural relevance
of all identities, gender, sexual or others can be developed” (Banegas &
Evripidou, 2021).
Gender has been traditionally understood from a system of heteronormativity. Heteronormativity refers to upholding binary cis-heterosexuality
(a straight woman and a straight man) as the norm against which human
beings are gendered as either males or females. On the one hand, the
system silences those individuals who do not fit into the binary, for example
LGBTIQ+ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual, Intersexual, Queer, and
others) people/community. On the other hand, the system is built on a patriarchal framework where heterosexual men are privileged over others, being
discrimination against women the most recognised and discussed. It comes as
no surprise that one of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
for 2030 is to achieve gender equality (Goal 5) by empowering women and
girls to participate in all spheres of social life, and by eliminating all forms of
discrimination, violence, and harmful practices against them (UN, 2016b).
Fuelled by a patriarchal system, gender inequality affects all domains of life
and the ELT world is not the exception. For example, authors have exposed
8
M. Pérez Berbain et al.
how male-dominated hierarchies exercise systemic discrimination against
their female counterparts (e.g., Nagatomo, 2016) in the workplace and other
professional environments. One initiative to counteract this condemnable
practice at least in the conference circuit is the organisation called Equal Voices
in ELT (EVE), which seeks to promote gender (female-male) and language
proficiency (native/non-native) parity in ELT events. There is even an award
called The Fair List which recognises gender balance in ELT events in the
UK.
Another domain, which could be regarded as a threat to gender equality
and diversity is that of teaching materials in the market. Authors have called
for the development of materials, which are sensitive to gender diversity and
refrain from perpetuating heteronormative stereotypes which do not represent learners, teachers, and society at large (e.g., Dahmardeh & Kim, 2020;
Gray, 2013; Moore, 2020). In other words, there is a need to include, for
example, professional and independent women, gay characters, or same-sex
relationships in coursebooks. Together with materials, there is a pressing need
to include gender and sexuality diversity in the classroom and work towards
the deconstruction of gendered classroom discourse so that everyday instances
of male chauvinism, i.e., the belief that men are intellectually and physically
superior to women, or discrimination coated as humour are discussed and
eliminated.
As gender diversity has been identified as a need in ELT (Paiz, 2019), it is
agreed that systemic change should include English language teacher education (ELTE) in both pre-service preparation and continuing professional
development. In this regard, ELTE courses can support and empower teachers
by creating spaces where sociohistorical dimensions, individual trajectories,
beliefs, attitudes, and cultural practices are deconstructed and informed by
theory, research, and practice. Deconstruction entails the analysis of the
elements of an issue for its reinterpretation. For example, a gender perspective can help us re-examine how gender, sexuality, and (in)equality influence
people’s roles and access to, for example, education and professional opportunities. Recent accounts (e.g., Banegas et al., 2020) report that when a gender
perspective is systemically included in ELTE, both (student) teachers’ and
teacher educators’ awareness increases and that awareness begins to inform
new gender-sensitive classroom practices and materials. Preparing teachers to
address LGBTIQ+ identities in ELT entails not only working on a professional dimension but also on a personal plane (Lawrence & Nagashima,
2020) as teachers are also gendered beings and gender and sexuality are part of
the identity they bring into teaching. This means that (future) teachers may
Introduction: Diversity in ELT
9
need to deconstruct themselves and reflect on their own lives as gendered and
(a)sexual beings before addressing these topics in their professional practice.
From an intersectional pedagogy, gender identities are also affected by
other dimensions of identity construction (e.g., race, age, education) which
add to the complexity of ELT.
Special Education Needs
Special education needs (SEN) represents another thread in the weave of
diversity and inclusion. In this volume, SEN refers to institutional and
teacher education needs, which attend to learners’ functional diversity. Functional diversity is a construct, which originated in the Independent Living
approach to disability. It acknowledges the different ways learners function
in the language classroom (Campoy-Cubillo, 2019; Ratzka, 2007). These
ways may reveal social, cognitive, emotional, sensory, and/or physical needs
which may increase inequality of opportunities if they are not met (Kormos,
2020a). Learners who encounter barriers to learning bring to light a gap
between performance and potential (Douglas, 2019) or may altogether refrain
from participating in “high-quality education, including foreign language”
(Nijakowska, 2019, p. 192).
In truth, in a fully-inclusive system of education, “diversity in all its
forms would be accepted as the norm” (Kormos & Smith, 2012, p. 105).
Learners with various aspirations, abilities, and skills would learn side by
side in a unified educational system. It would value diversity, attend to individual needs, focus on entitlement, and consider collective responsibility and
equal opportunities. If this were the case, this volume would be redundant. However, the literature on SEN describes how some learners experience
barriers when learning English as an additional language (Kormos, 2017), and
it also reveals that some other learners are excluded from meaningful learning
even when they are present in the classroom (Dexter, 2020).
Diversity in SEN, far from being perceived as part of humankind, often
results in experiences of difficulties in the classroom, which affect between 5
and 15% of the population (Drabble, 2013). These difficulties are referred to
as “specific learning differences” (Liontou, 2019; MacKay, 2002), “barriers
to participation and learning” (Booth, 2011), “specific learning difficulty”
(Kormos, 2020b; Lowe, 2016), “functional diversity” (Campoy-Cubillo,
2019), and “individual needs” (Dexter, 2019). All these terms draw attention
to the pressing issue of dealing with SEN in ELT to make sure that learners
do not turn away from learning English as an additional language due to the
10
M. Pérez Berbain et al.
difficulties they may encounter in the educational system and in society at
large (MacKay, 2002; Kormos, 2020a).
To mitigate exclusion, SEN needs to be addressed in teacher education
with a focus on learning needs, such as active involvement and individualised
goals (Kormos, 2017) and on specific teaching strategies, such as multisensory/multi-modal approaches and differentiated teaching and learning
(Stadler-Heer, 2019). There is also an imperative to understand inclusion
as “benefiting all learners, not only targeting the excluded” (UNESCO,
2005, p. 13), as well as to ensure institutional provision and teacher support
(Campoy-Cubillo, 2019; Kormos, 2020a). We acknowledge that inclusive
education without the necessary support puts an extra weight on the already
heavy teacher’s load, calling for planning for differentiation as well as
attending to learners’ differences while teaching (Connett, 2020). That said,
can we afford to turn a blind eye to inclusion, which is the enactment of
democratic citizenship and social justice?
In this volume, SEN is discussed from a critical, socio-cultural, and
interactional perspective. It acknowledges that it is society, not the individual, which needs to adjust to meet the needs of all (Kormos & Smith,
2012; Stadler-Heer, 2019). The difficulty some learners may experience when
learning an additional language is the result of how they interact with barriers
in the educational environment (Kormos, 2020a). This view diverts from a
medical and deficit perspective, which regards some people as having intrinsic
disabilities that prevent them from fitting in the established system. Thus, we
question current ELT practices in which we identify threats to the laws and
regulations which grant the right to all individuals for lifelong quality education, without discrimination and on an equal basis with others (Council of
Europe, 2018; UN, 2006; UNESCO, 1994).
One such threat is an ELT curriculum which does not include differentiations or is not flexible enough to adapt to all learners (Stadler-Heer,
2019). For example, Reckermann (2020) and Eisenmann (2017) critically
evaluate methods of scaffolding and differentiating, such as individualisation and embedding storytelling techniques when reading aloud, to cater for
learners with different readiness levels and learning needs. Another threat is
an educational policy which is not supportive in terms of ELT resources, staff,
and training (Ingle, 2017; Lowe, 2016; Kormos, 2020a). Indeed, resources
and teaching methods, which foreground diversity hardly ever feature in
EFL teaching (Reckermann, 2020). Last, there is the threat of society stigmatising and underestimating SEN learners in ELT worldwide. Al-Hout
(2017) and Ingle (2017) report a need to promote high aspirations for SEN
learners supported by high parent and teacher expectations for these learners,
Introduction: Diversity in ELT
11
regardless of the challenges they may be facing. Most importantly, significant
advocacy with all stakeholders may bring about a change in attitude towards
learners with additional needs (Ingle, 2017; Kormos, 2020a).
Hence, there is a call for a balance between emphasising similarities and
acknowledging differences among learners (Reckermann, 2020), as well as
having equity guide teaching strategies (MacKay, 2002). Moreover, there is a
compelling need in ELT in particular to understand diversity from an interactional and intersectional perspective, considering learners’ strengths (e.g.,
holistic thinking, pattern recognition, and visuo-spatial skills) and weaknesses (e.g., planning, organising, focusing, and phonological processing)
when developing their competence in additional languages (Domagała-Zyśk
& Podlewska, 2019; Kormos, 2020a). It is also important to highlight the
importance of inclusive educational policies and the provision of institutional
support (Kormos, 2020a). SEN can be but one aspect of disadvantage which,
alongside other layers of oppression, may deprive some learners of their right
to quality education in an additional language.
Structure of the Volume
The 15 contributions to this volume are organised into three thematic
sections which respond to the key concepts discussed in this chapter. Yet,
from an intersectional perspective (Collins, 2015), these constructs interrelate
with others, such as ethnicity, class, race, age, among others. Even when many
of these concepts are not overtly referred to in this volume, they are present
in the culturally embedded ELT contexts and classroom practices addressed.
Readers will be able to establish connections among sections and chapters
and participate in the weave of intersectionality.
In Part I (Interculturality), readers will find five chapters, which draw
on informed practices and research set in Argentina, Colombia, the United
States, Cambodia, and Germany. In Chapter “Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT”, Porto and Arguiano utilise a narrative approach to describe
a cross-curricular project with primary and secondary school learners in an
Argentinian school, which helped learners mobilise their intercultural skills.
In Chapter “Promoting Understanding of Diversity by Taking a Critical
Intercultural Stance”, Granados-Beltrán situates his chapter at the intersection of interculturality and post-colonial studies to describe the implementation of a critical interculturality module in a teacher education programme in
Colombia. In Chapter “Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences in the
ESL/EFL Classroom”, LaScotte and Peters describe strategies employed in
12
M. Pérez Berbain et al.
US higher education to explicitly address interculturality in English language
instruction drawing on intercultural competence theory. In Chapter ““Let’s
Play ‘Sok says’, not ‘Simon says’”: Evaluating the International and Intercultural Orientation of ELT Materials for Cambodian Secondary Schools”,
Marlina discusses whether intercultural and international dimensions of situated language teaching have been incorporated in secondary school ELT
textbooks produced by and for Cambodia. In Chapter “Task Typologies
for Engaging with Cultural Diversity: The Queer Case of LGBTIQ* Issues
in English Language Teaching”, Merse addresses interculturality from a
queer-informed perspective and puts forward a clearly delineated and illustrated typology of tasks with a focus on intercultural awareness to challenge
heteronormativity as a cultural norm.
Part II (Gender) consists of five chapters that draw on experiences set
in Cyprus, the Philippines, Japan, Argentina, and Germany. In Chapter
“Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom: Teachers’ Beliefs, Doubts, and
Insecurities in Exploring Sexual Identities in Cyprus”, Evripidou focuses
on eight Greek Cypriot EFL teachers’ concerns about discussing heteronormativity and facilitating the exploration of sexual identities in the English
language classroom. In Chapter “Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk in
the Gender Identity Construction of Filipino Children, Potestades examines
teacher-learner classroom interactions and how such dialogues may challenge
or maintain learners’ conceptions of gender and (self-perceived) gender identity. In Chapter “Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities”, McCandie discusses some of the issues female English teachers have
when it comes to working within male-dominated working environments
such as Japan. In Chapter “Supporting In-Service Teachers for Embracing
Comprehensive Sexuality Education in the ELT Classroom”, Cossu, Brun,
and Banegas reflect on the outcomes of a workshop on gender diversity delivered to pre-service as well as in-service teachers in Argentina. Last, in Chapter
“Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular They: Inclusive EFL Teacher
Education”, Blume describes a module designed to examine issues on nonheteronormativity as part of an undergraduate seminar to prepare pre-service
teachers to teach in inclusive settings in Germany.
Part III (Special education needs) includes five chapters contextualised
in Finland, Japan, China, Poland, and Turkey. In Chapter “The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach to Differentiation”, Roiha and Polso
extend the concept of inclusion in L2 education and propose what they
call a 5-dimensional model of differentiation, the dimensions being teaching
arrangements, learning environment , teaching methods, support materials, and
Introduction: Diversity in ELT
13
assessment, which is meant to be used in all aspects of a school community. In Chapter “Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and Responses to Working
with English Learners with Special Educational Needs”, Lowe, Schaefer, and
Turner explore the cognitions and curricular accommodations of a group of
teachers in Japan teaching learners with special education needs for the first
time. In Chapter “Dyslexia and its Role in the Teaching Reform in China”,
Perrin outlines the changes made to English-medium instruction university
courses in China to become inclusive of dyslexic learners. In Chapter “A
Challenge, a Must, an Adventure: English as a Foreign Language for Deaf
and Hard of Hearing Students”, Domagała-Zyśk and Podlewska share a set
of principles, strategies, and communication techniques they employed at a
Polish university to support deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) students in L2
courses. In Chapter “English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge and
Classroom Practices of ADHD”, Cabaroğlu and Tohma report on a group
of teacher educators’ knowledge of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) and describe their actions to prepare future teachers for inclusive
classrooms.
Overall, the chapters in this volume are grounded in context-responsive
pedagogies which combine local needs and experiences with international
perspectives. Hence, while they necessarily depart from local concerns, their
implications may resonate with other contexts and lived experiences across
the wide spectrum of diversity in English language teaching. In addition, the
chapters cover primary, secondary, higher, and teacher education and even
when they are based on different research frameworks (e.g., narrative inquiry
in Chapter “Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT” or critical discourse
analysis in Chapter “Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk in the Gender Identity Construction of Filipino Children”), they coincide in that diversity needs
to be part of the ELT agenda at the levels of educational policies, curricula,
research, teacher education, and pedagogy.
In addition, a common denominator across the volume is the necessity of
investing in teacher preparation and continuing professional development so
that diversity is systemically addressed in ELT teaching and learning. As a
response to this need to strengthen the diversity agenda in ELT, each chapter
includes a set of engagement priorities usually framed as questions and a
list of suggested further reading that seek to invite readers to localise the
experiences reported in the chapters.
14
M. Pérez Berbain et al.
References
Al-Hout, R. (2017). Becoming a more inclusive school . British Council. Retrieved
from http://t.ly/IGHN.
Banegas, D., & Villacañas de Castro, L. (2016). Criticality. ELT Journal, 70 (4),
455–457.
Banegas, D. L., & Evripidou, D. (2021). Introduction: Comprehensive sexuality
education in ELT. ELT Journal, 75 (2), 1–5.
Banegas, D. L., Jacovkis, L. G., & Romiti, A. (2020). A gender perspective in
initial English language teacher education: An Argentinian experience. Sexuality
& Culture, 24 (1), 1–22.
Baxter, J. (2013). Gender. In J. Simpson (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of applied
linguistics (pp. 331–343). Routledge.
Beall, J. (2019). Foreword. In S. Douglas (Ed.), Creating an inclusive school
environment. British Council.
Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The location of culture. Routledge.
Booth, T. (2011). The name of the rose: Inclusive values into action in teacher
education. Prospects, 41, 303–318.
Butler, J. (1993). Bodies that matter: On the discursive limits of “sex.” Routledge.
Butler, J. (1999). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity (2nd ed.).
Routledge.
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence.
Multilingual Matters.
Campoy-Cubillo, M. C. (2019). Functional diversity and the multimodal listening
construct. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 34 (2), 204–219.
Chan, E., & Coney, L. (2020). Moving TESOL forward: Increasing educators’
critical consciousness through a racial lens. TESOL Journal, 11(4), e550.
Collins, P. H. (2015). Intersectionality’s definitional dilemmas. Annual Review of
Sociology, 41(1), 1–20.
Connett, H. (2020). Action research to improve confidence in meeting diverse need
and the quality of inclusive practice through lesson observations. Support for
Learning, 35 (2), 178–191.
Council of Europe. (2018). Common European framework of reference for languages:
Learning, teaching, assessment—companion volume with new descriptors. Council
of Europe. Retrieved from https://rm.coe.int/cefr-companion-volume-with-newdescriptors-2018/1680787989.
Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and
violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43, 1241–1299.
Dahmardeh, M., & Kim, S. D. (2020). Gender representation in Iranian English
language coursebooks: Is sexism still alive? English Today, 36 (1), 12–22.
Dexter, P. (2019). Special educational needs and disability. In S. Douglas (Ed.),
Creating an inclusive school environment (pp. 115–118). British Council.
Introduction: Diversity in ELT
15
Dexter, P. (2020, June 30). Ten top approaches to inclusive teaching and learning
in “Supporting every teacher” series. CUP World of Better Learning. https://t.ly/
KfET.
Domagała-Zyśk, E., & Podlewska, A. (2019). Strategies of oral communication of
deaf and hard-of-hearing (D/HH) non-native English users. European Journal of
Special Needs Education, 34 (2), 156–171.
Douglas, S. (Ed.). (2019). Creating an inclusive school environment. British Council.
Drabble, S. (2013). Support for children with special educational needs. European
Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion.
Rand.
Eisenmann, M. (2017). Heterogeneity and differentiation—Individualization in the
EFL classroom. In M. Eisenmann & T. Summer (Eds.), Basic issues in EFL
teaching and learning (2nd ed., pp. 297–310). Winter.
Evripidou, D. (2020). Effects of heteronormativity on Cypriot EFL classroom
participation: Students’ experiences. Gender and Education, 32(8), 1019–1033.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogia do oprimido. Herder & Herder.
Giroux, H. A. (2020). On critical pedagogy (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury.
Gray, J. (2013). LGBT invisibility and heteronormativity in ELT materials. In
J. Gray (Ed.), Critical perspectives on language teaching materials (pp. 40–63).
Palgrave.
Hall, C. (2016). A short introduction to social justice and ELT. In C. Hastings
(Ed.), Social justice in English language teaching (pp. 3–10). TESOL Press.
Ingle, G. (2017). A window on inclusion: Understanding the situation of SEN in
Maharashtra. In S. Douglas (Ed.), Unlocking a world of potential: Core skills for
all (pp. 24–26). British Council. Retrieved from https://www.britishcouncil.org/
sites/default/files/g264_schools_core_skills_tl_brochure3_final_web.pdf.
Kormos, J. (2017). The second language learning processes of students with specific
learning difficulties. Routledge.
Kormos, J. (2020a). Specific learning difficulties in ELT . Cambridge University Press.
Kormos, J. (2020b). Specific learning difficulties in second language learning and
teaching. Language Teaching, 53, 129–143.
Kormos, J., & Smith, A. (2012). Teaching languages to students with specific learning
differences. Multilingual Matters.
Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford University
Press.
Kubota, R., Austin, T., & Saito-Abbott, Y. (2003). Diversity and inclusion of
sociopolitical issues in foreign language classrooms: An exploratory survey.
Foreign Language Annals, 36 (1), 12–24.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2016). The decolonial option in English teaching: Can the
subaltern act? TESOL Quarterly, 50 (1), 66–85.
Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy.
American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 465–491.
16
M. Pérez Berbain et al.
Lamb, T., Hatoss, A., & O’Neill, S. (2019). Challenging social injustice in superdiverse contexts through activist languages education. In R. Papa (Ed.), Handbook
on promoting social justice in education (pp. 1–38). Palgrave.
Lantolf, J. P., & Poehner, M. E. (2014). Sociocultural theory and the pedagogical imperative in L2 education: Vygotskian praxis and the research/practice divide.
Routledge.
Lawrence, L., & Nagashima, Y. (2020). The intersectionality of gender, sexuality, race, and native-speakerness: Investigating ELT teacher identity through
duoethnography. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 19 (1), 42–55.
Liontou, T. (2019). Foreign language learning for children with ADHD: Evidence
from a technology-enhanced learning environment. European Journal of Special
Needs Education, 34 (2), 220–235.
Liu, D., & Nelson, R. (2017). Diversity in the classroom. In J. I. Liontas (Ed.), The
TESOL encyclopedia of English language teaching. Wiley.
López-Gopar, M. (Ed.). (2019). International perspectives on critical pedagogies in
ELT . Palgrave.
López-Jiménez, M., & Sánchez-Torres, J. (Eds.). (2021). Intercultural competence,
past, present and future: Respecting the past, problems in the present and forging the
future. Springer.
Lowe, R. (2016). Special educational needs in English language teaching: Towards a
framework for continuing professional development. ELTED Journal, 19, 23–31.
MacKay, G. (2002). The disappearance of disability? Thoughts on a changing
culture. British Journal of Special Education, 29 (4), 159–163.
Merse, T. (2015). Queer-informed approaches and sexual literacy in ELT: Theoretical foundations and teaching principles. Language Policy, 26 (1), 13–20.
Mercer, S., & Gregersen, T. (2020). Teacher wellbeing. Oxford University Press.
Mignolo, W. (2000). Local histories/global designs: Coloniality, subaltern knowledges,
and border thinking. Princeton University Press.
Moore, A. (2020). Understanding heteronormativity in ELT textbooks: A practical
taxonomy. ELT Journal, 74 (2), 116–125.
Nagatomo, D. (2016). Identity, gender and teaching English in Japan. Multilingual
Matters.
Nelson, C. D. (2009). Sexual identities in English language education: Classroom
conversations. Routledge.
Nijakowska, J. (2019). Foreign language teachers’ preparedness to cater for special
educational needs of learners with dyslexia: A conceptual framework. European
Journal of Special Needs Education, 34 (2), 189–203.
Ospina, R., & Ramírez-López, C. (Eds.). (2016). Pedagogía crítica latinoamericana
y género: Construcción social de niños, niñas y jóvenes como sujetos políticos. Siglo
del Hombre Editores.
Paiz, J. M. (2019). Queering practice: LGBTQ+ diversity and inclusion in English
language teaching. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 18(4), 266–275.
Paris, D., & Alim, H. (Eds.). (2017). Culturally sustaining pedagogies: Teaching and
learning for justice in a changing world . Teachers College Press.
Introduction: Diversity in ELT
17
Pennycook, A. (1999). Introduction: Critical approaches to TESOL. TESOL
Quarterly, 33(3), 329–348.
Petriwskyj, A. (2010). Diversity and inclusion in the early years. International
Journal of Inclusive Education, 14 (2), 195–212.
Ramezanzadeh, A., & Rezaei, S. (2019). Reconceptualising authenticity in TESOL:
A new space for diversity and inclusion. TESOL Quarterly, 53(3), 794–815.
Ratzka, A. (2007). Independent living for people with disabilities: From patient
to citizen and customer. GLADNET Collection. Retrieved from http://digitalco
mmons.ilr.cornell.edu/gladnetcollect/424.
Reckermann, J. (2020). Dealing with diversity in English children’s books in the
heterogeneous EFL classroom. PFLB, 2(4), 134–157.
Roberson, Q. M. (2006). Disentangling the meanings of diversity and inclusion in
organizations. Group & Organization Management, 31(2), 212–236.
Spivak, G. (1988). Can the subaltern speak? In C. Nelson & L. Grossberg (Eds.),
Marxism and the interpretation of culture (pp. 271–313). MacMillan.
Stadler-Heer, S. (2019). Inclusion. ELT Journal, 73(2), 219–222.
Trigos-Carrillo, L. (2019). Community cultural wealth and literacy capital in Latin
American communities. English Teaching: Practice & Critique, 19 (1), 3–19.
UN. (2006). The United Nations convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/disabilities/documents/convention/con
vention_accessible_pdf.
UN. (2016a). Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote
lifelong learning. Retrieved from https://goo.gl/fZ5kEZ.
UN. (2016b). Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
Retrieved from https://goo.gl/fZ5kEZ.
UNESCO. (1994). The Salamanca statement and framework for action on special
needs education. UNESCO.
UNESCO. (2002). The Johannesburg declaration on sustainable development.
UNESCO.
UNESCO. (2005). Guidelines for inclusion: Ensuring access to education for all .
UNESCO.
UNESCO. (2017). A guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education. UNESCO.
UNESCO. (2019). Inclusion in education. Available at https://en.unesco.org/themes/
inclusion-in-education.
Walsh, C. (2010). Interculturalidad crítica y educación intercultural. In J. Viaña,
L. Tapia & C. Walsh (Eds.), Construyendo interculturalidad crítica (pp. 75–96).
Instituto Internacional de Integración del Convenio Andrés Bello III-CAB.
Widodo, H. P., & Elyas, T. (2020). Introduction to gender in language education.
Sexuality & Culture, 24 (4), 1019–1027.
Interculturality
Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT
Melina Porto and Javier Arguiano
An Initial Vignette
It is mid-November 2019 in City Bell, Argentina, and 6th form (primary
school) and 1st year (secondary school) students are playing new sports they
have just created during a field trip to the school’s country club. They are
playing in mixed groups of primary and secondary students and of students
in the role of sports designers and sports players. On the spot, they adapt the
rules to suit everyone’s abilities and preferences and to play longer without
being eliminated. They are accompanied by two English teachers, one Physical Education (PE) teacher, the English Department academic coordinator,
the headteacher, the 1st year’s form tutor, a therapeutic aid (who is also a
psychologist) and a janitor. They are communicating in English, a foreign
language in the country: “We need rings and balls”; “The first step is do two
M. Porto (B)
Universidad Nacional de La Plata and Conicet (National Research Council), La
Plata, Argentina
e-mail: melinaporto@conicet.gov.ar
J. Arguiano
Asociación Escuela Hebrea y Jardín de Infantes “Jaim Najman Bialik”, La Plata,
Argentina
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_2
21
22
M. Porto and J. Arguiano
queues”; “The ball it to be kicked”; “If you […], you kick the ball in the
ring”. They feel excited, happy and motivated.
Once back at school, the outdoor experience is the theme of the day. They
go global and in their PE lessons, they re-design their sports with an international mindset to submit their creations for consideration of the International
Olympic Committee. In his classroom, the secondary school English teacher
receives these comments: “My teammates didn’t bother to help”; “Did you
see that weird kid from 6th form?”; “That kid from 6th form spoke very good
English”.
These are a few glimpses of an interdisciplinary pedagogic project, not set
up as a research project, aimed at working as a bridge between primary and
secondary school, undertaken in a private and secular school (primary and
secondary) in La Plata city run by the Argentine Jewish Mutual Aid Society
(AMIA in Spanish) with a history of over 100 years in the Jewish community
of the city. The primary school students are sixteen boys and nine girls, aged
11, and the secondary school students are ten boys and five girls, aged 12–13.
Within each group, the students exhibit different levels of English language
proficiency. On a side note, we must acknowledge the privileged status of the
school, which owns its own country club and serves middle class students.
Prior to the school trip, in their English and PE lessons, the students had
addressed the theme healthy lifestyles in connection with sports, reflecting on
the varied reasons why people do sports, how current sports originated, the
differences between a sport and a game, sports rules and so on. In the English
lessons, the teacher had focused on modal verbs to express rules, obligation,
and prohibition (must, mustn’t); have/has to in order to describe steps; sports
as a semantic field, for instance fields (field, court, course, track, arena), gear
and equipment (ball, hoop, bat) and sportswear.
The school bus arrived at the country club at 10 a.m. Six mixed groups
with primary and secondary school students were formed and were told to
create a new sport, totally different from any existing sport they knew. In
a brainstorming stage, the students explored possibilities, imagined options
creatively, thought about tentative aims, rules or laws, score systems, necessary sportswear, field type, equipment or gear and the like. The available
equipment (different types of balls, hoops, ropes, cones and more) had been
brought from the school by the PE teacher. Creativity was valued and encouraged: one group used the removable legs of outdoor plastic tables as bats and
another, paper balls made by themselves.
The teachers played a crucial role in this first stage as they asked guiding
questions intended to raise awareness of some of the hidden or covert dimensions involved in terms of audience (Can this sport be played by anyone?
Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT
23
Are there restrictions?); gender (Is this sport for boys? For girls? Is gender
not significant?); age (Is this sport for young athletes? People of all ages?);
sportswear requirements (Do you need a special outfit to play the sport?
If so, how is that a form of exclusion?); health requirements (Can specific
groups with particular health conditions play the sport? Are there restrictions?
What about disabilities?); religion (Can people professing any religion play
the sport?); language (Are there language barriers that prevent some groups
from playing this sport?); among others.
Then the collaborative task of designing a poster in English describing their
sport began. Scaffolded by their teachers, they discussed how best to put their
ideas on paper in a clear enough way for the other groups to understand.
This step proved to be difficult and much scaffolding was needed. Once the
posters were finalised, each group tried out their sport, scattered all around
the premises, and this phase allowed them to see what worked and what did
not, assess pros and cons, make final decisions and change their sports and
posters accordingly.
The six groups are now ready to introduce their sport to everyone in an
oral presentation in English and perform an exhibition match or round.
They are eager to show their posters, describe their newly invented sports,
feel anxious to move their bodies and are enthusiastic about performing for
others. The presentations and exhibitions are welcomed but also scrutinised;
students question the originality and general appeal of the sports and judge
some as “too boring” or “too simple”. After all the groups take their turns,
students take their posters to a shed nearby, where they stick them to a wall
for everyone to read in detail. Students go over the posters again and vote
on the sport they would like to try out, in newly formed groups combining
primary and secondary school students, and also students who designed the
sport and some who did not. Sports playing begins. It is a hilarious day.
Assumptions: Views of Education in This School
This vignette illustrates the philosophy of education of this school, described
by the headteacher of the secondary school in a reflection log in this way:
[Our work is based on a] pedagogy of Teaching for Understanding (Stone
Wiske 1999), a pedagogic and didactic framework which conceptualises
different entry points to access knowledge and understanding, and diversity in
assessment strategies […] The heterogeneous nature of our classrooms compels
us to deconstruct our homogenising behaviour, which has left a stain in our
24
M. Porto and J. Arguiano
educational system for over a century. Aided by the Teaching for Understanding framework, the teachers can accommodate diversity and difference in
their curricula and guide their students in their academic development, as they
navigate greater abstraction and complexity. [Reflection log in Spanish, 8 April
2020, our translation, emphasis added.]
Departing from an understanding of the heterogeneous nature of our classrooms, the school builds on diversity (“different entry points”, “diversity”) to
guarantee not only “access [to] knowledge” but also to educate for “understanding”. Teaching knowledge relates to an instrumental view of education
(knowledge for study, travel, work, business and so on) while teaching for
understanding involves the development of learners as human beings (Zovko
& Dillon, 2018). In this philosophy, teachers can enact this complementary
view by accommodating “diversity and difference in their curricula”.
Then the headteacher describes how this complementarity can be enacted
in the school and the focus is on teacher collaboration in networks to agree
on shared indicators of learner understanding in the whole school, “generative
topics” across subjects in “interdisciplinary projects” and reaching out to the
“local and global communities”:
To be able to do this, teachers must attend a weekly meeting where they can
agree on common performances of understanding and share their experiences with
their colleagues. By gaining access to generative topics in other subjects, the
teachers are able to engage in interdisciplinary projects that are properly carried
out and expounded upon in a presentation at the end of the school year. The
school aspires to build on these experiences and to share them with the local
and global educational communities at large. [Reflection log in Spanish, 8 April
2020, our translation, emphasis added.]
The project described in the initial vignette is framed within this philosophy.
Views of Language Teaching and Learning
One of the groups gathers in a circle to create their poster with the help
of their English teacher. They are sitting on the grass, with a yellow poster
paper, paper-cut subheadings (e.g. rules, scoring system), pens and pencils.
Learning is taking place outside the classroom, outdoors, in this case, the
school’s country club, which becomes a fund of knowledge (Moje et al.,
2004), i.e. one of the varied places and spaces where languages are used and
people learn. Students are working collaboratively and this is indicated by the
Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT
25
arrangement in a circle where the teacher is not at the front (of a classroom)
but is rather a member with equal status.
Not only place and space are important. The content of learning is
too. Students have different proficiency levels in English because they go
to different schools (primary/secondary), attend different years/grades, and
there are individual differences. The theme “sports” is close to the students’
everyday lives. Everyone has an opinion and an experience because it is
familiar. But familiarity with the topic is not enough to learn English. For
learning to be meaningful, the conceptual and the linguistic functions of
language need to be combined (Widdowson, 1979), in other words, it is not
enough to duplicate in English what one already knows in the first language.
We need to expand existing frames of reference or develop new ones. So here
the conceptual, i.e. the content (sports), is integrated with language learning
(the semantic field sports, modality, language for instructions and descriptions
and so on) in a cross-curricular project that connects two school subjects,
English and PE, to give significance to learning by proposing the collaborative and creative task of inventing a totally novel sport for everyone to play.
Learning English is not an aim in itself; learning English to use it in this
real context and for this genuine purpose is. The integration of content and
language, called CLIL (content and language integrated learning) , is a motivational driving force (Banegas, 2012). A lot of work with the language occurs
in each group and also among all the groups. For instance, to decide which
newly created sport to play during the afternoon, all the groups prepare a
wall display. A lot of reading and discussion takes place in which students
collaboratively assess each sport with a variety of criteria set by themselves
(appeal, attractiveness, suitability for group members and so on) to make a
decision. In this way, the curriculum is “flexible and localised” and “takes
into account learners’ diversity and experiences” (Ramezanzadeh & Rezaeiin,
2019, p. 812) in a reconceptualisation of “authenticity in TESOL [teaching
English to speakers of other languages]” (Ramezanzadeh & Rezaeiin, 2019,
p. 794).
Another important dimension is the performative, which is obviously
significant in PE but not usually attended to in the school subject English.
In groups, students try out the new sports. They use English as they play
the selected sport, for example by giving and revising instructions, collecting
the necessary equipment, reminding others of rules, clarifying procedures on
the go and so on. Roles (affecting the use of English) within groups are
not pre-determined by teachers but agreed upon by the students themselves.
This performative dimension means that language learning is not limited to
traditional views of literacy connected mainly to reading and writing, or at
26
M. Porto and J. Arguiano
best, to the four skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening). Students use
their creativity and imagination (table legs are bats), actions and movement,
revealing a performative view of literacy (Zaidi & Roswell, 2017a) that takes
everything that students bring with them into account. They bring their
minds (i.e. the cognitive), desires and emotions, preferences, their bodies,
gestures, expressions, Spanish (and other languages), and their appropriation of spaces and places (the country club, the sports field for this new
sport, particular areas in the premises as learning spaces). In sum, literacy
in this view captures “the prismatic character of our lives as we move around
physically, virtually, linguistically and spiritually, and how we negotiate these
different spaces with our own backgrounds” (Zaidi & Roswell, 2017b, p. 11,
their emphasis).
The Intercultural Dimension
Negotiating the physical, virtual, linguistic, spiritual and other dimensions
of our lives with our own backgrounds requires intercultural sensitivity and
reflection, in other words, the ability to analyse and challenge our naturalised assumptions, beliefs, values and actions and those of others. The
trigger questions that the teachers posed during the brainstorming stage
were aimed at raising intercultural awareness: Can anyone play this sport?
Is it for boys/girls? Is it for young/older people? Are there linguistic, religious or other restrictions to play it? By reflecting on these dimensions,
the students were encouraged to mobilise intercultural skills (Byram, 1997):
observing, describing, discovering, analysing, comparing and contrasting,
relating, de-centring (stepping outside their views and considering others),
perspective-taking and interpreting.
But consciousness-raising of this kind did not only occur through imagination. Considering if a sport is intended for younger or older populations
invites students to imagine a particular audience. It is the kind of imagination that literature fosters. However, when the students tried out their
sports to assess what worked and what did not, and when they played the
sports created by others during the last phase of the project, the attention to
otherness was of a different kind. The other was not imaginary but real. The
others were the schoolmates and teachers all around. The comments that the
secondary school English teacher received once they were back in the classroom (“Did you see that weird kid from 6th grade?”; “That kid from 6th grade
spoke very good English”) show the difficulty posed by the relational dimension of language learning, i.e. getting involved with others and attempting to
Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT
27
place ourselves in somebody else’s shoes to understand them with their own
backgrounds. The adjective “weird” and highlighting somebody’s linguistic
competence as an identity marker are evidence of that difficulty. Intercultural
language learning encourages students to become intercultural speakers and
intercultural mediators (Byram, 2009; Byram & Zarate, 1996) by fostering
such understanding of people even if partially.
The process is not easy because intergroup relations—such as might exist
between the primary and secondary school students in this project—are often
affected by prejudice. Judging schoolmates as “weird” or on the basis of their
language competence (“very good English”) is an example of such prejudice.
Allport (1954/1979) said that prejudice is not overcome by simply bringing
two groups into contact with each other. For prejudice and stereotyping to be
overcome, the groups working together should have equal status (here they
are all students in the same school) and common goals in cooperative activity
as set for instance by this project, in this case, the task of designing a novel
sport.
Intercultural Speaker, Intercultural Competence
and Intercultural Communicative Competence
The phrases intercultural speaker and intercultural competence were coined by
Byram and Zarate (1996) in work for the Council of Europe, later refined by
Byram (1997). Intercultural competence is needed whenever there is interaction of people of different social groups with different cultures using the
same language. When such interaction involves the use of at least one foreign
language, it is called intercultural communicative competence. In both cases,
the competence involves different skills, knowledge and attitudes, namely
those that are needed to overcome incomprehension and inappropriate attitudes in communication and action among people of different social groups.
It is not a competence that implies that they identify with native speakers in
such groups. Depending on the situation, people need intercultural competence to be able to take the perspective of the other, seek ways of learning
about and understanding the other’s preconceptions and find a common
ground for successful communication. If they are using a foreign language,
then they need intercultural communicative competence, i.e. a combination
of linguistic and intercultural competences.
Foreign language students need intercultural communicative competence
when they are involved in interaction with speakers of the foreign language
they are learning either as a native language or as lingua franca. In many
contexts around the world, the problem is that “in foreign language settings,
28
M. Porto and J. Arguiano
exposure to the target language is limited” (Philp & Iwashita, 2013, p. 355).
This cross-curricular project with a CLIL basis was aimed at providing such
exposure in a context in which a local immersion option (Marletta & Porto,
2019) or a transnational project, whether face-to-face as in study abroad, or
mediated by technology, was not feasible (see Byram et al., 2017 for examples of this type). Three decades ago, this project would have been judged as
artificial and far from authentic. After all, non-native speaker teachers were
involved and the project could have been undertaken using only Spanish.
However, authenticity is reconceptualised here following Ramezanzadeh and
Rezaei’s (2019) suggestion to consider the learners’ localised ways, diversity and experiences. This is the same observation Henry Widdowson made
40 years ago: authenticity is not something external to the learner, to be found
in materials, coursebooks, projects and so on but rather it is internal and the
most contrived learning experience, within the classroom and beyond it, can
become genuine or authentic when it suits the students’ purposes, needs and
diverse experiences (Widdowson, 1979, 1996). In other words, when it takes
“the prismatic character of [their] lives” and “their own backgrounds” into
account (Zaida & Rowsell, 2017b, p. 11).
An Intercultural Challenge
The intercultural basis of language learning in this project was not without
problems. Allport’s (1954/1979) prejudice theory supported the decision to
put together two groups of students with equal status in a project that set
common goals to be achieved cooperatively with the understanding that
this design would contribute to overcoming prejudice and stereotyping.
Notwithstanding, the following critical incident illustrates the difficulties that
emerged. The following are extracts from a retrospective reflection log written
by the secondary school teacher four months after the school trip in which
he narrates the experience with one group of students [emphasis added in all
extracts]. He first describes the group in this way:
[It is an] all -boys team. In this group we find three students from each class.
Two of the secondary school boys are older than their classmates, one of them
is taking the 1st year course for a second time while the other boy’s academic
background was never fully disclosed to the teachers. Moreover, the former
has recently begun transitioning (he had started to identify as a boy as early as
September). We will refer to this student as Student A, and to the later referred
to student as Student B.
Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT
29
The teacher emphasises three key aspects that he observed, related to gender,
age and school performance (italicised in the extract), which are social identifications that make us who we are and which can be interpreted by others
in different ways, namely the fact that all group members are male; two of
them are older and one of them is re-attending 1st year (a cause for stigmatisation and discrimination in local schools); and the information about gender
transitioning.
During the brainstorming stage, gender identification emerges as powerful,
not in connection with Student A in any explicit way, but in relation to the
type of sport the group wants to create, football rugby, proposed by Student
B. The discussion, brought up by Student A, turns to the violent and aggressive character of the sport, associated with stereotyped male traits (“manly
and aggressive ways”, “too violent”), which prompts this student to suggest a
sport involving swimming with a ball. Everything goes wrong for the group
when Student A’s proposal is simply discarded on the grounds that football
rugby is “more fun” and he ends up feeling upset and crying (“very upset”,
“with tears in his eyes”):
These two students will not stop fighting over the nature of their game. Student B,
who plays rugby and takes pride in his manly and aggressive ways, has imagined
a hybrid game that he calls ‘football rugby’. Student A disapproves of Student
B’s proposal on the grounds that such a game is ‘too violent’ . Student A gets
very upset that the rest of the group should end up favouring Student B’s game,
especially because he was the first to propose that they create a completely
different game that involved swimming and a ball, probably ignoring that such
a game already existed. When this is noted to him, he suggests that they only
make a few tweaks to his original idea. He is determined to stick with it. It is
at this point that Student B propounds the basics of his game. Everyone else
agrees that ‘football rugby’ is a simpler game, and just ‘more fun’ than Student
A’s idea. Finally, Student A gives in. Not without complaining to his teacher
about his group with tears in his eyes.
What is happening to the group is that they are unable to take “their own
backgrounds” into account, in Zaida and Rowsell’s (2017b, p.11) words, in
a way that shows an ethical consideration of the other as a being worthy
of respect. Student A’s views are simply discarded by group members, who
are unable to step outside their mental frameworks to begin to see through
Student A’s eyes. In Byram’s (1997) intercultural competence framework, they
are unable to de-centre and see the world with a lens different from their
own. Their inability has dramatic consequences for Student A, who feels
emotionally affected as his gender identification is threatened.
30
M. Porto and J. Arguiano
Worried about the group’s inability to reconcile their views, the secondary school
English teacher approaches them (Student A has gone for a walk to get his
mind off the game for a while) to find out what they make of the conflict. The
remaining secondary school students argue that Student A’s claims that their
game was too violent and ‘boyish’ was uncalled for, implying that that was not
for him to say. At this moment the teacher realises that Student A is upset because
his self -image as a boy has been challenged by the more ‘boy-like’ boys. Student
B had taken it upon himself to gatekeep boyness and masculinity in the group for
himself and the other boys only, so that Student A’s views were completely discarded.
Student A abandons the group and chooses not to take part in the sport
exhibition.
The group would go on to write down the rules and guidelines of ‘football
rugby’ and play an underwhelming exhibition match, but Student A abandons
the ship just moments before this takes place.
This critical incident shows the significance that the intercultural dimension
of language learning has in terms of taking into account the learners’ diverse
identifications, backgrounds and experiences. It also shows the consequences
it may have on learners, in particular as far as emotions are concerned,
and what happened with Student A here challenges “the established view of
Foreign Language (FL) learning and teaching as emotionless, clinical, germfree absorption and transmission of linguistic knowledge” (Dewaele, 2018,
p. 18). The project certainly opened up opportunities for these intercultural issues to emerge during the school trip. However, as the secondary
school teacher noted in his retrospective log, “the school trip experience was
not recapped as such in the secondary-school English lessons as part of the
curriculum” and in this sense, an opportunity was also missed to help Student
A invest his social identifications with power and agency as he engaged with
others on the basis of his values and worldviews, situated in a broader framework of cultural, political, religious and other values, using a range of semiotic
resources such as the linguistic, the interactional, the nonverbal, the auditory, the performative and more (Duff, 2019). Because agency is relational,
multidimensional, emergent, spatially and temporally situated and achievable
(Larsen-Freeman, 2019), Student A could have been helped to learn from the
experience in productive and self-asserting ways.
Finally, the opportunity was missed not only concerning Student A but
everyone else, group members and the rest of the students alike. Language
learning, because of the continuous contestation with difference and diversity that it fosters, can contribute to the development of ethical relationships
Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT
31
with others, based on empathy, solidarity, respect, hospitality, care, love and
inclusion, by sensitising students about issues of human suffering (Zembylas,
2020). In this sense, we agree with Zaidi and Roswell’s (2017b) call to
create a more action-oriented understanding of learning that strives to create
conditions for children and youth to grow deeper understandings of their
inheritance, culture and practices, and to inculcate a deeper feeling of mutual
coexistence where each of us realizes that we coexist and create meaning in
relation to the other. What does it mean to exist in this world in relation to
other human beings? (p. 12)
Implications and Concluding Remarks
Considering the specificity of this setting, which as any other offers possibilities but is also fraught with challenges and limitations, in this chapter
we have described a cross-curricular project undertaken with primary and
secondary school students that combined learning in two school subjects,
English and PE, around the theme sports. Supported by a philosophy of
education centred on understanding, the teachers designed a project in which
students of different ages and backgrounds got together outside the classroom
and the school, in the school’s country club, to work on the collaborative task
of imagining, creating and performing novel sports using English to do so.
In so doing, they put the English they knew in use, learned the language
in a variety of ways, and also addressed significant content for PE. Most
significantly, they mobilised their intercultural skills as they felt motivated
and encouraged by the CLIL focus of the project, which re-signified school
learning as authentic in terms of their backgrounds and diverse experiences.
While the project proved to be a valuable learning experience for the
majority of the students, it also brought to the surface the difficulties and
challenges involved in the intercultural dimension of language learning. Issues
related to the enactment of learners’ social identifications, prejudice and
stereotyping, the difficulty of de-centring, the centrality of emotions and
affect, and agency, among others, emerged as important in language learning.
Other issues are likely to emerge in different settings. Because the experiences of foreign language learning that students undergo can have profound
consequences on their selves, as we have seen, we also suggest that promoting
ethical relations with others based on empathy, solidarity, respect, hospitality, care, love and inclusion should be an explicit aim of language teaching
so as to sensitise students to issues of human suffering. While education
aimed at raising awareness of human suffering tends to address traumatic
32
M. Porto and J. Arguiano
historical events such as wars, genocide and massacres (Zembylas, 2020),
here we suggest that this awareness can be developed through the microdimensions of language learning drawing on “innocuous” themes such as
sports as described in this chapter.
Finally, concerning teacher education, this chapter evidences the need
to provide teachers with opportunities to understand, and put in practice,
the key concepts involved in conceptualisations of intercultural competence
and intercultural communicative competence. The complexities and challenges are huge and teacher education for intercultural language learning is
still underdeveloped (Baker, 2015). The project was an opportunity for the
teachers involved to reflect on their practices, assess them in terms of their
contributions to developing intercultural language education in their settings,
re-signify those practices, imagine, plan and enact changes on this basis and
in this way forge their own professional development trajectories.
Suggested Further Reading
Liddicoat, A., & Scarino, A. (2013). Intercultural language teaching and
learning. West Sussex: Wiley & Sons Ltd.
This book addresses the complexity of language teaching and learning
understood as essentially linguistically and culturally diverse. While theory
and research are well developed in the field, attention to educational practice
is less easily available and this book offers this perspective.
O’Dowd, R., & Lewis, T. (Eds.). (2016). Online intercultural exchange. Policy,
pedagogy, practice. New York and London: Routledge.
This book illustrates intercultural language learning in online contexts. It
is particularly useful for foreign language teachers, for whom the language of
instruction is not readily available in the everyday and community contexts
where their learners live and use languages.
Wagner, M., Cardetti, F., & Byram, M. (2019). Teaching intercultural citizenship across the curriculum. New York: American Council on the Teaching of
Foreign Languages.
When language teaching with an intercultural orientation embraces its
citizenship and educational duties and responsibilities, intercultural citizenship becomes the basis for language teaching. This book sets the theoretical
perspectives involved in the concept of intercultural citizenship and presents
classroom applications across the curriculum in a teacher-friendly format that
allows replication and adaptation in varied contexts.
Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT
33
Engagement Priorities
This chapter illustrates an approach to developing intercultural foreign
language learning that distances from other available options and practices
in the field. Some of these involve for instance a focus on working with
images of cultures in the classroom (such as those appearing in published
textbooks or fostered in literary resources), cultural comparisons usually at
the national level and attention to the five Fs approach to cultural diversity
(Flags, Fashion, Food, Faces/Famous people, Festivals/Folklore).
• What views of culture and language are presupposed by these applications?
• In the intercultural dimension along the lines described in this chapter,
how can attention to knowledge (linguistic and cultural knowledge, knowledge of how communication works, relevant knowledge of disciplinary
content and so on) be complemented with the development of intercultural skills and attitudes?
• In the face of accountability priorities and standardised assessment, the
intercultural dimension tends to be ranked low among teacher priorities.
How can this situation change?
• Fostering ethical relationships with others as part of language teaching
brings in ethical issues associated with our role as educators instead of
trainers. What are these ethical considerations? How do they impact on
our teacher identity and roles?
Acknowledgements We are sincerely grateful to the school headteacher, Carina
Schuster, for her support in the process of writing this chapter. We also appreciate the valuable insights we have received from the English academic coordinator,
Ethel Rosenberg. The primary school English teacher, Silvana Pellegrino, and the
PE teacher, Luciana Heffes, deserve a special mention for the exceptional job done.
This experience is the result of a fruitful collaboration with them. Lastly, Javier
Arguiano wishes to thank María José Arias Mercader for her edifying guidance and
thought-provoking mentoring.
References
Allport, G. (1954/1979). The nature of prejudice. Addison-Wesley.
Baker, W. (2015). Research into practice: Cultural and intercultural awareness.
Language Teaching, 48(1), 130–141.
34
M. Porto and J. Arguiano
Banegas, D. L. (2012). Motivation and autonomy through CLIL: A collaborative
undertaking. In L. Anglada & D. L. Banegas (Eds.), Views on motivation and
autonomy in ELT: Selected papers from the XXXVII FAAPI conference (pp. 39–45).
APIZALS.
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence.
Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M. (2009). Intercultural competence in foreign languages. The intercultural
speaker and the pedagogy of foreign language education. In D. Deardorff (Ed.),
The SAGE handbook of intercultural competence (pp. 321–332). Sage.
Byram, M., Golubeva, I., Han, H., & Wagner, M. (Eds.). (2017). From principles
to practice in education for intercultural citizenship. Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M., & Zarate, G. (1996). Defining and assessing intercultural competence:
Some principles and proposals for the European context. Language Teaching,
29 (4), 239–243.
Dewaele, J. M. (2018). Editorial. Special issue emotions in SLA. Studies in Second
Language Learning and Teaching, 8, 15–19.
Duff, P. (2019). Social dimensions and processes in second language acquisition:
Multilingual socialization in transnational contexts. Modern Language Journal,
103, 6–22.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2019). On language learner agency: A complex dynamic
systems theory perspective. Modern Language Journal, 103, 61–79.
Marletta, C., & Porto, M. (2019). Learning English through arts-based pedagogies in informal contexts: The case of immersion camps in Argentina. In D.
Banegas, M. Porto, M. López-Barrios & F. Perduca, (Eds.), Literature in ELT.
Selected papers from the 44th FAAPI conference (pp. 40–53). ASPI.
Moje, E., McIntosh Ciechanowski, K., Kramer, K., Ellis, L., Carrillo, R., & Collazo,
T. (2004). Working toward third space in content area literacy: An examination
of everyday funds of knowledge and Discourse. Reading Research Quarterly, 39 (1),
38–70.
Philp, J., & Iwashita, N. (2013). Talking, tuning in and noticing: Exploring the
benefits of output in task-based peer interaction. Language Awareness, 22(3),
353–370.
Ramezanzadeh, A., & Rezaei, S. (2019). Reconceptualising authenticity in TESOL:
A new space for diversity and inclusion. TESOL Quarterly, 53(3), 794–815.
Stone Wiske, M. (Ed.). (1999). La enseñanza para la comprensión. Paidós.
Widdowson, H. G. (1979). Explorations in applied linguistics. Oxford University
Press.
Widdowson, H. G. (1996). Comment: Authenticity and autonomy in ELT. ELT
Journal, 50 (1), 67–68.
Zaidi, R., & Rowsell, J. (Eds.). (2017a). Literacy lives in transcultural times.
Routledge.
Zaidi, R., & Rowsell, J. (2017b). Introduction. Literacy lives in transcultural times.
In R. Zaidi & J. Rowsell (Eds.), Literacy lives in transcultural times (pp. 1–14).
Routledge.
Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT
35
Zembylas, M. (2020). From the ethic of hospitality to affective hospitality: Ethical,
political and pedagogical implications of theorizing hospitality through the lens
of affect theory. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 39 (1), 37–50.
Zovko, M. E., & Dillon, J. (2018). Humanism vs. competency: Traditional and
contemporary models of education. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 50 (6–7),
554–564.
Promoting Understanding of Diversity
by Taking a Critical Intercultural Stance
Carlo Granados-Beltrán
Introduction
The end of the second decade of 2000 has brought about many protests
which have made people question the success of neoliberal and capitalist
models. In Colombia, as in many other Latin American countries, people
have demonstrated against the pervasive inequality and corruption in the
country. The Human Development Report 2019 issued by the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) states that some groups are
continuously disadvantaged because of ethnicity, language, gender, and
social class. Colombian people are the result of a combination of Spanish
conquerors, indigenous people, and people of African descent who were
brought as slaves to the continent. Unfortunately, these two last populations,
who are considered diverse, are the most widely affected by poverty, discrimination, and prejudice. Additionally, prejudices against indigenous and Afrodescending populations, women, working-class people, and students from
public universities, among others, are disseminated by people in the government and mass media.
The aim of this chapter is to describe an experience attempting to implement the theoretical perspective of critical interculturality in a practical way
C. Granados-Beltrán (B)
Institución Universitaria Colombo Americana - ÚNICA, Bogotá, Colombia
e-mail: dir.academica@unica.edu.co
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_3
37
38
C. Granados-Beltrán
in an English-medium module called Language, Culture and Identity. The
module is part of a Bachelor of Arts (BA) programme in Bilingualism in
Bogotá, Colombia.
In the pedagogical implementation I describe in this chapter, I take a critical stance towards diversity. Steinberg and Kincheloe (2009) state that a
critical position of diversity aligns with the intention of critical pedagogy of
unveiling the complicity of schools and education with power inequalities.
This critical view works towards immanence, that is, the construction of a
better future world which guarantees equality for all. In this sense, a critical position deconstructs the origin of racial, class, and gender inequalities,
the way power and privilege shape consciousness, and the way marginalised
groups exercise resistance.
The context for the implementation of this experience is a BA programme
in Bilingualism at a teachers’ college in Bogotá, Colombia. The goal of the BA
programme is to educate students who will work as English teachers mainly,
but not exclusively, in primary and secondary schools. Language, Culture, and
Identity, one of the modules I used for the implementation, was the first
module in the curriculum and was delivered in English to the second semester
students, who were still not very proficient in the language. My main goal for
this module was to have students recognise the origins of discrimination (e.g.
racism, sexism, classism), its manifestation in current local and international
practices, and the role that schools play in maintaining these inequalities. For
the purpose of this chapter, I focus on the ways I pursued the understanding
and appreciation of diversity in this module, based on a critical intercultural
stance.
This chapter is organised as follows. First, I briefly explain the conceptual framework which includes the decolonial turn, critical interculturality,
and decolonising English language teaching (ELT). Second, I present the
pedagogical framework based on decolonial pedagogies, counter-hegemonic
teaching, and pedagogy of the question. Third, I describe my attempt to put
decolonial theories into practice in a module named Language, culture and
identity with some specific examples of the lessons implemented. Finally, I
put forward implications this experience may have for initial language teacher
education programmes at large.
Promoting Understanding of Diversity by Taking a Critical …
39
Conceptual Framework
Proposed by Walsh (2009), critical interculturality is a theoretical development of the decolonial turn in intercultural studies. This author describes
three ways to understand interculturality: relational, functional, and critical.
Relational interculturality sees the mere co-existence of diverse populations
and groups within the same territory as the main feature of interculturality.
Functional interculturality recognises diversity by incorporating the groups
deemed as different—indigenous, Afro, migrants, among others—into the
established social structure. This means acknowledging their existence institutionally and politically and creating a discourse about valuing diversity, but
with the underlying goal of eventually taking advantage of them, for example,
by exploiting the natural resources existing in their territories. Finally, critical
interculturality is a political and epistemic project that understands diversity
as embedded within a colonial matrix of power. The different invisibilities and prejudices against the populations I mentioned above give origin
to critical interculturality as a project that implies strategies, actions, and
negotiations to subvert not only the power relations, but also the structures,
conditions, and mechanisms of power that perpetuate discrimination of all
kinds: sexism, racism, classism, and heterosexism.
The Decolonial Turn and Critical Interculturality
The Modernity/Coloniality project has gathered many Latin American and
Caribbean intellectuals (e.g., Restrepo & Rojas, 2010) who analyse critically
the power relations established since 1492. For them, colonialism and the
narrative of modernity are inextricably linked, resulting in the identification
of colonisers as modern and former colonies as pre-modern, as maintained
in official history. They also analyse how these relations have evolved to the
present day, a phenomenon they call coloniality. Restrepo and Rojas (2010)
explain that coloniality and colonialism are different concepts. Colonialism
refers to the historical process of invasion of Latin America and the Caribbean
by the Spaniards and the Portuguese during the XVI and XVII centuries.
Coloniality, on the other hand, refers to the current effects of this colonial
past in the maintenance of hierarchies in terms of race, gender, class, knowledge, and culture in former colonies. Restrepo and Rojas (2010) state that
coloniality
Refers to a pattern of power operating through the naturalisation of territorial, racial, cultural and epistemic hierarchies which make the reproduction of
40
C. Granados-Beltrán
domination relationships possible; this pattern of power does not only guarantee the exploitation of some human beings’ capital by others at a global scale,
but also the subalternisation and obliteration of knowledge, experience, and
ways of life of those human beings who are thereby dominated and exploited.
(p. 15, my translation)
Critical interculturality emerges as a decolonial project that aims to dismantle
the matrix of coloniality by identifying, analysing, and subverting its three
dimensions: Coloniality of being, coloniality of knowledge, and coloniality
of power.
Coloniality of being refers to the latent racism in Latin American and
Caribbean territories which neglects and subalternises Afro and Indigenous
communities. This can be seen when populations of former colonies are
deemed inferior, less intelligent, or less beautiful when compared to Anglo
Saxon or European ideals. This coloniality also addresses the subalternisation of identities, for example, gender (Lugones, 2008) and race (Quijano,
2000) based on geopolitical dynamics of exploitation. In this sense, feminist
scholars have established connections between decoloniality and intersectionality, which views race, gender, class, and sexuality as power systems which
merge, boost, and feed on one another (Mendoza, 2019), rather than as
separate and additive concepts.
Coloniality of knowledge refers to the subalternisation of Latin American and Caribbean knowledge because it is considered folkloric, magic, or
witchcraft for not following the principles of objectivity and generalisability
established by European philosophy. Coloniality of knowledge also entails the
notion that anything developed and produced abroad, especially in Europe
and the United States, is of better quality than local products. Finally, coloniality of power refers to the ways in which the market and the economic
capital contribute to hierarchise human groups and territories in the current
globalised transnational world. Although here these dimensions have been
defined independently for the sake of clarity, they constitute a device of power
in which they affect one another.
Decolonising English Language Teaching
Decolonising the field of ELT may sound contradictory for many, as the
spread of this language somehow derives from a colonial past. However,
nowadays, with the spread of English as a lingua franca or English as an international language, it is recognised that there are many English speakers and
teachers, not necessarily coming from the inner circle (Kachru, 1985) or core
Promoting Understanding of Diversity by Taking a Critical …
41
English-speaking countries. Despite these changes, Kumaravadivelu (2016)
argues that ELT still promotes colonial practices, especially, in the countries
of the outer circle (e.g., India) and the expanding one (e.g., Colombia).
Kumaravadivelu’s (2016) experiences as an ELT scholar exemplify the three
dimensions of coloniality explained above. He recounts how a professor tried
to discourage him from pursuing his research interest in language teaching
methods because it was a domain that belonged to native speakers (coloniality
of being); he mentions how mainstream publishing houses will not publish
one of his books because of the same reason, albeit not stated explicitly (coloniality of power). He also describes the experience of one of her students
not wanting to return to her country in Southeast Asia, because British and
American expatriates were favoured in the job offers for teaching English (all
colonialities). He ends up by mentioning the role cooperating entities played
in the formulation of linguistic policies in India (coloniality of power).
The situation in Colombia is not different from what Kumaravadivelu
(2016) described. Since the launch of the National Bilingual Plan in 2004,
many local scholars critiqued the policy and its colonial elements:
• The prevalence of bilingualism in English and Spanish and the neglect of
indigenous and creole languages (spoken mostly by Black communities) in
the bilingual policy.
• The promotion of elite bilingualism (Guerrero-Nieto, 2010; Truscott-De
Mejía, 2002).
• The adoption, instead of adaptation, of the Common European Framework as the proficiency standard for Colombia (Ayala-Zárate & ÁlvarezValencia, 2005).
• The marketisation of English teaching and the promotion of nativespeakerism (González & Llurda, 2016), and even of subtle racialisation
(Gómez-Vásquez & Guerrero-Nieto, 2018) due to the belief that a native
speaker of English should have a specific physical appearance.
• The ways in which global transnational agendas have influenced through
the linguistic policies on the processes of inclusion, exclusion, and stratification (Usma-Wilches, 2009).
All these discussions unveil underlying problems related to the linguistic
policy and possible discriminatory practices regarding class, race, and
ethnicity.
To disrupt the colonial matrix of power in ELT, Kumaravadivelu (2016)
proposes that subaltern communities develop a grammar of decoloniality.
42
C. Granados-Beltrán
The author suggests designing and using teaching strategies which are appropriate for the local historical, political, social, cultural, and educational
demands of the specific contexts. He also advises reorganising teacher education programmes to develop skills in their graduates not only to become
informed consumers but also to become producers of knowledge.
My intention in implementing critical interculturality in some of the
subjects of the BA in Bilingualism aimed at these two actions: Raising awareness of the context in which these pre-service teachers would work and
promoting reflection about how prejudice might influence our teaching. The
objective of the module called Language, culture, and identity was two-fold:
(1) to have students recognise the origins of discrimination and how this
was manifested in current local and international practices; and (2) to make
them aware of how educational contexts, unknowingly or not, contribute
to promote this discrimination. Below I describe the pedagogical framework
which informed the module and my practice.
Pedagogical Framework
Decolonial Pedagogies
Díaz (2010) defines three major characteristics of decolonial pedagogy:
critical understanding of history, repositioning emancipatory educational
practices, and decentring the colonial episteme. Critical understanding of
history involves questioning the imposition of foreign pedagogical thinking
systems—European or American—as the benchmark for indicating whether
colonised territories are truly modern. The repositioning of emancipatory
pedagogical practices relates to the location, recovery, and valuation of experiences, individuals, and knowledge that foster the transformation of social
reality. This aspect also points to the implementation of educational practices focused on the development of a historical consciousness and of critical
thinking as skills that transcend the classroom. The decentring of the colonial episteme questions traditional modes of knowledge production that value
the supposed objectivity and division of disciplines. This decentring seeks to
generate other ways of knowing that include ‘the individual’s perspective and
his/her ethical, value, historical, and epistemic orientation as key variants in
the activation of formative processes’ (Díaz, 2010, p. 228). Decolonial pedagogy involves reflection on learning as a process of creating meaning that is
evident in the appropriation and problematisation of reality from subjective
experience.
Promoting Understanding of Diversity by Taking a Critical …
43
Transgressive or Counter-Hegemonic Pedagogy
Counter-hegemonic pedagogy aims to resist the definitions and understanding of reality that dominant groups build to respond to their own
interests, for example, ideas of race, gender, sexual orientation, and social
economic arrangements (Chisholm, 2015). This pedagogy encourages critical
thinking and promotes reflection on practice to create awareness of capitalism
and to challenge the concept of education as a private good. It incorporates
three elements in the classroom: content, reasoning, and counter-storytelling.
At the content level, issues can be examined from the perspective of
those historically marginalised. Counter-hegemonic aspects are implemented
when activities are participatory and focused on critical thinking, and are
designed with the intention that students see other futures and realities.
Reasoning refers to an approach to discussions in which the participants
pursue the construction of a higher order meaning by confronting and reevaluating their opinions and prejudices. This practice favours listening to
students’ voices and, as discussion confronts students with truths that may
be oppressive, it contributes to transformations that challenge the status quo
and that promote more democratic processes in the classroom (Chisholm,
2015). Finally, counter-narratives is a method of telling the stories of those
whose experiences are not often told, including black people, women, gays,
and the poor (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). These counter-stories allow for
opposition to dominant narratives (white, middle-class, heterosexual) and to
problematise the perspectives and beliefs associated with them that justify
discrimination and violence.
Pedagogy of the Question
Freire and Faundez (2013) critique that teaching today is focused on knowing
rather than questioning. For these authors, a fundamental aspect of teacher
education has to do with the incorporation of the question for the promotion
of epistemological curiosity. Freire and Faundez (2013, p. 69) state:
In teaching, we have forgotten the questions. Both the teacher and the students
have forgotten them, and in my opinion, all knowledge begins with the question. It starts with what you call curiosity. But curiosity is the question! I have
the impression (and I don’t know if you agree with me) that today’s teaching,
knowing, is answering and not asking. (my translation)
44
C. Granados-Beltrán
One way to encourage students to prepare for each lesson is by including
questions that familiarise them with the topic and that will be discussed
during classroom work. Therefore, each one of the units in the module
syllabus started with questions about the topic for students to prepare beforehand. This idea was the result of reflecting about how to involve students
in their own learning process and to make the lessons less teacher-centred.
These questions had different purposes, for example, making a theoretical
clarification of some concepts used in the class, obtaining historical information about the topic, or identifying aspects of daily life in which they could
see the concept in a practical way.
The Module of Language, Culture and Identity
and Its Role in the Understanding of Diversity
As mentioned previously, this experience was developed at a BA in Bilingualism in Bogotá, Colombia. Students on this programme are educated to
become English teachers in all educational levels in both public and private
sectors. Many of them come from different regions in Colombia and benefit
from scholarships offered by several charities and the economic group that
supports the university as part of its social responsibility. Due to this scholarship scheme, the students who attend this teacher’s college are quite diverse in
terms of place of origin, race, class, and sexual orientation. Additionally, many
of the students attended public education institutions, from which they graduated with certain difficulties, for example, low levels in literacy in Spanish,
poor level of historical knowledge, and low performance in maths. To explain
what I did in Language, culture and identity, I shall now describe content
adaptation, activities developed, and connection to critical interculturality as
a formative principle.
Content Adaptation
This module was part of the second semester of the BA in Bilingual Education
and it was the first module that students took in English. Initially, the syllabus
I received from my predecessor was based on three texts: Academic Encounters:
Life in Society by Brown and Hood (2002), The History of Art in Pictures by
Gilles Plazy (2003), and Dianoia, a high school philosophy textbook, selected
to fill the gaps in cultural general knowledge students have at the start of the
BA programme. This syllabus was intended to introduce issues of general
culture based on art, philosophy, and some aspects of the target culture, in
Promoting Understanding of Diversity by Taking a Critical …
45
this case, of the United States. To facilitate work with this content in English,
the university favours the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP)
(Echevarria et al., 2008). Therefore, the use of the mother tongue is not
demonised, but it is considered a resource which supports learning the foreign
language. Discussions were initially held in Spanish or bilingually, but as
students became more proficient in English, they started expressing their
opinions in the L2. Also, the answers to the questions which opened the
units could be shared either in Spanish or English.
The first adaptation was to give it an orientation based on cultural studies
in order to truly address the interrelation between the three key concepts that
give names to the module: language, culture, and identity. Hence, the focus
was on how language influences people’s perceptions and representations and
how they have a social impact and influence the multiple identities of human
beings: national, regional, gender, sexual, age, among others. To evaluate this
change, I conducted discussion groups in Spanish. The quotes below and
elsewhere in the chapter are my translation (S1: Student 1, S2: Student 2,
S3: Student 3, S4: Student 4 DG1: Discussion Group 1, DG2: Discussion
Group 2, DG3: Discussion Group 3):
[…] when one spoke of racism, one said as ‘racism is bad, let’s not practise it’
(lesson intonation) (Laughter). We’re all the same, we all have the same rights,
you say that, but, for example, when you make comments like ‘work as black
and earn as white’, that has a connotation […]. (S2—DG1)
The topics, the topics that contributed to me, that the professor gave me help
me think more about eh the information provided by the media […]. (S1—
DG1)
Another adaptation pertained to some aspects of content during the development of the classes. Initially, the module had a strong British and American
component due to my previous training in British Cultural Studies. However,
this was later rethought and included topics and examples of local culture,
which were closer to students and contributed to their understanding of the
proposed theories.
Consequently, some of the materials that were included were: Colombian
black poetry by Jorge Artel and Candelario Obeso, studied in connection to
Language and Race and compared with African American Vernacular English;
the analysis of the dynamics of racism in Colombia made by Soler and
Pardo (2007); student presentations on Palenque, Wayuunaiki, and Romaní
languages; as well as the inclusion of parlache 1 and its relationship with social
46
C. Granados-Beltrán
class. On the other hand, the local approach was also carried out through articles of newspapers that exemplified situations of racism, sexism, heterosexism,
and classism in Colombia. The description of specific real situations allowed
the appropriation of key concepts, as proposed by transgressive pedagogy.
I mentioned previously that one of the fundamental elements of decolonial pedagogy is the critical understanding of history (Díaz, 2010), so, after
a conversation with colleagues who led other modules during the same
semester, I decided to include certain historical moments that would contextualise and problematise the themes developed in class, for example: World
War II, the Middle Ages, European imperialism, the Industrial Revolution,
the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, the waves of feminism, the
protests of Stonewall, and the origin of some urban tribes. This work in relation to history was not done chronologically, but genealogically, in a sort
of Foucauldian fashion. According to the identity marker being discussed in
class (e.g., race, class, gender), students could become aware of causalities,
continuities, discontinuities, and repetitions in history that somehow manage
to explain phenomena that happen today.
Finally, the original syllabus had numerous theoretical readings because it
relied heavily on the students’ English language reading skills, which made
them feel overwhelmed not only due to the complexity of the language but
also to that of the concepts presented. Therefore, the module was developed
in a theoretical-practical way, in which I explained the theory through mind
maps and established connections with the questions previously solved by the
students, as well as with their life experiences and even in a cross-curricular
way with artistic manifestations such as literature or painting.
Activities Developed
Thematic units usually started with students’ search for basic information on
the internet. This inquiry could derive either from the questions posed in
the syllabus or from questions that I assigned as homework. For example,
for the unit about gender, questions such as ‘Who was Lilith?’ ‘What is
hysteria?’ ‘Who were the suffragettes?’ or ‘Are all feminists lesbians?’ prepared
students for theory and possible discussions arising from it. For the unit
about racism, the questions prepared students to understand the history of
this phenomenon by approaching questions such as ‘Who was Martin Luther
King?’ ‘Who was Malcolm X?’ ‘What were the Black Panthers?’ and ‘What
was Apartheid?’ among others.
Promoting Understanding of Diversity by Taking a Critical …
47
Subsequently, I introduced concepts by drawing a mind map on the board
on which the concepts and relationships between them were presented. Sometimes as an exercise, prior to the presentation of the theory, a vocabulary
search was carried out in the dictionary in order to facilitate students’ understanding. Delivery of the theoretical element of the module was done in
English and was enriched through different materials, for example, the inclusion of short films or short videos such as the SparkNotes summary of the
novel 1984 2 for the unit of Language and Ideology or Tough Guise: Violence,
media and the crisis of masculinity 3 for the theme of masculinities.
Additionally, critical media literacy through the use of films meant that
students were exposed to the stories of those groups that are not visible
(counter-narratives) and discussions in class allowed them to question and
rethink their visions and possible prejudices about different social groups
(reasoning). For this purpose, I used movies such as V for Vendetta for the
topic of Language and Ideology, The Help for Language and Race, and Billy
Elliot for Language and Gender. On the other hand, these activities served
as reminders of themes seen in class by making connections with students’
emotions and experiences. In relation to this, students asserted, after being
asked what strategy they had found the most useful in some group discussions
held after the course:
The use of films because, not only with theory one understands everything,
but one also needs to have examples of it. So, the theme with the movies is
cool and it also makes us realise that the movies not only serve to laugh, or to
spend time but also to learn something about it. (S3—DG2)
I don’t know, I mean, I think they should show us those movies, right? […]
in fact, because the movies that the teacher made us ask ourselves, ‘Gee, when
did that come out’, right? And they are films that inform you and, and that
show you the reality that they also live in many countries. (S4—DG3)
Other activities included discussions or worksheets such as those suggested
by Canada’s Centre for Digital and Media Literacy4 for example, Act as
a Man/Behave as a Lady, which help to question how gender roles are
constructed socio-culturally. The presentation of the theory could also be
mediated by the appreciations or questions of the students such as ‘poor
people exist because they lack initiative’ or ‘why is black always negative?’
These interventions by the students helped present the theory in a more
tangible and closer way to their experience.
Finally, the closure of the unit included some texts on the issue discussed
which took place locally, usually through an article or an interview from a
48
C. Granados-Beltrán
local newspaper or magazine. For example, the article Los colombianos hablan
de sí mismos por estratos [Colombians speak of themselves by strata] allowed
to address the problem of classism at the local level, the article El hombre que
logró que su universidad le pidiera perdón por racismo [The man who got his
university to apologise for racism], and the interview Colombia discrimina y
es hipócrita [Colombia discriminates and it is hypocritical], in which a black
model talks about her experience as a black woman in Colombia and sets the
scene to discuss the issue of racism in the country.
Link to Critical Interculturality as a Formative Principle
The connection between Language, culture and identity and critical interculturality can be seen in two dimensions. The first is related to an approach
to content through the perspective of cultural studies. In this, culture is
conceived as a space for a struggle of powers (Shi-Xu, 2005) among different
groups mediated by identities (e.g. women-men, young-old, poor-rich, nonwhite-white), with a particular emphasis on intersectionality, subordinate
groups, their stories and their problems (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002).
Secondly, the pedagogical strategies described above are also part of decolonial pedagogy in the three aspects proposed by Díaz (2010). The first aspect
is critical understanding of history by taking a genealogical approach to
different forms of discrimination. The second aspect entails the repositioning
of emancipatory educational practices by connecting students’ experiences
with what has been seen in class. The presentation of different views on
phenomena contributes to the development of independent critical thinking.
The third and last aspect is the decentring of the colonial episteme. This can
be achieved by highlighting the ways in which education has contributed
to maintaining historically legitimised inequalities since the Colony. These
inequalities make the Others invisible simply because they think or act differently. In relation to the implications that students see between this view of
interculturality and their future work as teachers, they stated:
S2: […] the idea is how to start promoting that kind of awareness and we as
future teachers […] we can’t, that is, we can’t get carried away by stereotypes
and we have to handle that, because that is, we’re going to have S4: Diversity
S2: Cultural diversity in classrooms, wherever. And in addition to that also as
promoting that to the kids, to the kids you teach […]. (S2 and S4—DG1)
Obviously, this programme helps you as to understand that, as a teacher,
millions of people of different ethnicities, different perspectives, different
Promoting Understanding of Diversity by Taking a Critical …
49
beliefs […] Eeh […] Well, eeh […] different, after all. So yes, what a teacher
must do before […] of […] to […] have his/her calling on top is, like,
respecting and tolerating. (S1—DG2)
In Language, culture and identity, we explored topics such as classism, racism,
sexism, and heterosexism based not only on their historical origins but
also on their linguistic manifestations and intersectional contours. In this
module, some students felt empowered to talk about their own experiences,
for example, being labelled for living in certain neighbourhoods or having
different sexual orientations. At the end of the module, some became aware
of their role as teachers in creating classrooms free of discrimination in which
they could work with populations of different characteristics.
Conclusion
There have been paradigmatic changes in the pedagogy of foreign languages
(Lin, 2008). These began in the countries of the Indian subcontinent in the
1990s and continue to the present, fostered by professionals interested in
cultural studies, critical pedagogy, and social justice. Even though this is a
Colombian experience, it is important for teachers in all contexts to become
aware of how identities and their ideologies affect the classroom. In addition,
there is a need for teachers in training and in-service to consider how political
and economic aspects influence the teaching of English in a transnational
globalised context.
When trying to implement language policies in their teaching practice,
English teachers develop new ways of knowing and doing, which we need
to recover to build local knowledge in the discipline. It is important that
teachers in initial education programmes become familiar with local educational knowledge and practices in diverse contexts. In the case of Colombia,
these are rural, indigenous, and Afro-descendant environments. In this way,
they could begin to question the supposed universality of language teaching
methods and to build the pluriversality (Mignolo, 2010) proposed in critical
interculturality, not to impose a new paradigm emerging from the subaltern,
but to recognise the possibility of co-existence of various paradigms.
The intersection of the pedagogy of foreign languages and critical interculturality helps us to recognise that the reasons for teaching and learning
a foreign language go beyond the instrumental ones. To achieve this, it is
essential to address the deep ethical basis of language pedagogy, which questions and confronts existing paradigms, and searches for their change—in
50
C. Granados-Beltrán
this case—the economic one. Pennycook (2012) explains that being a critical educator involves abandoning the notion of an ideal classroom and being
open to teaching moments when the classroom becomes a space for transformation. Critical interculturality means that these teaching moments are
not only about English, but the moments that English creates as a means
for understanding the subalternised Other. This displaces the mere instrumental function of language to focus on the cognitive and intercultural
ones, which permit approaching both other worlds and the different Other
(Usma-Wilches, 2009).
Within the pedagogy of languages, it is necessary to understand that
language can serve as an instrument to maintain the status quo or to transform the injustices that lead to conflict. It is therefore important for future
teachers to recognise that conflicts can occur in any instance in which
language plays a primary role, for example, in intergenerational dialogue and
in diverse linguistic communities, which are also politically and economically
different.
Suggested Further Reading
Dussel, E. (1995). The invention of the Americas: Eclipse of “the Other” and the
myth of modernity. New York: Continuum.
In this book, the author explains the ‘myth of modernity’ based upon the
process of conquest of Latin America by Europeans. He assesses the way it has
contributed to the subaltern, racialised, and ‘pre-modern’ condition of Latin
America and the Caribbean.
Macedo, D. (Ed.). (2019). Decolonizing foreign language education. New York:
Routledge.
This edited book compiles reflections by critical language scholars which
interrogate the influence of colonialism on the neglect of non-standard varieties and on the promotion of white Western approaches to foreign language
teaching.
Mignolo, W. (2000). Local histories/global designs: Coloniality, subaltern knowledge and border thinking. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
This book focuses on the coloniality of power and its origins in the XVI
century, with the Spaniards arriving in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Mignolo elaborates on the notions of colonial difference and on the epistemic
rupture he names border thinking.
López-Gopar, M. (2016). Decolonizing primary English language teaching.
Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Promoting Understanding of Diversity by Taking a Critical …
51
López-Gopar presents the experience of a group of student-teachers in
Mexico working with indigenous children. He uses stories, photos, and videos
to document the ways the participants aimed at decolonising primary English
teaching.
Engagement Priorities
• Within the chapter, there is a reference to the text The Decolonial
Option in English Teaching: Can the Subaltern Act? by B. Kumaravadivelu (2016), in which he explains his situation as a non-native English
scholar. Have you had any experiences like his as a non-native English
speaker/teacher/scholar? How did you handle them?
• The chapter describes a pedagogical experience attempting to incorporate
a decolonial approach to English Language Teaching (ELT) based on an
intercultural critique of race, gender, class, sexual orientation, and language
pedagogy in an initial teacher education programme in Colombia. Could
you incorporate any of these aspects in your context? How?
• Colombian right-wing political groups have been critical of educational
approaches which focus on making students aware of discrimination and
social justice, such as the one described here. They claim that teachers’
intention is to turn students into a leftist ideology. How can we as language
teachers avoid the risk of promoting certain ideologies or proselytising in
the classroom?
• One of the goals of this chapter was to present a vision of interculturality
unlike the usual positive ones which disregard the existence of difference of
power among human groups. In your context, how attainable could it be
to prevent or suspend prejudice in relation to race, class, gender, age, and
sexual orientation? Which obstacles could there be to achieve this goal?
Notes
1. Parlache is a linguistic variant of Colombian Spanish associated with drug dealing
and crime.
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h9JIKngJnCU
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3exzMPT4nGI
4. https://mediasmarts.ca/
52
C. Granados-Beltrán
References
Ayala-Zárate, J., & Álvarez-Valencia, J. (2005). A perspective of the implications
of the Common European Framework implementation in the Colombian sociocultural context. Colombian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 7 (1), 7–26.
Brown, K., & Hood, S. (2002). Academic encounters: Life in society. Reading, study
skills and writing. Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, M. (2015). Developing counter-hegemonic pedagogy in adult and higher
education [21 paragraphs]. In Adult Education Research Conference Proceedings.
Available at http://newprairiepress.org/aerc/2015/papers/12. Accessed 20 May
2020.
Díaz, C. J. (2010). Hacia una pedagogía en clave decolonial: entre aperturas,
búsquedas y posibilidades. Tabula Rasa, 13(1), 217–233.
Echevarria, J., Vogt, M., & Short, D. (2008). Making content comprehensible for
English learners: The SIOP model . Pearson.
Freire, P., & Faundez, A. (2013). Por una pedagogía de la pregunta. Crítica a una
educación basada en respuestas a preguntas inexistentes. Siglo XXI Editores.
Gómez-Vásquez, L. Y., & Guerrero-Nieto, C. H. (2018). Non-native Englishspeaking teachers’ subjectivities and Colombian language policies: A narrative
study. PROFILE Issues in Teachers Professional Development, 20 (2), 51–64.
González, A., & Llurda, E. (2016). Bilingualism and globalisation in Latin America:
Fertile ground for native-speakerism. In F. Copland, S. Garton, & S. Mann
(Eds.), LETs and NESTs (pp. 90–109). British Council.
Guerrero-Nieto, C. H. (2010). Elite vs folk bilingualism: The mismatch between
theories and educational and social conditions. How Journal, 17 (1), 165–179.
Kachru, B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English
language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the
world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (pp. 11–30). Cambridge
University Press.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2016). The decolonial option in English teaching: Can the
subaltern act? TESOL Quarterly, 50 (1), 66–85.
Lin, A. M. Y. (2008). Cambios de paradigma en la enseñanza de inglés como lengua
extranjera: el cambio crítico y más allá. Revista Educación y Pedagogía, 20 (51),
11–23.
Lugones, M. (2008). Colonialidad y género. Tabula Rasa, 9 (1), 73–101.
Mendoza, B. (2019). La colonialidad del género y poder: de la postcolonialidad a la
decolonialidad. In Miradas en torno al problema colonial: Pensamiento anticolonial
y feminismos descoloniales en los sures globales (pp. 35–72). Akal.
Mignolo, W. (2010). Delinking: The rhetoric of modernity, the logic of coloniality and the grammar of de-coloniality. In W. Mignolo & A. Escobar (Eds.),
Globalization and the decolonial option (pp. 303–368). Routledge.
Pennycook, A. (2012). Language and mobility: Unexpected places. Multilingual
Matters.
Promoting Understanding of Diversity by Taking a Critical …
53
Plazy, G. (2003). The history of art in pictures. MetroBooks.
Quijano, A. (2000). Colonialidad del poder, eurocentrismo y América Latina. In E.
Lander (Ed.), La colonialidad del saber: eurocentrismo y ciencias sociales. Perspectivas
Latinoamericanas (pp. 201–245). Caracas: CLACSO
Restrepo, E., & Rojas, A. (2010). Inflexión decolonial: fuentes, conceptos y cuestionamientos. Popayán: Instituto de Estudios Sociales y Culturales Pensar, Editorial
Universidad del Cauca, Maestría de Estudios Culturales Universidad Javeriana.
Shi-Xu. (2005). A cultural approach to discourse. Palgrave Macmillan.
Soler, S., & Pardo, N. (2007). Discurso y racismo en Colombia: cinco siglos de
invisibilidad y exclusión. In T. Van Dijk (Coord.), Racismo y discurso en América
Latina (pp. 181–228). Barcelona: Gedisa.
Solórzano, D., & Yosso, T. (2002). Critical race methodology: Counter-story telling
as an analytical framework for education. Qualitative Inquiry, 8(1), 23–44.
Steinberg, S. R., & Kincheloe, J. (2009). Smoke and mirrors: More than one
way to be diverse and multicultural. In S. R. Steinberg (Ed.), Diversity and
multiculturalism: A reader (pp. 3–22). Peter Lang.
Truscott-De Mejía, A. M. (2002). Power, prestige, and bilingualism: International
perspectives on elite bilingual education. Multilingual Matters.
Usma-Wilches, J. (2009). Education and language policy in Colombia: Exploring
processes of inclusion, exclusion, stratification in times of global reform.
PROFILE: Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 11(1), 123–141.
Walsh, C. (2009). Interculturalidad crítica y pedagogía de-colonial: apuestas (des)de
el in-surgir, re-existir y re-vivir. In V. Candau (Ed.), Educação intercultural na
América Latina: entre concepções, tensões e propostas (pp. 14–53). 7 letras.
Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences
in the ESL/EFL Classroom
Darren K. LaScotte and Bethany D. Peters
Introduction
Students most effective at acquiring English as a second or foreign language
(ESL/EFL) are those who can demonstrate mastery of not just the technical aspects of the language, but also demonstrate the ability to engage
in intercultural interactions with communicative competence (Xue, 2014).
However, intercultural competence development has not been prioritised as
a key learning outcome in many language classrooms (Liddicoat & Scarino,
2013). In this book chapter, we respond to this issue in the field of English
language teaching (ELT) and suggest instructional resources for teaching
diverse learners about cultural adjustment and intercultural communication.
Grounded in sociocultural perspectives of learning, we present a curriculum
to offer an opportunity for ELT instructors to enhance their intercultural
pedagogy and invite students to reflect on important cultural topics and
intentionally practise intercultural skills. The goal of this course is not to
D. K. LaScotte (B)
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
e-mail: lascotte@umn.edu
B. D. Peters
School of Education, Greenville University, Greenville, IL, USA
e-mail: bethany.peters@greenville.edu
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_4
55
56
D. K. LaScotte and B. D. Peters
present a fixed formula for assimilation or reinforce a deficit model by
suggesting that international students have numerous intercultural problems
that need fixing (Kettle, 2017). Instead, we aim to provide important learning
paradigms that can help to increase students’ intercultural awareness, which
has broader implications for supporting their cultural adjustment experience, enhancing their social interactions, and boosting academic experiences
(Baba & Hosoda, 2014; Mamiseishvili, 2012). The research and curriculum
reviewed in this chapter will provide instructors with a toolkit to foster an
intercultural learning experience in the ESL/EFL classroom.
A Growing Need for Intercultural Skills
Development
Globalisation is introducing new opportunities for intercultural experiences
within teaching and learning contexts worldwide. Within higher education
alone, internationalising the student experience is a growing priority for
colleges and universities across the world (Marinoni, 2019) and thus opportunities for students to study abroad in diverse contexts are increasing (OECD,
2017). International student1 numbers within our context, the U.S., have
grown substantially in the last decade, from over 560,000 in 2001–2002
to more than one million in 2019–2020 (Institute of International Education, 2020), providing just one example of the increasing trend in study
abroad. This increase in mobility necessitates that some international students
enhance their English proficiency while they work towards academic and
professional goals; it also calls for the development of critical intercultural
competencies that will equip them to contribute in valuable ways to a global
marketplace (Galinova, 2015). In this chapter, we propose that, in addition
to language skills, the development of intercultural competence is also an
important aim for English language learners and one that should be actively
supported by programmes and institutions in higher education contexts.
Intercultural theorists demonstrate how direct experience with cultural
differences, coupled with opportunities for feedback and reflection, comprise
a process approach to developing intercultural competence (Deardorff, 2006).
Intercultural competence, as defined by Hammer (2008), is the ability to
switch cultural perspectives and adjust behaviours in a way that responds
appropriately to cultural commonalities and differences. Although student
populations at many institutions are diversifying, Leask (2009) points out
that an increasingly diverse student population does not automatically lead
students to experience intercultural interactions that result in intercultural
Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences …
57
competence development. Halualani (2008, 2010) and other intercultural
scholars (Brown, 2009; Dunne, 2009; Peacock & Harrison, 2009) show how
students of diverse cultural backgrounds are not likely to interact frequently
or meaningfully even when present on the same campus. In fact, according
to Yefanova et al. (2015), it is faculty who play a critical role in designing a
classroom experience that will encourage students of diverse backgrounds to
engage with one another in meaningful ways that can lead to valuable intercultural development. We propose that by thoughtfully integrating English
language instruction with intercultural learning objectives, ELT instructors
can strategically help to enhance the international student experience.
Without this intentional and strategic curricular planning by faculty,
students may be limited in experiencing intercultural interactions due to
varying degrees of disinterest, discomfort, or anxiety (Brown, 2009; Dunne,
2009; Peters, 2018). Drawing from focus group data conducted with faculty,
staff, and students at the University of Minnesota, Yu and Peters (2019)
demonstrate that international students, even those who are proficient in
English, often have difficulty connecting socially and academically with their
U.S. classmates. International student participants report challenges keeping
up with the pace of conversation, navigating the dynamics of group work,
and feeling excluded when the topic of conversation is filled with cultural
references. One student explained her perspective that improving language
proficiency is more straightforward than acquiring the cultural understanding
needed to contribute meaningfully in social situations:
After a while I think most of us here speak pretty good English and don’t have
such problems anymore. Then after that, it’s more of a culture thing I think.
People who grow up here like, how they party is different from the way we
hang out. And I cannot make conversations with them about those TV shows
and songs they grew up with. (Student participant, cited in Yu & Peters, 2019,
p. 111)
These are the types of cultural barriers that could be addressed and potentially
mitigated by an intentional intercultural skills curriculum that complements
and enhances English language instruction.
Faculty and staff from the University of Minnesota have also provided
insights on specific factors they perceive as intercultural challenges when
working with international students. In a large campus survey involving
over 1500 respondents, faculty and staff participants observed that international students often experience difficulties understanding common cultural
values, adjusting to expectations for academic culture, and learning the norms
58
D. K. LaScotte and B. D. Peters
expected for successful interaction with faculty, staff, and peers (Peters &
Anderson, 2021). Interestingly, several survey respondents pointed out that
it was difficult for them to separate students’ language challenges from
cultural barriers, which justifies the need for English language educators to
emphasise both language and intercultural skills development. A few respondents also voiced concerns that international students are not provided with
adequate resources to become oriented to the local academic culture (shared
at many U.S. higher education institutions), which also establishes a need
for a stronger curricular focus on intercultural learning for English language
learners.
When students have structured opportunities to develop their intercultural
skills, they are more likely to achieve several important benefits (Yefanova
et al., 2015). Intercultural skills development can help international students
adjust to living in a new culture as well as better understand and meet
expectations within an unfamiliar academic culture (Bodycott et al., 2014).
When students experience greater intercultural understanding, their social
interactions and academic experiences may also improve (Baba & Hosoda,
2014; Mamiseishvili, 2012). Furthermore, when international students are
more effectively equipped to navigate intercultural interactions with domestic
students, their adjustment process is positively impacted (Hendrickson et al.,
2011; Williams & Johnson, 2011).
Although traditional ESL/EFL textbooks have primarily introduced
cultural topics at a knowledge level (Shin et al., 2011), our proposal is
to design instructional resources so that students have explicit and meaningful opportunities to reflect on and practise intercultural skills. We advocate
for an intercultural curricular focus that complements English language
instruction and incorporates practical applications from intercultural theories
such as intercultural competence (Deardorff, 2006) and intercultural sensitivity—that is, the capacity to develop respect and appreciation for cultural
differences (Bennett, 1986)—in ways that are relatable and actionable in
students’ daily lives.
Curriculum Materials and Sociocultural
Perspectives on Learning
For decades, ELT professionals and their students have contributed to and
benefited from the wealth of curriculum materials available to the profession.
Whether in print or digital form, curriculum materials—such as textbooks,
audio and video files, worksheets, teacher guides, and lesson plans—are
Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences …
59
considered to be essential and play a vital role in the teaching and learning
that take place in our classrooms. Curriculum materials can also act as agents
of change (Masuhara & Tomlinson, 2008) to teaching practice by providing
a (new) visible framework for teachers to follow (Rubdy, 2003) and lend
support to novice teachers who may lack confidence and/or expertise in a
given subject (Garton & Graves, 2014). Given the ubiquitous nature of
curriculum materials and their role in shaping teaching practice and students’
learning, it is clear that the development of such materials is a promising
means to address the gap in teaching intercultural skills and in helping international students adjust to the values and practices of a new and unfamiliar
culture. However, these materials can only really serve as an introductory
framework for developing intercultural skills; indeed, teachers’ and students’
opportunities to share knowledge and learn from each other’s lived experiences are absolutely necessary in creating circumstances for the type of
transformative learning that is needed to take place.
Brown (2002) contrasts a transmission view and a transformative view of
learning. A transmission view of learning emphasises a student’s acquisition of
knowledge from an outside source (for example, the teacher or the textbook)
without any internal modification or returning influence—that is, influence
from the student onto the teacher, the material, and so on. In this view,
knowledge is simply deposited into the mind of the learner without consent
or agency. In contrast to this, a transformative view emphasises knowledge
as socially constructed through active engagement and participation between
the teacher, the learner, and the curriculum materials. In this view, teachers
are not simple conveyors of knowledge and expertise; they are facilitators
who guide students’ learning by fostering an environment where students
bring their own experiences and background knowledge to the classroom and
exert these experiences on the learning that takes place. From this perspective,
curriculum materials such as textbooks, worksheets, and other resources are
not intended to be memorised and recited but are meant as tools to assist in
achieving a learning goal.
A textbook, for example, is material in that it has a physical (material)
form: bound pages of text and images; it is also social in its function (transmits and communicates information and creates space for transformative
learning) and cultural in its significance and value. The designers of the textbook, too, conceptualised this material with an ideal nature and intended use.
This distinction of curriculum materials as more than just physical objects is
important as they embody something more; as Brown (2002) puts it: “they
transmit a mode of action that does not naturally exist within the material world, but rather that exists through shared cultures” (p. 43). They are
60
D. K. LaScotte and B. D. Peters
socially and culturally bound and can be used to assist people in achieving a
goal they otherwise would not be able to on their own (Vygotsky, 1978).
Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory of human cognition describes a
developmental potential between individuals and tools that can be appropriated and mastered over time. Integral to this theory is the concept of
internalisation or “the process through which individuals appropriate social
forms of mediation, including cultural artefacts such as language, and use
it to regulate their own mental activity” (Lantolf & Beckett, 2009, p. 460).
This model of cognitive learning was shown to progress in stages or zones of
proximal development. Vygotsky (1978) argues that as individuals internalise
aspects of these tools and progress through the stages, they also internalise
this support and, over time, no longer need the tools.
Despite the transformative nature of curriculum materials on a learner’s
cognition, the instructional resources that have been developed to address
the perceived gap in international students’ intercultural awareness are not a
one-size-fits-all solution to a very context-dependent issue. Such an approach
would no doubt overlook the unique qualities and characteristics of the
classroom and institutional context, the varying needs of students, and the
expertise of local teachers (Brown, 2002; Spillane, 1998). Instead, these
instructional resources should be adapted and contextualised to the local
context, which would directly address the specific needs of students, the institution, and so on, and give learners both the benefit of familiarity and of
connecting them to their learning environment (López Barrios & Villanueva
de Debat, 2014). Through this process of adaptation and contextualisation, instructors, too, may develop a deeper understanding of the ideas and
learning paradigms underlying these curriculum materials and exert their own
beliefs, values, opinions, and worldviews onto the instructional resources that
result from the adaptation. This bidirectional influence of the curriculum
materials onto the teacher and that of the teacher onto the curriculum materials follows Cohen and Ball’s (1999) instructional capacity and interaction
framework, which emphasises a bidirectional relationship between all three
elements of instruction: the teacher, the student, and the curriculum materials. Indeed, students’ beliefs, values, opinions, and worldviews, too, are
paramount to the success of these instructional resources and the transformative learning that is needed to address the gap in intercultural awareness
and cross-cultural adjustment.
Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences …
61
Instructional Resources for Intercultural
Awareness and Adjustment
Grounded in sociocultural perspectives on learning, we present a curriculum
to offer an opportunity for students to explicitly reflect on important cultural
topics and intentionally practise and internalise intercultural skills in order
to gain confidence in their social interactions with instructors, staff, and
peers. We wish to reiterate that the goal of this course is not to present a
fixed formula for assimilation but to provide important learning paradigms
that can help to increase students’ intercultural awareness, which has broader
implications for contributing to understanding and promoting diversity in
ELT. The examples delineated in this text can be applied globally by means
of local adaptation and contextualisation. We propose these instructional
resources as a course, but we are aware of the many constraints and limitations facing institutions in terms of available time, credit loads, and finances.
If readers are not able to offer a course per se, they may be reassured in
knowing that many of these modules and activities could stand alone and/or
be the focus of a one-time professional development workshop or training,
for example. They could also be incorporated into other skills-based, integrated skills, or content-based courses with a variety of modules/units. There
are many options in selecting and adapting whichever resources best fit the
needs of the students and the institutional context.
In addition to designing these instructional materials to support the development of students’ intercultural awareness in the most general sense, we
also propose contextualising the content to be specific to the experiences
of international students studying at colleges or universities in your local
context (such as in the U.S., in our case) to explicitly teach common and
diverse cultural values and tools that can help to advance students’ intercultural awareness and development during their time studying abroad. When
implementing an intercultural skills curriculum for international students,
an additional consideration for educators, programmes, and institutions is
to assess how to build intercultural skills in domestic student populations as
well (Soria & Troisi, 2014). When domestic students are equipped with tools
for intercultural skills development, there is greater potential for meaningful
two-way engagement between international and domestic students (Thomas
et al., 2018). We believe that this is also a promising step towards internationalising the student experience for all students—an oft-touted priority for
colleges and universities worldwide (Marinoni, 2019).
Below, a general course description is provided with intended learning
objectives; also included are select modules with summaries and assignment
62
D. K. LaScotte and B. D. Peters
descriptions adapted from LaScotte and Peters’ (2021) Intercultural Skills in
Action: An International Student’s Guide to College and University Life in the
United States—a textbook we developed for our local context. See LaScotte
and Peters (2021) for the text in its entirety.
Course Overview
The proposed course and sequence of modules and activities are intended
to provide international students with the necessary skills to identify,
understand, and think critically about concepts of culture, communication, academic norms, social relationships, and their own personal growth
and development. In engagement with these curriculum materials, students
will identify and analyse how core values, beliefs, opinions, and worldviews
inform cultural norms and behaviours, and they will compare and contrast
their experiences from their home culture (that is, the culture(s) they grew up
in and most identify with now) and their host culture (that is, the majority
culture that is most dominant in the local context they find themselves
today). For example, a student who was born and raised in mainland China
but now studies in the U.S. might compare typical values and beliefs that
they have or associate with China with those of the new local community.
In addition to identifying and analysing similarities and differences across
cultures, students will investigate local community and/or institutionally
based resources (for example, student-help centres) and conduct field research
in order to discover ways to be successful in their current or future intercultural environments. As a facilitator and cultural informant to students, the
instructor will support students as they develop their intercultural awareness
and ability to communicate in clear and culturally appropriate ways. It is
intended that after completing this course, students will be able to:
• identify and analyse how core values, beliefs, opinions, and worldviews
inform cultural norms and behaviours;
• define, interpret, and evaluate cultural differences as they relate to the role
of a student and a global citizen;
• compare and contrast how core values, beliefs, opinions, and worldviews
from students’ home and host cultures contribute to the local learning
environment and inform interactions with peers, instructors, and other
members of the learning community;
• describe the purpose and availability of community and/or institutionally
based resources and student services; and
Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences …
63
• synthesise what they have learned about themselves and others, as well as
the personal and academic skills that will promote success in their current
and future intercultural environments.
Module 1. Cultural Identity
In this module, students are introduced to definitions of culture and what the
concept of culture really entails. Culture is deeper than the obvious visible
aspects such as food, language, and dress (although those parts can be important). It also includes learned behaviours, products, or artefacts, and deeply
held values often associated with tradition, passed down from one generation
to the next. Culture is a set of beliefs, values, worldviews, and traditions that
shape how individuals live their lives and inform their communication style
and behaviours (Jackson, 2014). Culture dictates the appropriate rules for
how to behave and what to say (and what not to say) and through culture we
also learn how to interpret other community members’ words and actions.
These become our cultural norms and they greatly influence our behaviours.
The longer students are in contact with other cultures, the more they are
exposed to new cultural experiences. Many will give them valuable opportunities to reflect on their own cultural values and learn from new perspectives;
however, some cultural experiences may conflict with their own individual
culture. During this time, students will experience a period of cultural adjustment in which they bring their own culture to the learning engagement.
Depending on exactly how different the new (dominant) host culture is from
students’ home culture(s), they may adjust more quickly or more slowly, but
all will progress through the stages of adjustment at some level. Models of
cultural adjustment have been proposed to resemble a U-Curve (Lysgaard,
1955), a W-Curve (Gullahorn & Gullahorn, 1963), and most recently an
M-Curve (Hotta & Ting-Toomey, 2013). Albeit different in their conceptualisation, all refer to high and low points associated with the adjustment period.
An understanding of cultural differences and this adjustment process is
important for students’ mental health, self-awareness, and sense of belonging
as they navigate a new learning environment and foster relationships with
others. Possible activities to explore cultural identities:
• Identify students’ core cultural values, beliefs, opinions, and worldviews.
Analyse how these inform their actions and behaviours in daily life by
providing guided and individual reflection exercises.
• Explore models of cultural adjustment and have students reflect on where
they feel they are now. Brainstorm possible tips for coping and moving
64
D. K. LaScotte and B. D. Peters
forward in the process. Prompt students to interview classmates to compare
and contrast different adjustment paths.
• Have students interview community members of the local culture to see
which cultural values they identify as most important and why. Have
students compare these to their own values and reflect on how their
understanding of culture has evolved.
Module 2. Academic Culture
Like other aspects of culture, students also acquire and internalise certain
beliefs, values, worldviews, and general cultural norms from their community members about education—their academic culture. “Academic culture
refers to the attitudes, values and ways of behaving that are shared by people
who work or study in universities, for example, lecturers, researchers and
students” (Brick, 2011, p. 2). Expected behaviours in colleges and universities are not the same across cultures, although some may be more similar
to one another than others; differences in academic culture could lead to
feelings of confusion and frustration with the new learning environment,
such as with the approach to teaching and learning, and the typical relationship and interactions between students and faculty members, and/or the
general organisation of the institution. In fact, many international students
are surprised to discover the extent to which the academic environment can
contribute to stress in their lives once they begin living in a new host country
(Yan, 2017). Having an understanding of these academic cultural differences
is important to equip students with skills for effective relationship building
and participation in a global society.
To mitigate feelings of stress and angst surrounding the learning environment, it is important to explore differences between students’ home and host
academic cultures. What approach to teaching and learning do these cultures
typically favour: teacher-centred or student-centred? What is the expected
relationship dynamic between students, faculty, and staff? What do students
need to do in order to be successful in the host academic culture that may
be different from their home academic culture(s)? Which approach do they
believe is best for their own learning style and why? Exploring these differences in expectations and cultural beliefs can shed light on an unclear topic
area that many faculty and staff assume students are already aware of and take
for granted. Possible activities to explore academic culture:
Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences …
65
• Ask students to identify aspects of their home academic culture(s), for
example, the approach to teaching/learning, classroom behaviour and
expectations, relationships between students and faculty; contrast these
aspects with those of the host culture and identify possible cultural values
that influence and underscore these differences.
• Have students conduct a classroom observation at a local or affiliated institution and reflect on the classroom culture(s) they observe. They might
also interview students or faculty members with specific questions about
academic culture in their local context.
• Asking questions of professors and other students may provide guidance,
but it is likely that students will need extra support that they may find from
community and/or institutionally based services. Do some online research
to identify (on or off ) campus resources at your institution and list the
types of support students can seek from each resource.
Module 3. Intercultural Friendships
Social support is an essential part of the cultural adjustment process for international students and has been shown to provide several benefits (Sullivan
& Kashubeck-West, 2015); in fact, lack of such support can cause psychological stress such as depression and homesickness for international students
(Holttum, 2015). Intercultural friendships can take many valuable forms,
including friendships between students of different nationalities, and friendships between domestic and international students. Both types of intercultural friendships positively influence international students’ psychological
adjustment and sense of cultural identity (Hendrickson et al., 2011), and
they also give students the chance to learn from the experiences of others,
access useful advice and guidance about various cultural topics, and increase
their intercultural awareness and understanding (Moores & Popadiuk, 2011).
Domestic students in particular can experience important growth and
development by building friendships with international students. Friendship with international students affords local students the opportunity to
learn about other cultures. Soria and Troisi (2014), for example, found
that local students who socialised with international students made gains
in their global, intercultural, and international competencies. Other studies
have shown that local students who socialised with international students saw
improvements in their intercultural communication skills (Campbell, 2012),
learned cultural adjustment strategies, and felt a sense of satisfaction from
helping international students in their own adjustment process (Geelhoed
et al., 2003). Possible activities to explore intercultural friendships:
66
D. K. LaScotte and B. D. Peters
• Ask students to brainstorm the reciprocal benefits of building intercultural
relationships.
• Identify mutual challenges international and local students face in fostering
intercultural relationships (for example, friendships). Brainstorm strategies
students can use to overcome these challenges.
• Students can conduct field research (via surveys or interviews) to learn
about how others have experienced intercultural friendships. What were
their challenges and how did they overcome them? What advice do they
have for students currently experiencing challenges?
Conclusion
As a growing number of educators look to recruit international students for
study abroad (Marinoni, 2019; OECD, 2017), educators in ELT contexts
worldwide have increasing opportunities to work with diverse student populations. Our curriculum, focusing on cultural identity, adjusting to academic
culture, and building intercultural relationships, provides a path for students
to develop intercultural competencies required by an increasingly diverse
society. To that end, we concur with Moeller and Nugent (2014): “When
language skills and intercultural competency become linked in a language
classroom, students become optimally prepared for participation in a global
world” (p. 2). Although culture may often be included as featured content
in ELT textbooks (Shin et al., 2011), we present a framework for prioritising the process of intercultural competence development as an important
curricular component to complement English language skills instruction. A
process-oriented approach to teaching intercultural skills (Deardorff, 2006)
can equip students with greater understanding and confidence to communicate effectively and build relationships both in academic and professional
contexts (Byram, 1997). Our proposed intercultural skills curriculum, when
adapted to the local context and deployed as a transformative learning tool,
offers students the opportunity to deepen their intercultural learning, thereby
further promoting their success in cultural adjustment, academics, and relationships (Baba & Hosoda, 2014; Mamiseishvili, 2012). To this end, ELT
instructors worldwide play a vital role in inspiring their students to maximise
opportunities for intercultural growth and discovery.
Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences …
67
Suggested Further Reading
DeCapua, A. (2018). Culture myths: Applying second language research to
classroom teaching. University of Michigan Press.
This volume focuses on developing an awareness of cultural assumptions
often made by educators working with culturally and linguistically diverse
students. This is a worthwhile read for those wishing to deepen their understanding of the research on cultural differences, while addressing common
issues of minimisation and exoticisation, in an effort to mitigate cultural
barriers that affect communication.
Jackson, J. (2014). Introducing language and intercultural communication.
Routledge.
This text provides a thorough introduction to the research literature on
culture and communication and is recommended for undergraduate students
of intercultural communication and/or language teaching. Jackson provides
real-world examples of complex topics situated within a skill-building framework, intended to further the reader’s understanding of language and intercultural communication in diverse international settings. Learning objectives,
discussion questions, and a glossary are included in each chapter.
LaScotte, D., & Peters, B. (2021). Intercultural skills in action: An international student’s guide to college and university life in the United States.
University of Michigan Press.
For readers looking for a complete text that they may use (and adapt)
to provide such a course on fostering intercultural learning experiences
in the ESL/EFL classroom, this textbook may offer a helpful framework,
challenging readings, and detailed activities (and worksheets) to build intercultural skills. While this text is framed for our geographic context (the
U.S.), the readings remain pertinent to all readers as they address aspects of
interculturality from a theoretical framework and can be adapted as needed.
Engagement Priorities
• In this chapter, we advocate for a greater focus on intercultural skills development in English language classrooms and we point to evidence from our
context that demonstrates a need for this. What evidence do you see from
your local context, research-based, or anecdotal, that would also support a
stronger focus on intercultural development for English language learners?
68
D. K. LaScotte and B. D. Peters
• We propose a transformative view of curriculum that is optimised when
adapted to a local context. In what ways might you customise the curricular
ideas outlined in this chapter to be most effective in your local context?
• Several of the intercultural learning activities we have suggested involve
students finding opportunities to interact with locals. If you are teaching
in a monocultural environment, what alternative activities might promote
similar intercultural development for your students?
Note
1. In this chapter, we define international students as those who are studying on a
short-term, student visa in a country different from their home country.
References
Baba, Y., & Hosoda, M. (2014). Home away home: Better understanding of the
role of social support in predicting cross-cultural adjustment among international
students. College Student Journal, 48(1), 1–15.
Bennett, M. J. (1986). A developmental approach to training for intercultural
sensitivity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10 (2), 179–196.
Bodycott, P., Mak, A. S., & Ramburuth, P. (2014). Utilising an internationalised curriculum to enhance students’ intercultural interaction, engagement and
adaptation. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 23(3), 635–643.
Brick, J. (2011). Academic culture: A student’s guide to studying at university (2nd
ed.). Palgrave Macmillan Australia.
Brown, L. (2009). A failure of communication on the cross-cultural campus. Journal
of Studies in International Education, 13(4), 439–454.
Brown, M. W. (2002). Teaching by design: Understanding the intersection between
teacher practice and the design of curricular innovations. Unpublished doctoral
thesis, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL. Available at: ProQuest Dissertations and Theses (UMI No. 3071612).
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence.
Multilingual Matters.
Campbell, N. (2012). Promoting intercultural contact on campus: A project
to connect and engage international and host students. Journal of Studies in
International Education, 16 (3), 205–227.
Cohen, D. K., & Ball, D. L. (1999). Instruction, capacity, and improvement.
Consortium for Policy Research in Education.
Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences …
69
Deardorff, D. K. (2006). Identification and assessment of intercultural competence
as a student outcome of internationalization. Journal of Studies in International
Education, 10 (3), 241–266.
Dunne, C. (2009). Host students’ perspectives of intercultural contact in an Irish
university. Journal of Studies in International Education, 13(2), 222–239.
Galinova, E. (2015). Promoting holistic global citizenship in college. In R. D.
Williams & A. Lee (Eds.), Internationalizing higher education: Critical collaborations across the curriculum (pp. 14–34). Sense Publishers.
Garton, S., & Graves, K. (2014). Identifying a research agenda for language teaching
materials. Modern Language Journal, 98(2), 654–657.
Geelhoed, R. J., Abe, J., & Talbot, D. M. (2003). A qualitative investigation of US
students’ experiences in an international peer program. Journal of College Student
Development, 44 (1), 5–17.
Gullahorn, J. T., & Gullahorn, J. E. (1963). An extension of the U-Curve
hypothesis. Journal of Social Issues, 19 (3), 33–47.
Halualani, R. T. (2008). How do multicultural university students define and
make sense of intercultural contact? A qualitative study. International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, 32(1), 1–16.
Halualani, R. T. (2010). Interactant-based definitions of intercultural interaction at
a multicultural university. The Howard Journal of Communications, 21(3), 247–
272.
Hammer, M. R. (2008). The intercultural development inventory (IDI): An
approach for assessing and building intercultural competence. In M. A. Moodian
(Ed.), Contemporary leadership and intercultural competence: Understanding and
utilizing cultural diversity to build successful organizations (pp. 245–259). Sage.
Hendrickson, B., Rosen, D., & Aune, R. K. (2011). An analysis of friendship networks, social connectedness, homesickness, and satisfaction levels of
international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35 (3),
281–295.
Holttum, S. (2015). Students, inclusion, help-seeking and compassionate caring.
Mental Health and Social Inclusion, 19 (2), 61–67.
Hotta, J., & Ting-Toomey, S. (2013). Intercultural adjustment and friendship
dialectics in international students: A qualitative study. International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, 37 (5), 550–566.
Institute of International Education. (2020). International student enrollment
trends, 1948/49-2019/20. Open doors report on international educational exchange.
Available at: https://www.opendoorsdata.org. Accessed 19 May 2020.
Jackson, J. (2014). Introducing language and intercultural communication. Routledge.
Kettle, M. (2017). International student engagement in higher education: Transforming
practices, pedagogies and participation. Multicultural Matters.
Lantolf, J., & Beckett, T. (2009). Sociocultural theory and second language
acquisition. Language Teaching, 42(4), 459–475.
70
D. K. LaScotte and B. D. Peters
LaScotte, D., & Peters, B. (2021). Intercultural skills in action: An international
student’s guide to college and university life in the United States. University of
Michigan Press.
Leask, B. (2009). Using formal and informal curricula to improve interactions
between home and international students. Journal of Studies in International
Education, 13(2), 205–221.
Liddicoat, A. J., & Scarino, A. (2013). Intercultural language teaching and learning.
John Wiley & Sons.
López Barrios, M., & Villanueva de Debat, E. (2014). Global vs. local: Does it
matter? In S. Garton & K. Graves (Eds.), International perspectives on materials
in ELT (pp. 37–52). Palgrave Macmillan.
Lysgaard, S. (1955). Adjustment in a foreign society: Norwegian Fulbright grantees
visiting the United States. International Social Science Bulletin, 7 (1), 45–51.
Mamiseishvili, K. (2012). International student persistence in U.S. postsecondary
institutions. Higher Education, 64 (1), 1–17.
Marinoni, G. (2019). Internationalization of higher education: An evolving landscape, locally and globally. Executive summary of IAU 5th global survey. Available at: https://www.iau-aiu.net/IMG/pdf/iau_5th_global_survey_executive_sum
mary.pdf. Accessed 20 Jan 2020.
Masuhara, H., & Tomlinson, B. (2008). Materials for general English. In B.
Tomlinson (Ed.), English language teaching materials: A critical review (pp. 17–
37). Continuum.
Moeller, A. K., & Nugent, K. (2014). Building intercultural competence in the
language classroom. Faculty Publications: Department of Teaching, Learning and
Teacher Education, 161, 1–18. Available at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/teachl
earnfacpub/161. Accessed 20 Jan 2020.
Moores, L., & Popadiuk, N. (2011). Positive aspects of international student transitions: A qualitative inquiry. Journal of College Student Development, 52(3),
291–306.
OECD. (2017). Education at a glance 2017: OECD indicators. OECD Publishing.
Available at: https://doi.org/10.1787/eag-2017-en. Accessed 20 Jan 2020.
Peacock, N., & Harrison, N. (2009). “It’s so much easier to go with what’s easy”:
Mindfulness and the discourse between home and international students in the
United Kingdom. Journal of Studies in International Education, 13(4), 487–508.
Peters, B. (2018). Step back and level the playing field: Exploring power differentials and cultural humility as experienced by undergraduate students in crossnational group work. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, MN. Available at: http://hdl.handle.net/11299/201127. Accessed
20 Jan 2020.
Peters, B. D., & Anderson, M. E. (2021). Supporting nonnative English speakers
at the university: A survey of faculty and staff. Journal of International
Students, 11(1), 103–121.
Rubdy, R. (2003). Selection of materials. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Developing
materials for language teaching (pp. 37–57). Continuum.
Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences …
71
Shin, J., Eslami, Z. R., & Chen, W. C. (2011). Presentation of local and international culture in current international English-language teaching textbooks.
Language, Culture and Curriculum, 24 (3), 253–268.
Soria, K. M., & Troisi, J. (2014). Internationalization at home alternatives to
study abroad: Implications for students’ development of global, international, and
intercultural competencies. Journal of Studies in International Education, 18(3),
261–280.
Spillane, J. P. (1998). State policy and the non-monolithic nature of the local school
district: Organizational and professional considerations. American Educational
Research Journal, 35 (1), 33–63.
Sullivan, C., & Kashubeck-West, S. (2015). The interplay of international students’
acculturative stress, social support, and acculturation modes. Journal of International Students, 5 (1), 1–11.
Thomas, V. F., Ssendikaddiwa, J. M., Mroz, M., Lockyer, K., Kosarzova, K.,
& Hanna, C. (2018). Leveraging common ground: Improving international
and domestic students’ interaction through mutual engagement. Journal of
International Students, 8(3), 1386–1397.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of the higher psychological
processes. Harvard University Press.
Williams, C. T., & Johnson, L. R. (2011). Why can’t we be friends? Multicultural attitudes and friendships with international students. International Journal
of Intercultural Relations, 35 (1), 41–48.
Xue, J. (2014). Cultivating intercultural communication competence through
culture teaching. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4 (7), 1492–1498.
Yan, K. (2017). Chinese international students’ stressors and coping strategies in the
United States. Springer.
Yefanova, D., Baird, L., Montgomery, M. L., Woodruff, G., Kappler, B., &
Johnstone, C. (2015). Study of the educational impact of international students
in campus internationalization at the University of Minnesota. Global Programs
and Strategy Alliance, University of Minnesota: Minneapolis, MN. Available at: http://global.umn.edu/icc/documents/15_EducationalImpact-IntlStude
nts.pdf. Accessed 23 Jan 2020.
Yu, X., & Peters, B. (2019). Let all voices be heard!: Exploring international
students’ communication challenges in the internationalized classroom. Journal
of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education, 8(1), 107–116.
“Let’s Play ‘Sok Says’, Not ‘Simon Says’”:
Evaluating the International and Intercultural
Orientation of ELT Materials for Cambodian
Secondary Schools
Roby Marlina
Introduction
Diversity is an inherent property of second language education (Liu &
Nelson, 2018). For decades, English language teaching (ELT) scholars and
researchers have made endless calls to incorporate into our classroom practices a legitimate recognition of various forms of diversity found in the
society such as language, culture, gender, race, and economic (e.g. Kubota
& Lin, 2006; Ricento & Hornberger, 1996). On recognising linguistic and
cultural diversity specifically, two prominent sociolinguists—Braj Kachru
(1986) and Larry Smith (1976)—have brought to our attention the global
expansion of the English language, which results in a kaleidoscopic plurality
of the language in terms of use, users, cultures, and linguistic forms. As
an international language, English is used by speakers from a wide range
of lingua-cultural backgrounds, making it a language that reflects complex
and diverse identities, cultural practices, values, systems, power struggles, and
beliefs (Pennycook, 2017).
Prompted by a wealth of empirical research on the pluralising nature of
the language, ELT has shifted from teaching English as a second or foreign
R. Marlina (B)
Training, Research, Assessment, Consultancy Department, SEAMEO-RELC,
Singapore, Singapore
e-mail: roby.marlina@relc.org.sg
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_5
73
74
R. Marlina
language (TESL/TEFL) to teaching English as an international language
(TEIL) (Marlina, 2018; Matsuda, 2012; McKay, 2012) in order to offer ELT
practitioners an intellectual framework to incorporate linguistic and cultural
diversity into the ELT classroom. As a paradigm that strongly advocates diversity in language teaching, TEIL also provides an intellectual ammunition to
challenge pedagogical principles and practices that are exclusively based on
the linguistic norms and cultural practices of the so-called native-English
speakers. ELT practitioners are advised to recognise learners’ linguistic and
cultural capital as learning resources, to raise their learners’ awareness of world
Englishes, and to teach intercultural communication skills, i.e. the ability to
communicate respectfully across cultures and Englishes (Marlina, 2018).
Although TEIL-informed scholarly works have been around for three
decades, the response from the world of ELT seems to be incomplete
(Marlina, 2018). Many ELT materials, in particular, have been criticised
for privileging native-speakers’ norms while neglecting other lingua-cultural
practices. Students may be blindfolded from the actual sociolinguistic reality
of English as well as the intercultural nature of communication in today’s
globalising(-sed) world (Marlina & Giri, 2013; Syrbe & Rose, 2018).
Recently, however, Rose and Galloway (2019) have observed an increase in
the number of ELT textbooks that claim to be international and intercultural in orientation. What remains uncertain is whether the learning content
and activities in those textbooks match the claim. Hence, Rose and Galloway
(2019) urge that it is essential for future inquiries to explore and evaluate the
tension between rhetoric and practice.
The aim of this chapter is to respond to the aforementioned gap by
evaluating the extent to which attempts have been made to incorporate international and intercultural dimensions in the recently published Cambodian
ELT textbooks for lower secondary schools (Grade 7–9). Using the TEILinformed analytic scheme, I will explore what attempts have been made and
what is still lacking. Samples of activities, as well as excerpts of interviews
with two of the textbook’s editing committee members will be used to justify
one’s observations and contentions. Due to space constraints, only the analysis of the Cambodian Grade 7 English textbook (henceforth English G7)
will be presented in this chapter.
In the sections below, I first explain the conceptual framework, i.e. TEIL,
upon which the findings in this chapter are premised, and highlight key
findings from previous studies that evaluate the global orientation of ELT
materials. Second, I describe the context, the textbook, the analytic scheme
for evaluating international/intercultural dimension of the ELT textbook,
and the limitations of the study reported in this chapter. Third, I present
“Let’s Play ‘Sok Says’, Not ‘Simon Says’” …
75
and discuss the findings of my study in the light of the evaluative framework. Finally, I discuss implications for ELT writers and educators beyond
the Cambodian context.
TEIL and TEIL Materials
English as an international language (EIL) is neither an instructional
linguistic variety for teaching nor a linguistic model for communication. It
may be seen as a lens or an ideological belief to (1) inform how we conceptualise English, (2) approach the teaching and learning of English, design
teaching materials, or (3) develop assessment tasks in light of the diversifying
nature of the language, the unprecedented growth in the number of multilingual users of English, and the intercultural nature of today’s communicative
exchanges (Alsagoff et al., 2012; Marlina, 2018). As EIL challenges practices that glorify lingua-cultural norms and practices of a particular speech
community, teaching EIL means the act of professionally guiding students
to:
• gain knowledge of the diversity of English,
• give equal and legitimate recognition of all varieties of English and its users,
and
• develop the ability to communicate and negotiate meanings respectfully in
today’s communicative settings that are international and intercultural in
nature (Marlina, 2018).
To operationalise the above in teaching materials, various TEIL scholars (e.g.
Matsuda, 2012; McKay, 2012; Rose & Galloway, 2019) have unanimously
argued that the outcomes of the global expansion of English must be present
in ELT materials. Specifically, TEIL-oriented ELT materials are more than
likely to:
• incorporate various examples of world Englishes;
• include representations of diverse users of English and exemplify interactions between them, and;
• teach intercultural communication skills.
As TEIL is the paradigm of teaching grounded in the reality in which we
live and operate, this reality needs to be reflected in ELT teaching materials.
In other words, through ELT materials, learners can see representations of
76
R. Marlina
the actual use and users of English in today’s globalising(-sed) reality. They
can also learn how to participate in social interactions that are often intercultural in nature. As reminded by McKay (2012), ELT materials should provide
learners with principles or tools to help them make sense of the multifaceted
linguistic world that surrounds them.
However, such materials are still far from reality, as confirmed by empirical
studies that evaluate the global orientation of ELT materials used in some
major educational institutions in Australia (Marlina & Giri, 2013), Italy
(Vettorel & Lopriore, 2013), Germany (Syrbe & Rose, 2018), and South
Korea (Joo et al., 2020). All of these studies found that ELT materials in
their respective contexts were overpopulated with references to UK/US-based
linguistic norms and practices. In terms of the representation of English
users, some textbooks attempted to include characters from outside, what
Kachru (1986) called Inner Circle Countries (ICC) or the native-English
speaking countries. However, these characters from Outer Circle Countries
(OCC) and Expanding Circle Countries (ECC) where English functions as
a second (former) and a foreign (latter) language (Kachru, 1986) were often
portrayed as learners as opposed to competent users of English, implying a
view of diversity as deficient (Marlina & Giri, 2013). In terms of cultural
references, Anglo-dominant cultural content was still observed in most ELT
textbooks. Multicultural depictions were seen in some, but the focus was
solely limited to the culture of 4 Fs, namely facts, foods, fairs, and folklores
(Kramsch, 1991). Activities that aimed at fostering reflection on students’
own cultures were present only in few textbooks (Vettorel & Lopriore, 2013).
It is still unknown whether these findings are similarly observed in the
Cambodian ELT textbooks for lower secondary schools especially when the
aims of the textbooks seem to be oriented towards TEIL and intercultural
communication.
Prior to presenting the evaluation of English G7, the next section briefly
explains the context which includes some information of the textbook, the
analytic scheme for evaluating the textbook, and the study’s limitation.
Context, Analytic Scheme, and Limitation
Context and Textbook
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)—which Cambodia is a
member of—established the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) in 2015
with a mission to transform the ten members of the countries into a region
“Let’s Play ‘Sok Says’, Not ‘Simon Says’” …
77
with free movements of goods, services, and people. The Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports of the Kingdom of Cambodia, henceforth MoEYS,
was prompted to revise ELT materials for Cambodian learners of English
(Lim & Keuk, 2018). The revision was further driven by the unprecedented
growth in the number of tourists from the region and other countries, of
Cambodia’s trading partners from the ASEAN countries, of international aid
agencies across the nation, and of partnerships with international educational
institutions (Udom et al., 2020). Certain nationally prescribed ELT materials
that were once used in many Cambodian public schools, such as the English
for Cambodia series, became irrelevant as the content of the materials was
Anglo-dominant (Lim & Keuk, 2018). Knowledge of such content, in the
light of the aforementioned changing political and economic landscapes in
Cambodia, was not seen to be effective enough in preparing Cambodians to
communicate with diverse users of English from the region or other O/ECC.
In response to the limitations of the former ELT textbook series and
the perceived role of ELT for Cambodia’s changing political and economic
landscapes, the MoEYS, in collaboration with other local and international
educational institutions, published a new ELT textbook series—English Grade
7, Grade 8, and Grade 9 —in 2016 and 2017 as replacement of the English
for Cambodia Grade 7–9 textbooks. These new textbooks were written by a
team of non-Khmer English language educators from the Australian Centre
for Education, and were edited by a team of Cambodian educators from the
MoEYS whose role was to ensure the local appropriateness of the textbooks.
English Grade 7–9 claimed to have adopted a task-based approach to
language teaching. Each textbook consisted of eleven chapters covering a
wide range of topics and language macro skills. The contents and activities
of the textbooks were set at A1 level of CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference), with a focus on learning to appreciate linguistic and
cultural diversity, and learning to communicate interculturally. As endorsed
by the MoEYS and stated in all Grade 7–9 teacher’s guide books, the new
ELT textbooks series aimed to help Cambodian learners of English “develop
twenty-first century skills… [and] explore how different countries and culture
live, learn/appreciate different cultures and different accents, and learn how
to talk to people from all around the ASEAN community and the world”
(MoEYS, 2015, p. 5), which seem to echo the TEIL paradigm. However, the
extent to which these TEIL and intercultural communication-oriented aims
match the learning activities and texts in the textbooks is still open to inquiry.
In order to address this, the next section discusses the analytic scheme used
to evaluate the textbooks.
78
R. Marlina
Analytic Scheme
In this chapter I only selected the Grade 7 textbook for analysis and evaluation. Specifically, I analysed both written and audio components of the
student’s books as well as the teacher’s books. Guided by the aim of the
project and the three principles of developing TEIL-oriented ELT materials
discussed in the conceptual framework section of this chapter, I employed the
analytic scheme shown in Table 1, extracted from Syrbe and Rose (2018) and
Rose and Galloway (2019), to help evaluate the extent to which attempts had
been adequately made to support learners of English in developing awareness
of and appreciation for linguistic and cultural diversity.
Throughout the process of analysing the textbooks, I often encountered
questions about what I was analysing, and became curious about the thoughts
that had gone into the development of the content and activities. Thus, I
decided to approach the editing committee members—Mr. S and Mr. V—
who were experienced Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
(TESOL) teacher educators based in a teacher training college in Phnom
Penh and who happened to be pursuing a professional development course
in Singapore. They also volunteered to participate in a two-hour focus group
interview on the editing process of the textbooks; and several short followup interviews for minimising the likelihood of misinterpreting their views.
Although Mr. S and Mr. V were not in charge of writing the textbooks,
the insights, and experiences they had gained from their roles in “filtering”
Table 1 TEIL-informed analytic scheme for textbook evaluation
What to observe?
Manifestations
Target interlocutors and ownership
depicted in the materials?
• Characters represented in the
textbook? (names and any references
to geographic locations for target
interlocutors)
• Nature of interactions in textbooks in
terms of whether the interactions are
between L1–L1, L1–L2, or L2–L2
speakers?
• Which linguistic norm is
predominantly used as a point of
reference or benchmark?
• Whose cultural references? Are they
diverse?
• Any evidence of intercultural
comparison; or attempts to encourage
explanation of one’s own cultures?
Models presented in the materials?
Culture in teaching materials?
“Let’s Play ‘Sok Says’, Not ‘Simon Says’” …
79
earlier drafts of the textbook series, and in ensuring the local appropriateness
of the textbooks helped to answer various questions I encountered during the
textbook analysis.
Limitations
There are two major limitations to my study that need to be highlighted
at this stage. First, as previously mentioned, only the analysis of Grade 7
textbook is presented in this chapter. Thus, the findings may not be entirely
applicable to all Cambodian ELT textbooks. Second, no voices from teachers
teaching with the textbook and students learning with the textbook are
present anywhere in the chapter. I acknowledge that one should not only evaluate materials just as they are, but also how they are used to deliver lessons
or responded to by students. This can be further explored in future inquiries.
Cambodian English G7: International
and Intercultural Enough?
Guided by the chapter’s aim and the TEIL-informed analytic scheme for
textbook evaluation, this section combines the findings and discussion of
my study. Let us remember that my study examined the extent to which
English G7 may help learners develop awareness of and appreciation for the
diversity of (1) users of English, (2) linguistic norms in English, and (3)
cultural practices and values embedded in the ways in which English is used
today. Overall, some attempts to achieve the MoEYS’s TEIL and intercultural
communication-oriented aims can be observed in English G7, particularly
in its inclusion of somewhat diverse representation of the users of English,
linguistic norms, and cultural references. The details are provided below.
Representation of Users of English
Informed by the TEIL paradigm, ELT materials that are international and
intercultural in orientation should include representations of speakers from
various lingua-cultural backgrounds, and include examples of interactions
between those speakers. Results from both interviews as well as the analysis
of the characters depicted in English G7 and the frequency of interactions
between these characters have revealed some attempts to respond to this
principle in three ways.
80
R. Marlina
First, unlike other ELT textbooks in which users of English from OCC and
ECC are often under-represented (Syrbe & Rose, 2018; Vettorel & Lopriore,
2013), characters in English G7 are, to some extent, diverse and international, covering a range of countries from all three Kachruvian circles (see
Table 2). There is also an attempt to depict diversity in characters not only
across the national context but also within a national boundary, evidenced
in the inclusion of Aboriginal Australian and Chinese Cambodian characters. The inclusion of diverse characters, as Mr. S justified, was “done so that
our Cambodian students can see that English is used by anyone, not just
native-English speakers” (Mr. S, my italics).
Although the characters in English G7 are not necessarily from various
different parts of the world, suffice it to say that attempts have been made to
avoid blindfolding learners from the current demography of users of English.
In addition, these attempts challenge the view of native-speakers as the only
target interlocutors in international communication settings (Marlina, 2018;
Rose & Galloway, 2019).
Second, an attempt to inspire Cambodian learners of English to learn to
appreciate diversity can be seen in its depiction and recognition of characters from OCC and ECC as legitimate users of English. For example,
as a part of listening and reading activities, students are tasked to learn to
understand monologues by characters from East Asian, African, and mostly
ASEAN countries. Also to engage students in learning imperative sentences
in an educationally engaging manner, a popular children’s game called Simon
says has its name “khmer-ified” (Mr. V) into “Sok says” (MoEYS, 2015,
p. 49). Therefore, instead of following Simon’s instructions, students listen
and respond to instructions in English given by Sok, “a Khmer name [that
is] familiar to our Cambodian students’ ears, also that they can relate to” (Mr.
S).
Table 2 Representation of users of English in English G7
Cambodian (local
characters)
Sophal
Dara
Bopha
Mr. Sovann
Ms. Mom
Chamroen
Panha
Sreymao
Saray (Chinese
Cambodian)
Characters from ICC
Jacky (Australia)
Amaroo (Aboriginal Australian)
Linda, Jay, Tom (Britain)
Lucy (America)
Bonny, Victoria (Canada)
Faith (Ireland)
Reginald (South Africa)
Characters from OCC
and ECC
Dhashni, Farah
(Malaysia)
Chisum (the
Philippines)
Chinedu (Nigeria)
Bolormao (Mongolia)
Can (Vietnam)
Shin Mae Hwa (China)
Hiroko (Japan)
“Let’s Play ‘Sok Says’, Not ‘Simon Says’” …
81
Additionally, unlike the deficit portrayal of non-native English-speaking
characters in the textbooks discussed in Marlina and Giri (2013), English
G7 attempted to avoid portraying these speakers as incompetent or novice
English users. This can be seen in how the main characters, mostly Cambodians, are portrayed as language speakers rather than learners, evidenced in
the phrase “I SPEAK ENGLISH” written in a speech bubble on top of
Cambodian characters’ faces. As justified by Mr. S, “we want our students
to see and know that Cambodians can also speak good English, and that’s
reality!”.
Third, analysis into communicative exchanges in English G7 has also
revealed the textbook’s intention to convey to the students (though implicitly)
the reality of today’s interactions in English which take place predominantly
between multilingual users of English from OCC and ECC. Out of 42 interactions presented in the textbook, 22 interactions are between L2 and L2
speakers, predominantly between Cambodians. 16 interactions were between
L1 and L2 speakers, with a ratio of 3:1 (3 Cambodians and 1 British
within a conversation); and only 4 L1–L1 interactions. Although communicative exchanges between multilingual users of English from OCC and
ECC is not adequately exemplified, there is adequate amount of evidence
to claim that the textbook is somewhat international in orientation. This
is evidenced in its respectful representation of users of English from diverse
lingua-cultural backgrounds and reduction in the frequency of native-English
speakers’ involvement in interactions.
Since the characters represented in English G7 are somewhat geographically diverse, one can assume that the linguistic norms used as the model for
students to learn may also be diverse. To what extent is this assumption valid?
The details are provided below.
Representation of Linguistic Norms
From the TEIL lens, ELT materials that are international and intercultural in
orientation should raise students’ awareness of the dynamic nature of English
by incorporating examples of different Englishes, and by not overpopulating
the materials with references to the UK/US English-based linguistic norms.
However, as revealed in the analysis of the audio materials, written texts, and
the main tasks for language usage, diversity seems to be recognised only in
certain linguistic norms.
Unlike other previously discussed textbooks where RP (Received Pronunciation) or GA (General American) is the dominant linguistic benchmark,
and accent of other Englishes are often under-represented or non-existent,
82
R. Marlina
English G7 appears to have steered itself away from being similar to those
textbooks, aiming to help realise the MoEYS’s vision to inspire students to
appreciate different accents. As revealed in the analysis of English G7 audio
tracks (see Table 3), only 31 percent comprised of ICC-based accents, with
UK-based accents (24 percent) being the dominant. Over 69 per cent of its
audio materials are those of Englishes accents from OCC and ECC (with 62
per cent of an educated variety of Cambodian English accent, and 7 percent
of broadly South East Asians), revealing a somewhat diverse representation
of English accents in English G7. When asked about the higher percentage
of the English-educated Cambodian accent, Mr. S explained that during the
textbook development process “we didn’t have people from some of those
countries mentioned in the textbook, so we asked our advanced English
students to be the voice actors”.
Although there is no observable attempt in both student’s and teacher’s
guidebook that explicitly direct students’ attention to the accents represented in the textbook, the somewhat diverse representations have implicitly
conveyed a support for flexibility in phonological norms. Hence, potential favouritism towards a single variety of ICC English accent, and neglect
towards accents of other legitimate English users are minimised. Also, the
dominant representation of locally educated accents softly echoes a voice of
contest towards a view of learning English through a utopian prism, i.e. by
emulating native-speakers’ language usage.
However, though there is enough evidence of support from English G7
towards recognising diverse phonological norms, analysis of the written texts
and the main tasks for language usage has revealed a view of English as
a morphosyntactically homogeneous language. Like many other previously
reviewed ELT textbooks, a static view of British English grammar and vocabulary is observed, which contradicts the reality of the dynamic nature of
English, and the textbook’s claim of being international in orientation. For
example, the stative possessive have got —often found in British English
Table 3 Representation of phonological norms in English G7
English G7
Accents
Seconds
%
Cambodian (local)
UK-based (received pronunciation, and regional accents)
US-based
Other IC Englishes
Other OC/EC Englishes
Total
5673
2234
424
186
645
9162
61.92
24.38
4.63
2.03
7.04
100
“Let’s Play ‘Sok Says’, Not ‘Simon Says’” …
83
(Jankowski, 2016)—is taught and used in the main texts and tasks of textbook, indicating its use as the standard . The same view can also be observed
in the key vocabulary that students are required to learn, which is predominantly found in British English such as trousers or underpants. Discussions
of language changing over time, and/or prompts that encourage students to
explore and speculate potential variability in grammar and vocabulary across
contexts are nowhere to be found in the textbook or teacher’s book. When
asked about this, Mr. V justified that they “do not want to confuse Grade 7
students… students must learn the fundamentals first before exposing them
to different kinds of English”. However, lexical and grammatical variation is,
as enthusiastically shared by Mr. S, “something we can introduce in textbooks
for higher level students like grade 11 and 12”. Such introduction is important especially when there are, as stated earlier in the chapter, (1) a drive
to help Cambodian students develop the ability to communicate effectively
across Cambodian border; and (2) a claim of materials being international
and intercultural in orientation.
Representation of Cultures
Another TEIL-informed principle of developing intercultural-learningoriented ELT materials is that students should be (1) exposed to diverse
cultural practices as the lingua-cultural backgrounds of future interlocutors
are often unknown and diverse; and (2) engaged in developing intercultural
communication skills. While these two points are reflected in the MoEYS’s
aims, analysis of various written texts and activities in English G7 show that
there are more attempts to achieve the first point than the second. The details
are explained next.
A large volume of cultural information in many other ELT textbooks
is ICC culture-oriented with an implied assumption that learning English
means learning to be a part of those cultures (Rose & Galloway, 2019).
However, a considerable amount of effort in minimising Anglo-dominant
content can be observed in various texts about local and global cultures in
English G7. The cultural aspects in English G7 mainly cover topics that fall
into Kramsch’s (1991) culture of 4 Fs. Despite this, the textbook needs to be
commended for two aspects.
First, as seen in Table 4, English G7 seems to be committed to raising
Grade 7 students’ awareness of cultural diversity through its inclusion of
texts about different customs and cultural practices in the world, “things our
students may not have the chance to see in their everyday life” (Mr. S).
84
R. Marlina
Table 4 Cultural references in English G7
Category
Food
Fairs/festivals
Facts
Folklore
Topics/texts about local
Cambodian cultures
• Eating ambok (p. 41)
• Going to amok restaurant
(p. 148)
• Water festival (p. 40)
• Ploughing festival (p. 124)
• Khmer New Year (p. 122)
• Chinese New Year in
Cambodia (p. 130)
• Schools in Cambodia (p. 16)
• Floating village in Cambodia
(p. 136)
• “Cool things in my country:
what do you know about
Cambodia?” (pp. 134–139)
• Phnom Penh in the 60s
(p. 170)
• Famous local singers in the
60 s: Ros Sereysothea, Pen
Ron, and Sin Sisamuth
(pp. 174–175)
• Living in Pagoda (p. 190)
N/A
Topics/texts about global cultures
• Pizza (p. 166)
• Cultural festivals
– Thaipusam in Malaysia
(p. 130)
– T´êt in Vietnam (p. 130)
– Tsagaan Sar in Mongolia
(p. 130)
– La Tomatina in Spain
(p. 168)
– Ivrea Orange in Italy
(p. 168)
– Chincilla Melon Festival in
Australia (p. 168)
– Weird Noodle Hair Festival
in Hue, Vietnam (p. 169)
• Schools around the world:
Malaysia, England, and
Canada (p. 16)
• Clothing style on special
occasions: South Africa,
Australia, Ireland, and China
(p. 96)
N/A
Second, a good volume of cultural information about Cambodia exceeding
those of ICC also needs to be commended. Specifically, there is an attempt,
though not stated explicitly, to promote Cambodian moral values as well
as pragmatic norms in English. The former is evidenced in English G7
Unit Three in which students learn in English how to behave respectfully
in a Cambodian classroom setting. The latter is evidenced in the use of
social honorific “auntie” as a term of respect to address a biologically unrelated elderly woman or, in Unit Six dialogue, the mother of the speaker’s
friend. Additionally, a degree of fluidity in local Cambodian culture can
be observed in a short passage from Unit Twenty One in which a Chinese
“Let’s Play ‘Sok Says’, Not ‘Simon Says’” …
85
Cambodian describes how Chinese New Year is celebrated in Cambodia,
showcasing the ethno-cultural diversity of Cambodia. All of this—if effectively and regularly pedagogicalised—can help students develop intercultural
communication skills. However, pedagogical attempts that can help students
achieve the aforementioned skills are, to a large extent, still minimal even
though twenty-first century skills are explicitly stated by the MoEYS as an
attribute the textbook aims to develop.
On Intercultural Communication Skills
ELT materials that claim to be intercultural in orientation should prepare
students to function effectively in the twenty-first century. Therefore, the
development of intercultural communication skills is key (Gray, 2013). As
these skills include (1) awareness of similarities and differences between one’s
own and others’ cultures, (2) the ability to communicate one’s own cultural
norms, practices, and identities in English, and (3) to resolve potential intercultural misunderstanding (Marlina, 2018; McKay, 2012), students have to
be deliberately engaged in:
• Exploring and speculating how language is used and the pragmatic meanings behind the use of language;
• exploring and speculating similarities and differences in lingua-cultural
practices, and;
• developing communicative strategies to deal with intercultural differences
(McConachy, 2009).
While English G7 should be commended for the depiction of non-Anglodominant cultural references, learning activities found in chapters that
include references to local and global cultures are often restricted only to
answering comprehension questions or doing gap-filling activities. Opportunities for intercultural learning, such as exploring the relationship between
language and culture, are not often found. For example, in the conversation where the social honorific auntie is used, students are only asked
to answer comprehension questions about the topic of the conversation.
Learning prompts that encourage students to explore the cultural meanings
behind the use of auntie as a term of address, and speculate how the social
honorific could vary across cultural contexts are not often observed. When
students are presented with short texts on cultural festivals in the world,
students are only asked to imagine themselves being at the festivals and
answer questions about the name of festival, the clothes worn in that festival,
86
R. Marlina
and interesting activities that are specific to the festival. Again, a deliberate
attempt to include prompts that help foster the development of intercultural
communication skills is not observed.
Conclusion and Implications
Diversity, as stated earlier in this chapter, is an unavoidable feature of twentyfirst-century TESOL. Not only is diversity observed in language classrooms,
but is also in the nature of today’s communicative exchanges in English,
in the language itself, and, hence, in the TESOL discipline. This chapter
has shown that the MoEYS is more or less aware of the inevitable encounters with linguistic and cultural diversity, especially in today’s globalising
(-sed) Cambodia. This is evidenced in their effort to include various legitimate English users in the textbook, minimise involvement of ICC speakers
in the interactions between textbook characters, convey a flexible view of
phonological norms, and avoid Anglo-dominant cultural content. Although
opportunities for learning about world Englishes and intercultural communication still require considerable strengthening—making the textbook still
somewhat far from the MoEYS’s TEIL and intercultural communicationoriented aims—the commitment to promote diversity in language teaching is
rather visible. Then, what does this mean to ELT material writers and teachers
in other teaching contexts?
Encountering diversity, due to the porosity of geographical borders, is not
unique to Cambodia or the ASEAN region but is also a fact in the rest of the
world today. This means that intercultural communication skills and awareness of language variation should also be the aims of ELT in other contexts. If
the reality of communication and language use are characterised by diversity,
then such reality will need to be reflected in teaching materials. ELT material
writers are encouraged to ensure that the materials reflect “accurately” (as in
empirically justified) the intercultural nature of communicative exchanges in
English today, and the diversifying nature of the English language. It would
be a disservice to today’s language learners if they are deprived of knowledge
and skills for functioning in such lingua-culturally complex reality.
The above implication also applies to language teachers. I am aware that,
in some contexts, teachers do not always have control over what goes into the
prescribed materials, and may be doubtful of the practicality of this chapter’s
findings As Tomlinson (2012) notes, it is important to note, however, that
textbooks do not confine what teachers can do. Teachers also have the agency
to raise students’ awareness of diversity even if the prescribed materials lack
“Let’s Play ‘Sok Says’, Not ‘Simon Says’” …
87
the effort to do so. For example, when faced with lingua-culturally unfamiliar discourses in the teaching materials, teachers can use the mnemonic
of SPEAKING (Hymes, 1974, cited in McConachy, 2009, p. 119) to engage
students in reflecting on, exploring, and speculating the following:
• Setting: the relationship between the language used and the location of
communication. Will the language change if the setting is different? How?
• Participants: the connection between the language used and the participants. Will the language change if the participants are from different
lingua-cultural backgrounds? How?
• Ends: what is the aim of communication? Do we all have the same way to
achieve our communicative aim?
• Act sequence: what should be said or done first, and what is next? How
may this be different if the context changes?
• Key: what is the tone of communication? Can the tone be interpreted
differently?
• Instrumentalities: what style of speech is used? Can another style be used?
• Norms: what are the observed rules of communication and politeness?
If misunderstanding occurs, what is the cause? How might the rules be
different in another context?
• Genre: what is the observed type of text or speech event? Can this genre
be found in another context? Are there any similarities or differences?
If the material only exemplifies interactions between ICC characters, teachers
can still engage their learners in speculating whether the linguistic forms
would change if the interactions were between characters from countries
outside ICC. By the same token, if a text is on how to behave respectfully in a
Cambodian classroom setting, intercultural communication skills can still be
developed by getting students to explore and speculate whether such norms
are similarly practised in other classroom settings. If not, what are the differences? What can potentially be the reasons behind those differences? If such
norms are flouted due to misunderstanding of cultural norms, what strategies
can be used to minimise conflicts and develop intercultural understanding?
These examples of intercultural-learning prompts are not to suggest a
complete removal of prescribed materials from our teaching. Instead, they
can be used as springboard for intercultural reflections, explorations, speculations, and negotiations to happen. It is hoped that there are more visible
attempts to develop ELT materials that truly reflect the lingua-culturally
diverse world we inhabit, and are informed by an ideological lens, like the
TEIL paradigm, that advocates appreciative—but not deficit—views towards
88
R. Marlina
diversity. It is also hoped that there are more pedagogical attempts to inspire
students not only to know about lingua-cultural differences, but also to learn
how to communicate strategically and respectfully across differences.
Suggested Further Reading
Matsuda, A. (2012). Teaching materials in EIL. In L. Alsagoff, S. L. McKay,
G. Hu & W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Principles and practices for teaching English
as an international language (pp. 168–185). New York: Routledge.
This is a book chapter that has established clear principles for developing ELT materials for raising learners’ awareness of the pluralising nature
of English in their surroundings and in the world; for inspiring them to
learn to appreciate the diversity of English language users; and for developing
intercultural communication skills.
Marlina, R. (2018). Teaching English as an international language: Implementing, reviewing, and re-envisioning World Englishes in language education.
Abingdon: Routledge.
This monograph reports on a case study of Australian tertiary educators
embarking upon a pedagogical journey to inspire their students to learn
to appreciate English language variation and cultural diversity. Readers can
also have access to multiple insights into students’ experiences of learning
about diverse world Englishes and cultures. Although the study was based
in Australia, the offered contentions and suggestions are likely to be implementable in other similar contexts.
Rose, H. L. & Galloway, N. (2019). Global Englishes for language teaching.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
This is a recently published monograph that provides readers with the
latest research-informed perspectives on TESOL in the light of today’s messy
sociolinguistic reality of English in the world. Specifically, it unpacks and
revises major assumptions behind key areas of inquiry in TESOL such as SLA,
language pedagogy, curriculum/materials development, and TESOL teacher
education. In addition to offering fresh insights into those areas, it invites
readers to explore the relevance of those insights in their own respective
contexts.
“Let’s Play ‘Sok Says’, Not ‘Simon Says’” …
89
Engagement Priorities
• Using the TEIL-analytic scheme provided in this chapter, evaluate the
extent to which an ELT textbook in your context has prepared learners
to use English for intercultural and multilingual communication.
• As a teacher, what will you do if the characters portrayed in your own
textbook(s) do not reflect the current demography of the users of English?
• Are there any suggestions in this chapter you think are practical or impractical in your teaching context? Why? And for the impractical one(s), could
you suggest alternatives?
References
Alsagoff, L., McKay, S. L., Hu, G., & Renandya, W. A. (Eds.). (2012). Principles
and practices for teaching English as an international language. Routledge.
Gray, J. (Ed.). (2013). Critical perspectives on language teaching materials. Palgrave.
Jankowski, B. L. (2016). “We’ve got our own little ways of doing things here”:
Cross-variety variation, change and divergence in the English stative possessive.
Toronto Working Papers in Linguistics. https://twpl.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/
twpl/article/view/19589.
Joo, S. J., Chik, A., & Djonov, E. (2020). The construal of English as a global
language in Korean EFL textbooks for primary school children. Asian Englishes,
22(1), 68–84.
Kachru, B. B. (1986). The alchemy of English. Pergamon Press.
Kramsch, C. (1991). Culture in language learning: A view from the U.S. In K.
De Bot, R. B. Ginsberg & C. Kramsch (Eds.), Foreign language research in
crosscultural perspective (pp. 217–239). John Benjamins.
Kubota, R., & Lin, A. (2006). Race and TESOL: Introduction to concepts and
theories. TESOL Quaterly, 40 (3), 471–493.
Lim, S., & Keuk, C. N. (2018). A sociocultural analysis of Cambodian teachers’
cognitions about cultural contents in an ‘internationally imported’ textbook in a
tertiary English learning context. In H. P. Widodo, M. R. Perfecto, L. V. Canh,
& A. Buripakdi (Eds.), Situating moral and cultural values in ELT materials: The
Southeast Asian context (pp. 87–110). Springer International.
Liu, D., & Nelson, R. (2018). Diversity in the classroom. In J. Liontas (Ed.),
TESOL encyclopaedia of English language teaching (pp. 585–590). WileyBlackwell.
Marlina, R. (2018). Teaching English as an international language: Implementing,
reviewing, and re-envisioning World Englishes in language education. Routledge.
90
R. Marlina
Marlina, R., & Giri, R. (2013). “We provide the best international education and
use international-oriented learning materials”: Questioning the “international”
from the perspective of English as an International Language. In N. T. Zacharias
& C. Manara (Eds.), Contextualising the pedagogy of English as an International
Language: Issues and tensions (pp. 75–98). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Matsuda, A. (2012). Teaching materials in EIL. In L. Alsagoff, S. L. McKay, G.
Hu, & W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Principles and practices for teaching English as an
international language (pp. 168–185). Routledge.
McConachy, T. (2009). Raising sociocultural awareness through contextual analysis:
Some tools for teachers. ELT Journal, 63(2), 116–125.
McKay, S. L. (2012). Teaching materials for English as an international language.
In A. Matsuda (Ed.), Teaching English as an international language: Principles and
practices (pp. 70–83). Multilingual Matters.
MoEYS. (2015). English Grade 7 . MoEYS. http://oer.moeys.gov.kh/2016/11/eng7.
html.
Pennycook, A. (2017). The cultural politics of English as an international language.
Routledge.
Ricento, T. K., & Hornberger, N. H. (1996). Unpeeling the onion: Language planning and policy and the ELT professional. TESOL Quarterly, 30 (3), 401–427.
Rose, H. L. (2019). Researching English as an international language. In G.
Barkhuizen (Ed.), Qualitative research topics in language teacher education
(pp. 131–136). Routledge.
Rose, H. L., & Galloway, N. (2019). Global Englishes for language teaching.
Cambridge University Press.
Smith, L. E. (1976). English as an international auxiliary language. RELC Journal,
7 (2), 38–42.
Syrbe, M., & Rose, H. (2018). An evaluation of the global orientation of English
textbooks in Germany. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 12(2),
152–163.
Tomlinson, B. (2012). Materials development for language learning and teaching.
Language Teaching, 45 (2), 143–179.
Udom, D. S., Murg, B. J., Virak, O., & Renfrew, M. (2020). Cambodia 2020:
Economic development. Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung.
Vettorel, P., & Lopriore, L. (2013). Is there ELF in ELT coursebooks? Studies in
Second Language Learning and Teaching, 3(4), 483–504.
Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural
Diversity: The Queer Case of LGBTIQ* Issues
in English Language Teaching
Thorsten Merse
Absences and Mismatches: How Diverse Is
Intercultural Learning?
The overall trajectory of this chapter is two-fold: (1) to (re)negotiate the
engagement with cultural diversity in English language teaching (ELT) from
a queer-informed vista, and (2) to suggest a much-needed task typology for
classroom practice to engage learners in exploring diverse sexual, gender, and
body identities (often abbreviated to LGBTIQ*). As will be shown, such lives,
identities, and experiences have long remained—and very often continue to
remain—absent from the scope of cultural learning within English language
education, causing an odd mismatch with more general and euphoric proclamations of cultural diversity often articulated in the global ELT world. Before
the chapter dives more deeply into this particularly contentious issue, the
section below develops a critical stance on discourses of intercultural learning
to provide a reflective backdrop for unfolding the issue of sexual and gender
diversity within the world of ELT later in this chapter.
T. Merse (B)
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU), Munich, Germany
e-mail: t.merse@anglistik.uni-muenchen.de
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_6
91
92
T. Merse
Intercultural Learning: A Reflective Point
of Departure into Diversity
It might be a rather commonplace assumption to state that learning a foreign
language is almost naturally intertwined with learning about the culture
where this foreign language is spoken. Yet while cultural learning has become
a mainstay within foreign language education, things become less commonplace, but more complicated when the lens of diversity is applied: What
pictures of culture are painted in ELT classrooms around the world? Do
we, in the first place, speak of and think about culture in the singular or
cultures in the plural? What versions and nuances of, say, British or US
culture are transmitted to learners eager to explore new cultural practices and
knowledges? In other words, how diverse are the representations of culture
that reach our classrooms—be it through the approaches to cultural learning
circulated within ELT on a more global scale, be it through state-sanctioned
ELT curricula endorsing certain views on culture while possibly overlooking
others, or be it through teachers seeking to open their learners’ eyes for other
cultures?
Before this chapter ventures into a critique of cultural learning and its
entanglement with diversity, it is worthwhile to take stock of existing repertoires that are generally helpful to frame learners’ engagement with culture
and cultural diversity. Most notably, research under the aegis of inter cultural
learning has paved the way towards how learners can be supported in
approaching cultural spheres hitherto unknown to them while re-evaluating
their own cultural backgrounds—hence the prefix inter-. On a global scale,
Byram’s (1997) work has circulated influentially, initiating a leap forward
in cultural learning with his model on intercultural communicative competence (ICC) that became useful for giving an imperative to culture-oriented
learning processes in foreign language education.
In a brief summary of this model (Byram, 1997, pp. 31–54), the attitudinal dimension stresses the need to encounter different cultural meanings,
practices, or beliefs with openness and a curious mindset. Such attitudes
are a pre-requisite for interpreting newly encountered cultural practices for
their meanings and actively seeking out (discovering) cultural information
(also conveyed via texts and through media), and for engaging in respectful
interaction and communication. These skills, in turn, are framed by cultural
knowledge, e.g., of social groups and their cultures in the interlocutor’s
country. What cuts across these dimensions is the development of critical
cultural awareness, where learners employ a change of viewpoints “to evaluate critically […] perspectives, practices and products in one’s own and
Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity …
93
other cultures and countries” (Byram, 1997, p. 53). Through this, learners
can understand that their own cultural worldview is not the only available—possibly even superior or inferior—worldview, and in beginning to
understand and accept cultural differences, learners increasingly challenge
and relativise the cultural norms and values they have been socialised into
(Byram, 1997, p. 34). Tellingly, this level of critical cultural awareness is
encapsulated in intercultural learning theory as the “ability to ‘decentre”’
(Byram, 1997, p. 34).
In a broad and benevolent evaluation of this intercultural trajectory, it can
be read as a blueprint for engaging learners in all possible facets of cultural
diversity. Indeed, Byram’s plural wordings such as “social groups” and “cultural meanings” (1997, p. 34) could suggest a wider understanding of culture,
including more diversity-oriented perspectives of sexualities, genders, class
affiliations, religions, or ethnicities, just to name a few, each of which could
be understood as social groups in their own right—producing cultural meanings in their own right. Additionally, such a diversity perspective could also
confront learners with a variety of identities and outlooks on life that might
shift the norms they know of, e.g., the norm that everybody should be heterosexual or identify in clearly bi-gendered terms as either clearly female or male.
With this in mind, repertoires of intercultural learning can offer an invaluable
impulse for learners to open up to cultural differences, to engage with cultural
diversity, and to decentre from deeply ingrained norms and worldviews while
employing a mindset of openness and respect (Alter, 2015; Merse, 2017).
This potentially positive—yet possibly uber-optimistic—horizon of intercultural learning needs troubling and juxtaposition with critique directed
against intercultural learning emanating from a continuous stream of critical
voices within ELT research. In a broad stroke, such critique revolves around
the question of how culture is understood and represented in education—and
as a result, how diverse such understandings and representations of culture
actually are. One major obstacle towards cultural diversity can be seen in
what Risager (2013) calls a “national shaping” (p. 145) of culture pedagogy
that coincides with a culture-as-nation equation which Liddicoat and Scarino
(2013) see critically:
[s]uch a view of culture is an essentializing one that reduces culture to recognizable, often stereotypicalized, representations of cultural attributes. Identifying
a culture as a national culture does not make reference to what culture is,
but rather where culture is found: American culture resides in the essentialized attributes located in the territory of the United States, French culture in
France, etc. Culture is an unproblematic and unproblematized construct that
can be reduced to a label derived from political geography. (p. 18)
94
T. Merse
Such a reduction can result in distorted approaches to cultural learning “privileging the nation as the endorsed site for culture” and “render[ing] invisible
other ‘cultural’ groupings (e.g., according to gender or sexual orientation) to
whom the label ‘cultural’ does not easily apply because they do not primarily
classify as national” (Merse, 2017, p. 94). Such a view can easily lead to intuitive reactions that exclude sexual and gender diversity (or even diversity at
large) from the scope of culture pedagogy—as if they were outside of culture.
Blell and Doff (2014) continue this analysis and mount the reduction of
cultural diversity onto a rigorous critique of the prefix inter- in intercultural
learning. They argue that the inter-focus requires, as a basis for learning, a
clear-cut binary opposition between the learners’ native culture and the socalled target culture, each being distinctly different from each other—and
in itself homogeneous (say, un-diverse). Consequently, the authors criticise a version of culture pedagogy where cultures are viewed as monolithic
entities, when in fact the cultural and global realities of the twenty-first
century are more likely to bring learners in touch with “cultural complexity”
(p. 80) and “more cross-cultural [...] diversity situations” (p. 85). To counter
what one could call a potential loss of diversity within ELT’s culture pedagogy, the critical challenge is to move beyond binary thinking, reductionist
and de-complexifying approaches, and a culture-as-nation-only view—and
instead to move into a conceptualisation of cultural learning that embraces
cultural diversity more rigorously. These new ways of thinking, in turn,
also embrace and call for more intersectional perspectives that would move
beyond singling out individual identity traits, and instead explore “how race,
gender, disability, sexuality, class, and other social categories are mutually
shaped and interrelated […] to produce shifting relations of power and
oppression” (Rice, 2019, p. 409). For inter- and transcultural learning in
ELT, this would require to explore how cultural identities and norms are
always inextricably linked with each other and can impede, facilitate or
empower individual and collective self-expression, cultural representation,
and personal outlooks on life (e.g., when gay identity intersects with religious
beliefs, gender norms, or class backgrounds).
In view of this substantial critique, specific examples coming from German
research are useful to understand how current efforts are being made to gradually bring the diversity of the Anglophone world into ELT classrooms. When
it comes to making accessible hitherto absent or underrepresented cultural
focal points, there seems to be what Volkmann (2013) calls an “intuitive turn”
(p. 171) to two mechanisms:
Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity …
95
(1) expanding the former core reference points for cultural learning, mainly
the UK and the USA, with additional national or regional cultural
focal points described as ‘New English Cultures’ of a postcolonial and
global world, for example India, South Africa, Canada and Australia (cf.
Eisenmann et al., 2010, p. vii);
(2) moving beyond monolithic and culturally homogeneous versions of
culture (e.g., “the British”), with a marked interest in representing the
ethnic diversity inherent to Anglophone cultures (cf. Hallet, 2010), for
example through an engagement with literary texts known as British
Fictions of Migration (cf. Freitag-Hild, 2010; Volkmann, 2013, p. 171)
Generally speaking, such theoretical openings are emblematic of ELT’s flexible capacity to acknowledge greater cultural diversity, which is certainly to
be welcomed. Yet at the same time, this particular take-on of facets of cultural
diversity can quickly become fossilised in discourses of cultural learning. As
Merse (2017) cautions, such discourses can all too easily obstruct the view
“on other lines of difference […] that could justifiably well also contribute
to making […] ‘different differences’ accessible in the classroom” (p. 105).
Indeed, increasing attempts are now underway that seek to re-model cultural
learning for a greater inclusivity and complexity of identities, including
gender and sexual orientation, religious beliefs, perceptions of age, (dis)ability,
or class affiliations (Alter, 2015; Lütge, 2013; Lütge & Merse, 2020).
Such a change of minds and practices seems urgent if the global ELT sector
as a whole wishes to stay in sync with today’s cultural and intersectional realities so as not to lose its credibility for cultural learning. Indeed, one should
take Volkmann (2013) seriously when he warns against tendencies to “pay
supposedly politically correct lip-service to abstract values such as difference,
plurality, decentering, openness and tolerance towards the Other” (p. 171),
while at the same time lagging behind to systematically incorporate additional
angles from which to engage with cultural difference and diversity. A particularly noteworthy case of such a lagging behind will move into focus in the
next section, which zooms in on the status of sexual and gender diversity as
well as the engagement with LGBTIQ* identities and experiences in ELT.
96
T. Merse
Queer Outlooks on Cultural Diversity in ELT
To provide an orientational rubric for establishing a focus on sexual and
gender diversity within ELT, the term queer is frequently employed, creating
action calls for renewed pedagogies such as queering practice (Paiz, 2019), or
queering ELT (Merse, 2019). Initially, such terminology might come across
as a weird or provocative nomenclature if—out of the many possible meanings of the term queer—those were activated that signify homophobic slurs or
something that is odd or strange (Jagose, 1996). While such a semantic move
is certainly not desirable for a queer-informed ELT pedagogy, a considerable
amount of research has been produced that taps both into the more positive and inclusive meanings of queer as an umbrella for diverse identities and
political activism, and into the productively critical body of thought generated within Queer Theory (Merse, 2017; Nelson, 2006, 2009; Paiz, 2019).
Most recently, Paiz (2019) has advocated for such an operationalising of the
term queer—even if queer theorists such as Jagose (1996) or Sullivan (2003)
resist such definitions—to generate a meaningful basis for serious intellectual
groundwork that is portable into ELT practice.
On a first level, queering ELT is concerned with making visible diverse
sexual, gender and body identities in teaching and learning situations and
classrooms. This direction is associated with a “determined push for visibility” (Pilcher & Whelehan, 2004, p. 129) exercised through queer political
activism that fights for the affirmation and recognition of LGBTIQ* identities to counter their marginalisation, e.g., in people’s consciousness, in public
discourse, or in education (Merse, 2019). Paiz (2019) emphasises the importance to consider the full range of identity positions encapsulated in the
(allegedly simple) umbrella LGBTIQ*, and not to forget bisexual, transgender, or intersex identities and experiences over (the more mainstream?)
gay or lesbian. Such an inclusive visibility strategy requires carefully crafted
representational practices that bring the range of LGBTIQ* identities into
classrooms, for example through literary or non-fictional texts, film, and
digital resources, or in classroom conversations that unfold around topics
such as family constellations, or more sophisticated discussions on human
rights or discrimination.
In addition, such leaps towards queer inclusion need to be coupled with
more critical and exploratory engagements of “queer inquiry”, to use Nelson’s
(2006, p. 2) heuristic. Mere representation, as Nelson (2009) cautions, does
not necessarily lead to deep learning, therefore teachers and learners must also
be
Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity …
97
turning [their] attention to sexual matters (identities, norms, relationships)
within everyday patterns of thinking, speaking, learning, and working, with
a view to understanding the complex sociosexual dimensions and meanings
that are part of day-to-day interactions, cultural practices, and social structures.
(p. 206)
Such a pedagogic intervention is useful in that it opens up a broad
spectrum of interrogations. There is a decided turn towards engaging with
heteronormativity, a concept introduced into the discussion through Queer
Theory (Hall & Jagose, 2013), which describes “the normative social assumption that people are always either male or female and that they desire the
opposite gender” (König, 2018, p. 199). Learners can, for example, retrace
such a normalisation and privileging of heterosexuality and a bi-gendered
social system in everyday practices and situations, e.g., when buying goods
in drug stores marketed clearly at male or female shoppers, or when taking
stock of permitted versions of love and relationships in films and TV series.
Closely linked to this interrogation of heteronormativity is the exploration of
how language functions for people to talk about and construct—or to police,
regulate, and even discriminate—sexual and gender identities (Nelson, 2006).
Such awareness-raising is a crucial component of queering ELT , which can
now be more conclusively defined with Paiz (2019) as a pedagogy of
creating spaces where dialogue and critical discussion around all identities,
sexual or otherwise, and their sociocultural relevance can be carried out in
a manner that is respectful of all identities and subjectivities. (p. 267)
Certainly, such dialogues and discussions need to be hinged on productive
and engaging tasks for classroom usage, as will be shown in the last section
of this chapter.
In light of these reflections and pedagogic transformations, the case of
LGBTIQ* issues has remained a somewhat queer—a strange or odd —case
within ELT. On one level, initiatives for intercultural learning have enthusiastically adopted cultural diversity into its domain (at least as a lip-service
slogan)—whereas LGBTIQ* diversity has remained somewhat of a queer
oddity that has been approached more hesitantly. This might not seem too
surprising in view of a discipline that research has time and again criticised
for its “monosexualising tendencies” (Nelson, 2006, p. 2) and for perpetuating “the notion that sexual identity has no bearing on ELT” (Paiz, 2019,
p. 266). This notion has become apparent in research on the coursebook
sector or classroom discourse where LGBTIQ* identities and experiences
often remain invisible (Gray, 2013; Liddicoat, 2009). On another level,
98
T. Merse
however, an increasingly visible stream of publications has certainly consolidated the significance of queering ELT —from an early ELT grassroots task
force (Nelson, 1993) to book-length studies (Nelson, 2009) on to journal
articles (Paiz, 2019) or mainstream newsletters (Merse, 2019), just to name
a few examples. What is now foreshadowed in very recent work (e.g., Paiz,
2019) is the need to develop innovations in material design and teacher
education—a need that will be addressed now through suggesting a task
typology for queering ELT.
Embracing Cultural Diversity in Practice: A Task
Typology for Queering ELT
The remainder of this chapter presents a task typology that offers practical
avenues into designing tasks for queer-focused lessons. Primarily, the set of
tasks and examples presented here is aiming at a secondary education context
with intermediate and more advanced learners of English who are already
capable of performing more complex language work and more demanding
cultural reflections. This does not mean, however, that the nature of these
tasks is per se limited to secondary education. Simpler adaptations can be
transferred to primary contexts, e.g., when learners work with picturebooks
to develop the language to communicate about diverse LGBTIQ*-inclusive
families. In a similar vein, the tasks can also be transferred to a more adult
ELT context by leveraging the age-appropriateness of texts and themes to a
more challenging and complex level.
Key tenets of ELT are imported into the understanding of task that
informs this queer—and diversity-oriented typology (Van den Branden et al.,
2009; Willis & Willis, 2007):
• The tasks are meaningful in that they engage learners in exploring cultural
meanings, norms and practices, and give them opportunities for reflection.
• They embody authentic language use and empower learners to communicate about sexual and gender diversity.
• The tasks inherit the focus on output, i.e., they lead to some form of new
content that mirrors the learners’ individual engagement with the task.
• There is a strong emphasis on input materials for learners to work with, and
such materials serve as explicit carriers of LGBTIQ* content or examples
of heteronormativity.
Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity …
99
The important issue here is to design tasks that link the affirmation of
LGBTIQ* identities, experiences, and themes with the interrogation and
reflection of heteronormativity as tasks for intercultural learning and learning
about cultural diversity. With this in mind, the task typology relies heavily on
previous work by Freitag-Hild (2010), who pioneered with presenting a task
typology to engage learners in British Fictions of Migration. Her task typology,
which was published in German for the German EFL context, contains
tasks for cultural awareness-raising, changing of perspectives, reflecting on
and challenging one’s own sociocultural worldviews, contextualising cultural
topics in their respective discourses and realities, and for analysing how
cultural difference is performed and represented in texts (p. 111). These
tasks are ideal for sensitising learners to cultural complexities, intersectional identities as well as cultural norms. They can be readily adjusted
to exploring heteronormativity and sexual and gender diversity as a crucial
cultural forcefield, as the specifications below will show.
The task typology itself was developed and implemented by me for the
purpose of teacher education in Germany at the University of Munich
(LMU). In this programme, the goal is to equip student teachers with an
inventory for queer-informed and interculturally-minded task design. On
a local level, this can be seen as a response to curricular federal updates
underway in Germany. For example, in Lower Saxony, English is constructed
as a subject that “engages learners in themes such as social, economic, ecological, political, cultural and intercultural phenomena, problems of sustainable
development as well as the diversity of sexual identities” (Niedersächsisches
Kultusministerium, 2015, p. 6, my translation and my emphasis in italics).
On a more global level, the queer-informed task typology is also a contribution to much-needed new avenues in curricular materials and teacher
preparation for queering ELT (Paiz, 2019). Even though the work on tasks
presented here does indeed emerge from the German context based on
specific local developments, the following task descriptions and examples are
articulated generally to allow for adaptation and refining in other contexts.
They are not meant to be used in a strictly linear order that teachers have to
pass through (as if a lesson were simply a static collection of tasks). Rather, the
intention is that these tasks (or a choice thereof ) can be activated as organic
elements of a dynamically unfolding lesson or lesson sequence.
100
T. Merse
Tasks for Drawing Learners into an LGBTIQ* Topic
When a new LGBTIQ*-focused topic begins, teachers can use tasks that activate learners’ prior cultural and linguistic knowledge about LGBTIQ* issues
and identities. This approach takes learners seriously as unique sources of
knowledge, which is mirrored in research showing that learners often bring
a genuine interest to class to work on an LGBTIQ*–focused theme (Nelson,
2009; Paiz, 2019). Activation tasks also build up expectations about a new
topic to create a motivating context for task engagement. If necessary, teachers
can also feed in relevant new information at this stage (e.g., on historical
backgrounds).
For example, a teacher might want to start a unit on the Stonewall Riots
and their subsequent LGBTIQ* pride movements. She shows images of the
iconic Stonewall Inn bar (e.g., from Google Street View) and learners describe
them to make sense of what they see (e.g., the well-known rainbow flags
and their symbolism). Learners might know about the historical meaning of
this place, or the teacher might explain the role of the Stonewall Inn for the
LGBTIQ* pride movement and its street demonstrations. Learners can also
share their own experience of seeing or participating in pride parades.
Tasks for Contextualising an LGBTIQ*-Related Topic in Its
Historical and Cultural Dimensions
Such tasks encourage learners to discover the broader social, political,
cultural, or historical contexts in which LGBTIQ*-topics are always
embedded. Access to such discourses and contexts comes through input materials. This way, learners can more deeply understand the bigger picture of
the issue in question. To continue the exploration of the Stonewall Riots,
for example, learners can research recorded oral histories that are collected
in The Stonewall Oral History Project (https://gaycenter.org/stonewall-histor
ies/ or on YouTube). The student teachers in my seminars normally pair up,
choose one particular eye-witness and retrace noteworthy insights that arise
from the oral histories. This groundwork can be transferred to various followup activities. For example, these student teachers have moved from regular
presentations in class to staging dialogues between different eye-witnesses
to curating a museum tour in which the oral histories become condensed
multimodal displays (e.g., as posters or digital collages).
Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity …
101
Tasks for LGBTIQ*-Focused Language Enrichment
These tasks lead learners to extracting LGBTIQ*-related language from input
materials, e.g., vocabulary or expressions that help them communicate about
and understand LGBTIQ* phenomena. Language enrichment tasks can be
seen as transversal to other tasks and should always be embedded when
learners need new language to create LGBTIQ*-related content or voice a
reflection. Usually, input material that is used anyway is an ideal source for
such new language.
To offer an example, a teacher might want to engage with the topic of
coming out and chooses to show the video of Elliot Page’s coming out during
a public speech at a Human Rights Campaign conference in 2014 (https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=1hlCEIUATzg). This speech is a valuable source
to reflect on the intricacies and functions of a public coming out. It can also
be modelled into a lexis task where learners compile a log of queer-related
language used by Elliot Page, e.g., to put somebody in a box, to defy norms,
to lie by omission, pervasive stereotypes about femininity, courage, toxic, or
to live a closeted life.
Tasks for Identifying and Laying Open the Power
of Heteronormativity
These tasks go to the heart of queer-informed learning as they open learners’
eyes to the ubiquitous presence of heterosexuality and a bi-gendered system
as powerful cultural norms. Such tasks require situations or input materials
in which heteronormativity becomes tangible and visible. This change often
leads to remarkable explorations and learning effects because learners become
aware of a cultural norm that is oftentimes too invisible to be noticed without
conscious effort, simply because it has become so naturalised and normal in
society.
For example, learners can go on a photo hunt in their city or village, and
document photos with their smartphones (e.g., from advertisements, shops,
or public signs) that are emblematic of heteronormativity. Photo results can
be collected on a shared digital platform, and in class, learners can review their
findings while reflecting on the impact this task had on them. The advantage
of this task is that it connects learners with their immediate environments,
causing them to see what is known to them with new eyes.
102
T. Merse
Tasks for Changing One’s Perspective into an LGBTIQ*
Identity
Tasks for changing one’s perspective into other life experiences and worldviews are highly typical of intercultural learning, and here, they serve the
purpose for learners to understand how an LGBTIQ* person (e.g., as encountered in a text) constructs and performs their identity, and to feel into the
emotions, experiences, and maybe the everyday struggles of this person.
To offer an example, the online archive We Are the Youth (http://wearet
heyouth.org/) chronicles live narratives of LGBTIQ* teenagers and is therefore particularly apt for perspective changes. It is also valuable because it
balances out the full range of the acronym LGBTIQ*, e.g., by including
transgender perspectives that are often rare to find. These life stories allow
for deep perspective changes, which are particularly effective if learners transform the information they find into a new text, for example an interview with
the teenagers (e.g., “Qwill, you say that your gender is like a pendulum. How
do you personally use the restrictive pronouns ‘he’ and ‘she’?”). What makes
this story archive additionally useful is its potential for intersectional analyses,
precisely because many teenagers are also portrayed in contexts that relate
their LGBTIQ* identities to their backgrounds of class, religion, ethnicity,
or body issues. This gives learners a unique opportunity to understand how
such interrelations can shape diverse life experiences, e.g., when Via reports
on overcoming bullying for being “overweight, timid, a bookworm, Asian
and a masculine female”, or when Blake reflects on working against a double
loss of privilege for being a black and trans man (http://wearetheyouth.org/).
Tasks for Reflection and De-centring
Ideally, these tasks come after learners have engaged with norms and worldviews that surround sexual and gender diversity so as to coordinate new
insights with one’s own previously held norms and worldviews. This way,
learners can reflect critically on their own learning processes and articulate
how far what they have learned as new de-centres what has been known
before. Of course, it needs to be acknowledged that learners can perceive such
reflections as delicate or private and might not readily want to share their
thoughts. Therefore, teachers may need to ensure that such reflections unfold
in a supportive atmosphere if they do indeed take place in the public of the
classroom. It might, however, also make sense to move such private reflections into written or audio-recorded portfolios that are only shared between
a learner and their teacher. To invite honest responses, teachers can exclude
Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity …
103
these reflections from graded assessment and instead offer individual feedback
on the quality of the reflection. This practice has proven to be useful in my
teacher education seminars, and after a while of getting used to such reflection work, the student teachers themselves have requested more open forms
of dialogue that were realised in a dedicated discussion forum on a virtual
course platform.
Tasks for Communicative and Creative Follow-ups
To conclude an LGBTIQ*-related teaching unit, learners could be given
an additional opportunity to condense and transfer their queer-informed
learning insights into new self-made texts or creative products. At this
stage, learners reach a state of greater independence and self-expression by
processing their viewpoints, opinions, and knowledge into something new
that is uniquely theirs, providing examples of their own deep engagement
with heteronormativity or LGBTIQ* issues. Examples of such products can
entail writing a commentary or an article, writing a book or film review, or
creating a small drama piece or role play.
To illustrate this with an example from my own teaching practice at university, the student teachers of my course have worked with the short story Am I
Blue? by Bruce Coville (1994). They adapted the story of an insecure maybegay teenager who receives help from a magical fairy into a visual-digital story,
which allowed them to reimagine, change and visualise their reading experience. Figure 1 is a snapshot from a digital story based on Am I Blue?,
where the fairy godfather enters the story as an angel-like figure wearing a
rainbow-coloured cloak referencing gay pride.
By its nature of being a task typology, the collection of tasks presented here
is meant to provide guidance and orientation for curating queer-informed
lessons and teaching units. At the same time, they are open for re-mixing,
adaptation and variation, and allow for hooking various other input materials onto the different task trajectories. Thus, the tasks can be fine-tuned
to specific local contexts where they can play out their queer- and diversityoriented learning potentials in multifarious ways. As such, the task typology
can become useful to different professional groups, including pre-service
and novice teachers, experienced in-service teachers, teacher educators and
trainers, as well as writers of curricular materials or coursebooks.
Yet, in spite of the potential usefulness of this queer task typology that
emerges from diversity- and queer-oriented developments in ELT research
and practice, a few critical challenges for its implementation remain. At
104
T. Merse
Fig. 1 A snapshot from a digital story
first, what needs to be taken seriously is some teachers’ potential discomfort with integrating queer topics in class, their fear of saying the wrong
thing, or simply a lack of LGBTIQ*-related pedagogical knowledge (Nelson,
2015; Page, 2017). Possible solutions could include pairing up with other
teachers to exchange concerns and good practices (rather than feeling isolated
in view of this challenging task), and understanding that queer topics could
be deeply meaningful to learners with learning opportunities that should not
be avoided. Teachers can also openly acknowledge their own insecurities and
explore these further together with all learners, and actively seek out professional training opportunities and resources on LGBTIQ*-inclusive education
provided through organisations such as Stonewall (https://www.stonewall.
org.uk/) or Educate & Celebrate (https://www.educateandcelebrate.org).
A second challenge is to teach LGBTIQ*-related content in countries
or contexts that are less favourable towards sexual and gender diversity
(cf. Pawelczyk et al., 2014). Certainly, in view of worldwide differences in
LGBTIQ* acceptance and inclusion, “teaching queer” can hardly be a onesize-fits-all model. Therefore, it would be highly difficult and questionable
to simply push teachers towards queering their classrooms in contexts where
promoting “homosexual propaganda” could endanger their jobs or even bring
them to prison. In such contexts, what could be done is to tone down the
explicitness of the teaching endeavours to be less heads-on, eg., by embedding
LGBTIQ* inclusion as a dimension of recognising cultural diversity at large,
by making queer topics choice options for learners in reading and writing
Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity …
105
activities (cf. Page, 2017), or by practicing inclusive and non-discriminatory
language as a key tenet to classroom discourse.
What also needs to be considered is to adjust the complexity of queerinformed teaching to younger learners (e.g., in primary levels) or learners
with lower levels of English. Viable options can include leveraging the difficulty level of the input materials (e.g., by choosing linguistically simpler
picturebooks, short stories, or young adult novels) and the demands of the
language output (e.g., by calling for less complex and shorter contributions),
or by scaffolding the gradual inclusion of LGBTIQ* materials through careful
explanations and language enrichment activities. In addition, teachers can
move from initial background representations of LGBTIQ* people (e.g., in
depictions of families) that usualise the presence of sexual and gender diversity to more complex interrogations as learners grow older or linguistically
more adept.
Conclusion
By way of condensing, the trajectories of the queer-informed task typology tie
in productively with the vantage points of intercultural learning and cultural
diversity discussed—and critiqued—throughout this chapter. Queer-oriented
task work in ELT can serve to depict Anglophone cultural contexts and
societies in more nuanced and heterogeneous ways than might currently be
the case. This timely intervention can serve to move beyond monolithic or
heavily truncated versions of cultural diversity that focus on certain lines of
cultural difference and identities while blocking others from view. A deliberate
queer-informed focus on sexual and gender diversity opens up new avenues
for intercultural learning that can be related to Byram’s (1997) intercultural
model. Engaging with LGBTIQ* identities and experience can create situations for interpretation and discovery in which learners seek out cultural
meanings and practices that might be new to them or which they have never
reflected on before. Embedded in a respectful and open-minded climate,
learning situations like these can contribute to developing a critical cultural
awareness in learners that is also reflective of heteronormativity as part of
the larger set of cultural norms and worldviews learners are encouraged to
decentre from in their own intercultural learning processes.
If such developments are integrated into the scope of culture pedagogy in
ELT more rigorously, intercultural learning can become a “docking station”
(Merse, 2017, p. 18) to intensify the focus on cultural diversity in future ELT
practice and research—and move beyond any assumed lip-service to diversity.
106
T. Merse
The case of sexual and gender diversity is a particularly insightful case in point
for a facet of cultural diversity that has often been oddly—queerly—overlooked. Yet what must count as crucial to this endeavour of reconstructing
intercultural learning for ELT is to remain sensitive to other cultural identities and practices that are still—and also too hastily forgotten. The tasks
presented in this chapter can respond to these diversifying processes. Being
rooted in intercultural learning, their logic does not have to be restricted
to queer-focused teaching alone. In the future, the adaptiveness of the task
typology can make for a powerful transfer to hitherto un(der)represented and
intersectional facets of cultural diversity.
Suggested Further Reading
Nelson, C. D. (2009). Sexual identities in English language education: Classroom conversations. New York: Routledge.
With this seminal book-length study on the relationship between English
language education and sexual identities, Nelson condenses rare empirical
insights into the experiences of more than 100 language teachers into practical frameworks for embedding lesbian, gay, and queer themes into learning
opportunities.
Lütge, C., Lütge, C., & Faltermeier, M. (Eds.). (2020). The praxis of diversity.
New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
This edited volume interweaves interdisciplinary perspectives on diversity
and bridges gaps between theoretical approaches and practical applications of
diversity. It is a recommended read for a broader engagement with the ramifications of diversity in culture, business, institutions, and education (including
two ELT-related articles).
Ludwig, C., & Eisenmann, M. (Eds.). (2018). Queer beats: Gender and the
literature in the EFL classroom. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
The contributions collected in this edited volume shed astounding light
on the power of literature (and also TV series, films, and digital media) to
work on gender and sexual diversity in the EFL classroom.
Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity …
107
Engagement Priorities
• The chapter focuses on current developments and points of critique within
intercultural learning. Take a step back: What is the status of intercultural
learning in the ELT contexts you are familiar with? What are the points
of innovation or critique you would articulate for culture-minded teaching
and learning as you are experiencing it?
• In your opinion, what are further reasons for including a focus on
LGBTIQ* diversity and a critical reflection on heteronormativity in ELT?
Or: Do you contest the inclusion of these issues into the scope of ELT,
and if so, why?
• Identify possible adaptations of the queer-informed task typology
presented in this chapter. You might want to prepare—and try out in practice—a whole teaching unit on an LGBTIQ*-related theme of your choice.
Compare your results and experiences with someone else’s work, e.g., by a
fellow student teacher or a school colleague.
References
Alter, G. (2015). Inter- and transcultural learning in the context of Canadian young
adult fiction. LIT.
Blell, G., & Doff, S. (2014). It takes more than two for this tango: Moving beyond
the self/other-binary in teaching about culture in the global EFL-classroom.
Zeitschrift Für Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht, 19 (1), 78–96.
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence.
Multilingual Matters.
Coville, B. (1994). Am I blue? In M. D. Bauer (Ed.), Am I blue? Coming out from
the silence (pp. 1–16). Harper-Collins.
Eisenmann, M., Grimm, N., & Volkmann, L. (2010). Introduction: Teaching
the new English cultures and literatures. In M. Eisenmann, N. Grimm, & L.
Volkmann (Eds.), Teaching the new English cultures & literatures (pp. vii–xii).
Winter.
Freitag-Hild, B. (2010). Theorie, Aufgabentypologie und Unterrichtspraxis inter- und
transkultureller Literaturdidaktik. ‘British Fictions of Migration‘ im Fremdsprachenunterricht. WVT.
Gray, J. (2013). LGBT invisibility and heteronormativity in ELT materials. In
J. Gray (Ed.), Critical perspectives on language teaching materials (pp. 40–63).
Palgrave Macmillan.
Hall, D. E., & Jagose, A. (Eds.). (2013). The Routledge queer studies reader.
Routledge.
108
T. Merse
Hallet, W. (2010). Kulturdidaktik. In C. Surkamp (Ed.), Metzler Lexikon Fremdsprachendidaktik. Ansätze—Methoden—Grundbegriffe (pp. 152–156). Metzler.
Jagose, A. (1996). Queer theory. An introduction. New York University Press.
König, L. (2018). Another every day: Queer questions about the construction of
identity at the example of David Levithan’s novel Every Day. In C. Ludwig &
M. Eisenmann (Eds.), Queer beats: Gender and the literature in the EFL classroom
(pp. 195–206). Peter Lang.
Liddicoat, A. (2009). Sexual identity as linguistic failure: Trajectories of interaction
in the heteronormative language classroom. Journal of Language, Identity, and
Education, 8(2), 191–202.
Liddicoat, A. J., & Scarino, A. (2013). Intercultural language teaching and learning.
Wiley-Blackwell.
Lütge, C. (2013). Sprachenlernen und Identität(en) im Fremdsprachenunterricht.
In E. Burwitz-Melzer, F. G. Königs & C. Riemer (Eds.), Identität und Fremdsprachenlernen. Anmerkungen zu einer komplexen Beziehung (pp. 163–170). Narr.
Lütge, C., & Merse, T. (2020). Approaching diversity in education: Pedagogic and
queer perspectives. In C. Lütge, C. Lütge, & M. Faltermeier (Eds.), The praxis of
diversity (pp. 175–197). Palgrave Macmillan.
Merse, T. (2017). Other others, Different differences: Queer perspectives on teaching
English as a foreign language. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Fakultät für Sprachund Literaturwissenschaften, LMU München. Available at https://edoc.ub.unimuenchen.de/20597/ (accessed 3 April 2020).
Merse, T. (2019). Putting gender and sexual diversity on the ELT map in upper
secondary. TEYLT Worldwide, 2, 73–78.
Nelson, C. D. (1993). Our time has come: TESOL forms lesbian/gay/bisexual task
force, Part II. TESOL Matters, 3(5), 23.
Nelson, C. D. (2006). Queer inquiry in language education. Journal of Language,
Identity & Education, 5 (1), 1–9.
Nelson, C. D. (2009). Sexual identities in English language education: Classroom
conversations. Routledge.
Nelson, C. D. (2015). LGBT content: why teachers fear it, why learners like it.
Language Issues, 26 (1), 6–12.
Niedersächsisches Kultusministerium (2015). Kerncurriculum für das Gymnasium
Schuljahrgänge 5–10. Unidruck.
Page, M. L. (2017). From awareness to action: Teacher attitude and implementation
of LGBT-inclusive curriculum in the English language arts classroom. Sage Open,
October–December, 1–15.
Paiz, J. M. (2019). Queering practice: LGBTQ+ diversity and inclusion in English
language teaching. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 18(4), 266–275.
Pawelczyk, J., Pakuła, Ł., & Sunderland, J. (2014). Issues of power in relation to
gender and sexuality in the EFL classroom: An overview. Journal of Gender and
Power, 1(1), 49–66
Pilcher, J., & Whelehan, I. (2004). 50 key concepts in gender studies. Sage.
Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity …
109
Rice, C., Harrison, E., & Friedman, M. (2019). Doing justice to intersectionality
in research. Cultural Studies, Critical Methodologies, 19 (6), 409–420.
Risager, K. (2013). Intercultural learning: Raising cultural awareness. In M. Eisenmann & T. Summer (Eds.), Basic issues in EFL teaching and learning (2nd ed.,
pp. 143–155). Winter.
Sullivan, N. (2003). A critical introduction to queer theory. New York University
Press.
Van den Branden, K., Bygate, M., & Norris, J. M. (Eds). (2009). Task-based
language teaching: A reader. John Benjamins
Volkmann, L. (2013). Intercultural learning and postcolonial studies: ‘Never the
Twain Shall Meet’? In M. Eisenmann & T. Summer (Eds.), Basic issues in EFL
teaching and learning (2nd ed., pp. 169–180). Winter.
Willis, D., & Willis, J. (2007). Doing task-based teaching. Oxford University Press.
Gender
Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom:
Teachers’ Beliefs, Doubts, and Insecurities
in Exploring Sexual Identities in Cyprus
Dimitris Evripidou
Introduction
The critical social turn in applied linguistics (Block, 2003) has encouraged
teachers around the world to consider the relationship between learning and
identity diversity in English Language Teaching (ELT), the role of students’
identities in the Second Language Acquisition (SLA) process, and even the
role of their sexual identities in learning English as a foreign (EFL) or second
(ESL) language (Nelson, 1999). Due to these developments, a growing
body of identity diversity research has concentrated on the interrelationships
among queer theory, sexual identities, and language education (Banegas &
Evripidou, 2021; Gray, 2013; Kitchen & Bellini, 2012; Neto, 2018; Paiz,
2017). However, despite advances in queering the field of ELT (Nelson,
2007), there seems to be considerable work to be done in order to address
language teachers’ reluctance to explore sexual identities in EFL (Kitchen &
Bellini, 2012; Rhodes & Coda, 2017).
This chapter aims at contributing to relevant research carried out on EFL
teachers’ reticence to explore sexual identities. Through the use of interviews, it centres on Greek Cypriot EFL teachers’ challenges which discourage
them from analysing sexual identities in the classroom. More specifically, it
D. Evripidou (B)
University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_7
113
114
D. Evripidou
focuses on some of their beliefs, doubts, and insecurities in deheteronormalising their EFL classrooms by means of exploring sexual identities. The
chapter begins with the framework of the study before it focuses on the relationship between queer theory and ELT. It then briefly revises my previous
studies conducted on sexual identity in Cyprus and provides more information about its lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer/questioning
(LGBTQ+) context. The next two sections concentrate on the EFL teachers
who took part in the study; the first provides information about their background and the way data was collected, while the second reports their
collective concerns. The next section of the chapter provides a thorough analysis of the teachers’ concerns, while it concludes by providing a summary of
the findings and various recommendations which aim at deheteronormalising
English language classrooms.
Queer Theory Framework
Queer theory serves as the framework of this study. It offers an approach that
can problematise all identities, sexual, gender, and otherwise and presents
channels in which the dichotomous opposition of hetero/homosexual,
normalised in societies, can be deconstructed (Nelson, 2006). By interrogating the implicit assumptions of heteronormativity, it enables critiques of
enforced norms of sexuality and gender and of all claims of normalcy and
its processes (Britzman, 1998; Morris, 2000). As its aim is not to accomplish inclusion but facilitate inquiry by investigating ways in which sexual
identities are negotiated through daily interactions, it can offer a flexible and
open-ended framework for addressing both minority sexual and other identities in the language classroom. It aims at challenging clear-cut notions of
sexual identities and purposely questioning the boundaries among identity
categories (Nelson, 2002). Undertaking queer inquiry means turning teachers
and students’ attention to sexual matters (norms, relationships, etc.) within
patterns of thinking, speaking, and teaching in the classroom. It signifies
all sexual identity perspectives along with the paradoxes of producing sexuality categories and searching overlooked perspectives across sexual, linguistic,
cultural, and other identifications (Nelson, 2006).
Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom …
115
Queer Theory and ELT
Developments in queer theory have contributed significantly to the way identity diversity, sexual, gender, and otherwise can be considered in the EFL or
ESL classrooms. Shifting the focus from a civil-rights related framework to
one that concentrates more on the analysis of discursive and cultural practices enables sexual identity to be understood as potentially relevant to anyone
and not just to a minority (Nelson, 1999). Queer inquiry (Nelson, 2006),
which actively challenges how sexual identities can be understood within and
across different languages and cultures, can create spaces where critical discussions around the sociocultural relevance of all identities, sexual or others, can
be developed (Buyserie & Ramírez, 2021; Paiz, 2017). Critical engagement,
in the sense of encouraging scepticism towards received knowledge and the
status-quo, can be formed on the assumption that sexual identities are integral
components of social identities. In relation to ELT and thus the EFL classroom, such an assumption cannot be disputed. On the contrary, recognition
that sexual identities may become salient in the English language classroom
and may influence the language learning processes is essential (Paiz, 2019).
The need to queer ELT stems from the need to ensure that LGBTQ+ identities, lives, and experiences are not rendered invisible and silent in the EFL
classroom. Vandrick (1997) highlighted the damage of silencing queer voices
by discussing the effects of hidden identities in English language classrooms.
A student may hide their LGBTQ+ identity in fear of bullying, marginalisation, or even being outed to their social circles. Such situations are reified
in both dominant and heteronormative discourses, in which students may
feel excluded from educational spaces, plateau in their learning, and also
resist teaching materials and practices (McKay & Wong, 1996; Paiz, 2019;
Talmy, 2009). In turn, not only can this situation create negative learning
environments with repercussions in students’ academic performances, but
it can additionally affect their classroom presence and educational aspirations (Wimberly et al., 2015). The importance of queering ELT extends
to linguistic value too. It allows students to become equipped with the
necessary communicative competences needed to perform their own sexual
identities in linguistically appropriate ways, enables respectful communication with LGBTQ+ individuals, and also helps them to construe queer
identities encountered, both, in their lives and popular media (Nelson, 1999).
116
D. Evripidou
Sexual Identity-Related Studies in Cyprus
I have investigated the relationship between minority sexual identities and
EFL classrooms in the Greek Cypriot community of Cyprus by concentrating
on teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of minority sexual identities in
EFL classrooms. In Evripidou and Çavuşoğlu’s (2015) study, EFL teachers
reported that they were positive towards the inclusion of gay- and lesbianrelated topics in their lessons. Nonetheless, further investigation revealed that
teachers felt their credibility would be threatened if they were to use such
topics in the classroom. Additionally, they appeared concerned with how the
school authorities would react towards them if they used such topics and
grew unease at what their colleagues or students might have speculated about
them. Teachers also believed that they needed to have specific knowledge to
be able to address gay- and lesbian-related topics or were unsure as how to
handle homophobic comments in the classroom.
Similarly, in Evripidou (2018), I investigated primary teachers’ reluctance
towards addressing sexual minorities in the EFL classroom. Teachers did not
appear to understand how learners’ sexual identities might have an impact on
their learning and they also perceived minority sexual identities as mostly
erotic or sexual and thus inappropriate for the EFL classroom. Additionally, primary teachers perceived children as mainly asexual which led them
to believe that any explorations of sexual identities in the classroom were
unnecessary. Elsewhere (Evripidou, 2020), I have also examined if and how
heteronormativity may hinder sexual minority former students’ oral participation in the EFL classroom. Results showed they would avoid participating
in classroom discussions due to fears of having their sexualities disclosed, their
classmates and teachers’ negative attitudes towards sexual minority identities,
and in some cases, due to other gay students’ internalised homophobia.
The Cypriot Context
Heteronormativity, which sets expectations of heterosexuality and gender
conformity, is pervasive in the Greek Cypriot society. Cyprus still ranks
among the lower in terms of the legal and policy human rights of LGBTQ+
people according to ILGA-Europe’s Rainbow Map (ILGA, 2018). The nexus
of heteronormativity, patriarchal structures, and the strong influence of
the Church have constituted the main factors which lead to homophobia.
LGBTQ+ persons in Cyprus tend to hide their sexual orientation or avoid
revealing aspects of their gender identities leading to underreporting of
Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom …
117
incidents of violence and harassment. Despite challenges to the law which
criminalised homosexuality, it was only in 1998 when the country was to
claim membership in the European Union that it was essentially forced to
amend legislation (Georgiou et al., 2004). Since the late 1990s, however,
Cyprus has made some significant changes, with the last being in 2015 when
civil partnership was legally introduced (Tryfonidou, 2017).
The Exploration
Eight Greek Cypriot EFL teachers welcomed the idea of being interviewed
for the purpose of this study (Table 1). All teachers were born and raised in
Cyprus. They were in their late 30s or middle 40s, had at least ten years of
teaching experience, and completed their undergraduate studies in Greek or
British universities. All teachers obtained MA degrees in Applied Linguistics,
Language Education, or Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
(TESOL) programmes from the UK and were currently employed in the
private sector teaching EFL to students who were in their early or middle
adolescence. They were formally informed about the aims of the study, while
their anonymity was guaranteed. The participants are named in this chapter
through pseudonyms.
The interviews were conducted in the teachers’ mother tongue (Cypriot
Greek) and were translated into English by professionals. Each interview
lasted for about one to two hours. What was stated, expressed, or explained by
the teachers is analysed and discussed from a queer theory perspective. Words
and phrases that were used in the English language during the interviews are
presented in italics. After the interviews were transcribed and translated, they
were subjected to a thematic analysis (Riessman, 2008).
Table 1 Teachers’ background information
No.
Teachers (pseudonyms)
Sex
Age
Years of teaching experience
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Angela
Vassos
Yannis
Dina
Elli
Zina
Hara
Thalia
Female
Male
Male
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
37
38
38
40
42
43
44
44
14
12
11
17
19
20
20
21
118
D. Evripidou
Understanding Teachers’ Concerns
Five out of eight teachers reported that they were positive towards the idea
of deheteronomalising their EFL classrooms by means of exploring sexual
identities with their students, whereas three stated that they were still sceptical
towards it. All of them, however, addressed various reasons which make such
attempts challenging.
Studies and Perceived Responsibilities
Three teachers explained that exploring sexual identities in the EFL classroom
was not part of the input they had received as students in Applied Linguistics, Language Education, or TESOL programmes. Although they recognised
the importance of various learner identity aspects in ELT and learning, they
reported that the relationship among sexual identity (straight or otherwise),
teaching, and learning was never addressed in their studies as part of the
knowledge they were required to possess. Therefore, their weight in teaching
was questioned:
[w]e were never exposed to these matters at university […] we were never really
taught how they [sexual identities] are related to teaching or learning so to be
honest, I generally avoid them. Charis
This teacher seems to believe that since there was not a section of a university module covering such explorations, she can be justified for avoiding
them in the EFL classroom. Similarly, Angela, another teacher, explained that
perhaps “other identity characteristics must be more important if they [course
leaders, etc.] chose not to concentrate on them”. When it was suggested that
sexual identities were probably already in the classroom through the material, texts, topics they concentrated on, the classroom practices they may
have adopted or even through themselves as sexual beings and as spouses
(in heterosexual relationships), they both explained that as language teachers
their roles focused more on teaching the language, and as Charis explained
“[…] not so much on questioning what is considered normal”.
When it was suggested that perhaps such explorations would also assist
all their students in developing linguistic and other competences to facilitate communication with LGBTQ+ individuals or express themselves, Angela
wondered whether such issues should first be explored in students’ first
language with other teachers as she did not see them as part of her ELT
responsibilities. Furthermore, Charis rationalised her attitude because of
Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom …
119
the international examinations her students take, which based on her long
teaching experience, never addressed or referred to such identities. The issue
related to the lack of presence of minority sexual identities in formal examination material was also discussed by three other teachers. Thalia, for instance,
explained that although she taught EFL for two decades, she had never “come
across the presence of such identities in past papers”.
Clear-Cut Identities and “Positive Stimuli”
Four teachers expressed their concerns about the ways exploring sexual identities can be done concerning lesson plan preparation. These teachers were
unsure as to how these identities can be presented or approached in their
lesson plans, or the reasons they should explore all sexual identities:
I’m willing to do so, but I don’t know how. I can understand if the students
bring it up themselves, but otherwise how is it done? […] Do I prepare a lesson
plan on them? “Today we’ll explore the life of gay people, tomorrow the straight? ”
Also, why should we explore all of them? […]. Yannos
This teacher was unsure as to how sexual identities can be approached in
the classroom, whether a whole lesson plan or series of lesson plans should
be prepared on them, and how they would be introduced. After Yannos
voiced his concerns about lesson plans, he was asked for more clarifications concerning the binary he presented and the lack of need, as he stated,
to explore all sexual identities. Sexual identities were mostly understood as
being clear-cut, while all individuals would identify as belonging into one of
three (straight, bisexual, gay). Concerning heterosexuality, it was understood
as being “already all around us” and thus it need not “more clarifications”.
Another teacher, Zina characteristically explained that “[…] the point was
to explore other sexualities and not the standard ones […]”. In a similar
vein concerning non-heterosexual identities, Vassos, another teacher, emphasised the need of “positive stimuli” which can then be easily approached for
constructive explorations in the EFL classroom:
[w]e [EFL teachers] need to have a chance to start discussing them [sexual
identities], they are a delicate matter […] [We need] positive stimuli from
Cyprus, something acceptable from our society which we can easily talk about.
Vassos
120
D. Evripidou
This teacher explained that the teachers need “positive stimuli” from Cyprus
to enable such explorations. When he was asked about what he meant by
“positive stimuli”, he explained that he referred to “proper” representations
of non-heterosexual people that can be easily used for such explorations. As
he explained, they needed “someone who is proper is their ways, not too
much […] not too extreme or too feminine [for gay men], or the opposite
for [lesbian] women”. On mentioning that various representations can be
found in the media, the teacher explained that the ones found in Cyprus were
mostly considered negative or unwanted and “not acceptable for the classroom”. In trying to clarify further, it was understood that the representations
of sexual minorities he considered as positive should not be too divergent
from gender expression normativity.
Representation and Language
The issue of gender expression was discussed by another teacher, Dina,
who tried to explain her unfamiliarity with “the notions of being gay”, her
concerns regarding language, and her fears concerning what identities to
concentrate on or not:
I think I don’t really know the notions of being gay […] I mean there is vocabulary, expressions, and concepts that I’m not familiar with. Like abbreviations
[acronyms] or names of types of people, colloquialisms […] I feel responsible
towards my kids [students] and I understand that some of them might turn to
be- I mean, have different [minority] sexualities. Dina
Dina believes that to be able to explore sexual identities, she should first
understand the semantics of certain vocabulary items, expressions, what they
mean or stand for before engaging with her students on such sexual identity
explorations. She gave the example of cis male, which as she did not see it
written, she initially believed that it was used to refer prejudicially to a feminine gay man. On requesting for more clarifications concerning the meaning
of “notions”, she explained how once a gay friend of hers reprimanded her
for focusing on a gay Greek Cypriot TV series character in one of her lessons:
I asked the kids to describe Vanjelis [TV series character]1 to me. They came up
with a lot of adjectives, “fashionable”, “gentle”, “funny”, “different ”, “eccentric ”
[…] I thought the lesson was a success, but when I mentioned it to my [gay]
friend, he was not very pleased. He [Vanjelis] wasn’t really a good figure [to
focus on in class] apparently, because he was too feminine and did more harm
than good. Dina
Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom …
121
The teacher was clearly referring to what her friend considered an acceptable or desired gender expression for gay men. She started questioning what
gender expressions were appropriate to be presented in the classroom and
she explained that due to her gay friend’s comments, she did not feel either
comfortable or confident enough to explore sexual identities again as she
thought the choices she made might not have been as beneficial as she had
initially believed.
Discussing Teachers’ Concerns
Numerous reasons were presented and discussed in the interviews. Teachers
explained that at university they were never exposed explicitly to the relationship between language teaching or learning and sexual identities in the
way that other aspects of learners’ identities were examined. As a result,
their importance in ELT was doubted. Additionally, concerns were expressed
on whether such explorations were part of their job as EFL teachers, while
they also highlighted that such minority sexual identities were never present
in formal examination papers, questioning further their necessity. It also
seems that sexual identities were understood as falling into strict categories
of heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual, and questions were raised on
whether lesson plans should focus on each one of them individually. Others
pointed out the lack of what they considered positive visibility of some
sexual identities in the Cypriot society and how they can be surfaced or
approached in the classroom. Some expressed insecurities regarding the relationship between sexual identities and gender expressions, what is considered
appropriate, and what would not risk the positive portrayal of some sexual
identities. Finally, concerns were also expressed in terms of the knowledge
they should have about the terminology of gender and sexual minorities
or more specifically their unfamiliarity with certain acronyms, vocabulary,
expressions, colloquialisms, and concepts.
Although direct exposure to the relationship between sexual identity and
language learning might not have been part of the teachers’ formal tertiary
education, its importance or presence in the classroom cannot be doubted.
What is considered normal or natural is already present in the classroom due
to heteronormativity. Even though some teachers may not wish to explore
any sexual identities, it seems explanations are needed as to how certain
sexual identities are already present in the classroom through the teachers’
own practices, the material they use, and the language they teach. They may,
consequently, believe that such explorations or analyses of either prevailing
122
D. Evripidou
or competing norms are not part of their language teaching responsibilities.
However, they do not seem to consider that such doubts to explore any sexual
identities, in essence, do not only allow certain normative sexual identities
to prevail in the classroom, but simultaneously support the norms-inflicted
attitudes that are already there. Additionally, some teachers do not seem to
realise that avoiding analysing sexual identities may simultaneously affect
negatively their own language teaching responsibilities as their students, irrespective of their sexual identities, may not develop the appropriate language
skills and pragmatic understandings to advocate for themselves and others by
questioning the positionings of dominant discourses (Nelson, 2006).
Thus, students’ development of linguistic and communicative competences depends, to a certain extent, on the negotiation of sexual identities if
they are to be able to discuss them in culturally and pragmatically appropriate
ways (Wadell et al., 2012), perform their own sexual identities in linguistically meaningful ways, engage in communicative interactions with LGBTQ+
individuals (Nelson, 1999), or perform communicative acts with appropriate
language and sociocultural strategies. Nonetheless, although the importance
of such linguistic and other explorations cannot be questioned, they believe,
they can still be avoided given that international EFL and ESL examinations
have never presented their candidates with minority-sexual-identity related
material in any exam papers. As with commercial publishers and English
language textbooks which remain avenues for heteronormative discourses and
worldviews (Gray, 2013; Paiz, 2015), based on what the teachers interviewed
said, the sexual identity options that are presented in examination material
conform to heteronormativity. This makes them doubt the significance of
such identities even more.
Some teachers’ positive attitudes towards addressing sexual minorities in
the EFL classroom cannot be questioned. However, thoughts concerning
lessons plans on particular sexual identities, the perception of strict categories of sexual identities, or the questioning of the need to problematise
heterosexual identities reveal that some are, perhaps, more familiar with a
pedagogy that aims at the visibility of sexual minorities or their legitimacy.
Nonetheless, these also constitute the very reasons for their difficulty as to
how these identities can be approached, discussed, and analysed in the classroom. Neither can conducting lessons based on lesson plans which exclusively
focus on different sexual identities be easy in a heteronormative society such
as the one of Cyprus, nor can drawing definite lines among sexual identities pose a challenge to the norm. Since homosexuality is necessary to the
maintenance of heteronormative discourses of normal and not-normal sexualities (Fuss, 1991), inclusion (or acceptance) of sexual minorities might
Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom …
123
not induce a sustainable solution to heteronormativity (Britzman, 1998;
Luhman, 1998). As Britzman (1998) points out, simply exposing students
to representations of gay and lesbian individuals may have little effect on
their pre-existing understanding about boundaries of conventional. Similarly,
in this case, possible teachers’ attempts to prepare lesson plans on different
sexual identities at a time, independent of other sexualities and genders, may
not encourage analyses of how sexual identities are normalised.
Some teachers also believe that what they understand as “positive stimuli”, meaning positive representations, are not present enough in Cyprus to
encourage a discussion on sexual identities in the classroom. On highlighting
that various representations could be found in the media for possible analyses
and explorations in the EFL classroom, the teachers expressed their concerns
about the representations that can be found in the Cypriot media and perhaps
their inappropriacy for the language classroom. Some expressed their insecurities concerning what representations are acceptable for the classroom and
others acceptable by the members of the relative community of Cyprus itself.
It seems minority sexual identities can become a challenge to some teachers
because of their gender expression. It is believed that individuals who are
gay or lesbian and whose gender expressions do not appear to adhere to the
conventional are inappropriate or unwanted for the classroom. When they
are willing to explore such non-conforming gender expressions, some teachers
doubt their decisions about the identity representation they have chosen to
focus on. It seems that even though they are willing to explore sexual identities, they aim for identities or are made to believe that they should aim for
identities that conform to gender expression norms.
Despite preferences to minority sexual identities that conform to certain
gender expressions, as Morris (1998) points out, identities and experiences
do not always fit into such limited equations. In both cases, what seems to be
wanted or what they are made to believe is acceptable are identities that do
not deviate too much from what is the norm and thus considered acceptable
for the EFL classroom. Although such gender expression conforming representations might accommodate some students’ sense of self, they might not
satisfy or might appear limiting to others, while if these unthreatening representations (Shlasko, 2005) are consistently chosen for the classroom, they
may not adequately challenge heteronormativity. A non-conforming gender
expression, such as the one mostly expressed by Vanjelis on Cypriot television, on the other hand, might appear accessible or accommodative to some,
but at the same time, if representations are limited to those, as Rofes (2000)
explains, they might reinforce stereotypes of gay men which can more easily
fit into hetero-centric narratives and thus still reinforce heteronormativity.
124
D. Evripidou
Furthermore, although these representations might be useful in their own
ways, they cannot constitute for all minority sexual identities. As Sullivan
(2003) and Shlasko (2005) indicated, minority sexual identities cannot be
homogenised. They are not monolithic (Griffin et al., 2007), and one’s
visibility does not make all visible.
Another aspect that has surfaced from the interviews is the issue of
language, or more specifically gender-and-sexuality related language that
some teachers state they are unfamiliar with. It is understandable that the
language related to genders and sexualities is continuously evolving (McGraw
& van Leent, 2018) which might make it difficult for educators, who are
not directly related to such fields, to follow up. This is evident in the field
of sexuality by the collective acronyms which tend to develop over time to
include, represent, or acknowledge more sexual identities or genders. Not
only does the exploration of sexual identities in a foreign language for both,
teachers and students, require the gaining of some knowledge or understanding of lexis, expressions, colloquialisms, and terms related to sexuality,
but it also requires some understanding of gender identities, their possible
gender expressions, and fluidity. Some level of understanding or knowledge
of relevant theories, concepts, and language may, more easily, facilitate sexual
identities explorations. These will, in turn, enable discussions of the plurality
of sexual and gender identities which may help teachers understand misconceptions and even prevent, for example, misuse of terms and what they could
or not mean or represent.
Conclusions and Implications
The significance of discussing the social meanings of sexual and gender
identities in the diversity of language classrooms has been discussed by
various researchers in applied linguistics, language education, and TESOL
fields. Casting our minds back to Greek Cypriot EFL teachers’ beliefs,
doubts, and insecurities in deheteronormalising their classrooms, it seems
they remain significantly sceptical towards exploring sexual (and gender)
identities. Reasons put forward relate to the following interrelated aspects
which are, perhaps, to some extent justifiable, since neither their formal
education nor their current EFL contexts have equipped them with ways of
theorising sexual identities. Such ways would enable the possibility of identifying heteronormative patterns of thinking, producing language, or teaching
a foreign language and, in turn, attempt to question them:
Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom …
125
• Teachers were never exposed, during their undergraduate and postgraduate
studies, to sexual identities in relation to ELT and the ways heteronormativity prevails in the classroom or the ways it might harm their students.
• Teachers do not seem to fully understand the importance of such explorations in the development of their students’ language and communicative
competences or how the former can contribute to the latter.
• Teachers question such deheteronormalising attempts since minority sexual
identities, in their own experience, have never been present in any formal
examinations.
• Teachers seem to be more familiar with a civil-rights framework than with
queer theory and its implications in ELT, while sexual and gender identities are mainly understood as falling into strict categories or are limited to
gender binarisms.
• Teachers focus on certain representations of minority sexual identities that
reinforce heteronormativity or stereotypes. Some, however, seem to be
insecure about which representations they should concentrate on.
• Teachers believe that they are unfamiliar with certain terminology,
acronyms, vocabulary, expressions, and concepts that, they believe, are
required to enable exploration of all identities in the EFL classroom.
Given the voices explored above, recommendations can also relate to other
cultures, communities, or EFL contexts, similar to Cyprus, where heteronormativity seems to prevail. There appears to be a need for in-service EFL
teachers, especially in heteronormative contexts, to attend seminars, workshops, or professional development programmes which will acknowledge
sexual identity as a form of identity. In such seminars teachers can discuss
the ways sexual identity coyness might affect students’ learning, explore the
ways its acknowledgement contributes to diversity in ELT, and help them
become aware of the ways with which heteronormativity is sustained in the
EFL classroom.
Similarly, TESOL, language education, and applied linguistics
programmes can provide some space in both theoretical and practical
modules (theory, pedagogy, methodology, teaching practicum modules, etc.)
for readings and discussions based on the relationship among language
learning, sexual, and gender identities through queer theory in ELT. The
use of queer theory can be clearly identified in module descriptors in both
content and teaching strategies, as well as in the bibliography and learning
support material. Practical aspects of its inclusion in the classroom can be
exemplified to in-service teachers through continuing professional development seminars and teacher-students through academic modules. As most
126
D. Evripidou
teachers do not seem to be familiar with the contributions of queer theory
to ELT, such readings, discussions, and practical examples will encourage
them to critically analyse the notions of clear-cut sexuality categories, discuss
binarism and genderism, and help them to understand the importance of
exploring a variety of sexual identity representations (regardless of their
students’ sexual identities).
Additionally, such discussions of the contributions of queer theory to
ELT will inevitably familiarise EFL teachers with the language and concepts
needed to avoid misconceptions and enable them to explore all sexual
identities in linguistically appropriate ways. Such seminars, workshops, or
programmes, both for professional development or academic reasons, can
also involve their attendees in critical discussions on why identity options
presented in international examination material, similarly to EFL textbooks,
are not as varied and tend to sustain heteronormative views. These might
encourage EFL teachers to stop doubting the importance of exploring sexual
identities in the classroom, help them realise how heteronormativity prevails
in their classrooms, equip them with ways which they can review their
practices with, and also overcome some of the insecurities they may have
concerning in-class sexual identity negotiations.
Suggested Further Reading
Gray, J. (Ed.). (2013). Critical perspectives on language teaching materials.
Basingstoke: Palgrave.
This book draws on research carried out on teaching materials and it is
located within the “critical turn” in Applied Linguistics, while the politics
of representation and identity, and issues of ideology and commercialism
are discussed. It focuses on a collection of critical voices on the subject of
language teaching materials for use in English, French, Spanish, German, and
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) classrooms.
Saunston, H. (2018). Language, sexuality and education. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
This book contains different frameworks that can help teachers reflect on
their practice and implement English language lessons that enable learners
experience inclusion in the construction of sexual identities.
Waite, S. (2017). Teaching queer: Radical possibilities for writing and knowing.
Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom …
127
Queer theory in “Teaching queer” is viewed as a methodology for the
reconsideration of normative assumptions about writing, literacy, and knowledge. Teaching queer is not just teaching about queers or as a queer but
teaching in ways which encourage anti-normative thinking and writing.
Drawing from real-life teaching examples, student work, and classroom transcripts, it contends that the overlap between queer theory and composition
presents new possibilities for teaching writing.
Engagement Priorities
• If EFL teachers avoid challenging heteronormativity in the classroom
in terms of sexual and gender identities, what might be the linguistic
implications for their students’ competences?
• An EFL teacher in the study was criticised by one of her gay male friends
about the identity representation she chose to focus on in the language
classroom. What was her friend’s point? Why was he not pleased? Why
can one easily argue for or against his point?
• Considering the particular setting, teachers’ characteristics, and what they
stated, would one be correct to assume that it is their responsibility as EFL
teachers to familiarise themselves with language, terminology, concepts,
etc., related to sexual and gender identities? Why/why not?
Note
1. Vanjelis is one of the main characters of “Aiyia Fuxia” [The Fuchsia Goat], a
highly popular Greek Cypriot comedy television series in the late 2000s. Vanjelis,
whose signature colour is fuchsia, is portrayed as a gay man whose attributes are
stereotypically associated with effeminacy. His pet animal is a white goat with a
fuchsia bow around its neck.
References
Banegas, D. L., & Evripidou, D. (2021). Introduction comprehensive sexuality
education in ELT. ELT Journal , 75 (2), 127–132.
Block, D. (2003). The social turn in second language acquisition. Georgetown
University Press.
128
D. Evripidou
Britzman, D. (1998). Is there a queer pedagogy? Or, stop reading straight. In W. F.
Pinar (Ed.), Curriculum: Towards new identities (pp. 211–232). Garland.
Buyserie, B., & Ramírez, R. (2021). Enacting a queer pedagogy in the composition
classroom. ELT Journal, 75 (2), 193–202.
Evripidou, D. (2018). The interrelationship among sexual identity, learning, and
sexualisation: Primary EFL teachers’ attitudes in Cyprus. TESOL Quarterly,
52(4), 1062–1072.
Evripidou, D. (2020). Effects of heteronormativity on Cypriot EFL classroom
participation: Students’ experiences. Gender and Education, 32(8), 1019–1033.
Evripidou, D., & Çavuşoğlu, Ç. (2015). English language teachers’ attitudes towards
the incorporation of gay- and lesbian-related topics in the classroom: The case of
Greek Cypriot EFL teachers. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 12(1), 70–80.
Fuss, D. (1991). Inside/out. In D. Fuss (Ed.), Inside/out: Lesbian theories, gay theories
(pp. 1–10). Routledge.
Georgiou, G., Modinos, A., Papageorgiou, N., Papantoniou, L., & Peristianis, N.
(2004). Cyprus: Part 1. Greek Cyprus. In R. Francoeur & R. Noonan (Eds.),
International encyclopaedia of sexuality (pp. 279–307). Continuum.
Gray, J. (Ed.). (2013). Critical perspectives on language teaching materials. Palgrave
Macmillan.
Griffin, P., d’Errico, K. H., Harro, B., & Schiff, T. (2007). Heterosexism curriculum
design. In M. Adams, L. A. Bell, & P. Griffin (Eds.), Teaching for diversity and
social justice (pp. 195–218). Routledge.
ILGA-Europe. (2018). Rainbow Europe. Available at: https://www.ilga-europe.org/
resources/rainbow-europe/rainbow-europe-2018. Accessed 23 Oct 2018.
Kitchen, J., & Bellini, C. (2012). Addressing lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender,
and queer (LGBTQ) issues in teacher education: Teacher candidates’ perceptions.
Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 58(3), 444–460.
Luhman, S. (1998). Queering/querying pedagogy? Or, pedagogy is a pretty queer
thing. In W. F. Pinar (Ed.), Queer theory in education (pp. 141–156). Earlbaum.
McGraw, K., & van Leent, L. (2018). Textual constraints: Queering the senior
English text list in the Australian curriculum. English in Australia, 53(2), 28–39.
McKay, S. L., & Wong, S. L. C. (1996). Multiple discourses, multiple identities:
Investment and agency in second-language learning among Chinese adolescent
immigrant students. Harvard Educational Review, 66 (3), 577–609.
Morris, M. (1998). Unresting the curriculum: Queer projects, queer imaginings. In
W. Pinar (Ed.), Queer theory in education (pp. 257–286). Earlbaum.
Morris, M. (2000). Dante’s left foot kicks queer theory into gear. In S. Talburt &
S. Steinberg (Eds.), Thinking queer: Sexuality, culture, and education (pp. 15–32).
Peter Lang.
Nelson, C. D. (1999). Sexual identities in ESL: Queer theory and classroom inquiry.
TESOL Quarterly, 33(3), 371–391.
Nelson, C. D. (2002). Why queer theory is useful in teaching: A perspective from
English as a second language teaching. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services,
14 (2), 43–53.
Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom …
129
Nelson, C. D. (2006). Queer inquiry in language education. Journal of Language,
Identity and Education, 5 (1), 1–9.
Nelson, C. D. (2007). Queer thinking about language teaching: An overview of
published work. In H. Decke-Cornill & L. Volkmann (Eds.), Gender and foreign
language teaching (pp. 63–67). Guter Narr.
Neto, J. N. (2018). Queer pedagogy: Approaches to inclusive teaching. Policy Futures
in Education, 16 (5), 589–604.
Paiz, J. M. (2015). Over the monochrome rainbow: Heteronormativity in ESL
reading texts and textbooks. Journal of Language and Sexuality, 4 (1), 77–101.
Paiz, J. M. (2017). Queering ESL teaching: Pedagogical and materials creation
issues. TESOL Journal, 9 (2), 348–367.
Paiz, J. M. (2019). Queering practice: LGBTQ+ diversity and inclusion in English
language teaching. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 18(4), 266–275.
Rhodes, C. M., & Coda, J. (2017). It’s not in the curriculum: Adult English
language teachers and LGBQ topics. Adult Learning, 28(3), 99–106.
Riessman, C. K. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences. Sage.
Rofes, E. (2000). Transgression and the situated body: Gender, sex, and the gay male
teacher. In S. Talburt & S. Steinberg (Eds.), Thinking queer: Sexuality, culture, and
education (pp. 131–150). Peter Lang.
Shlasko, G. D. (2005). Queer (v.) pedagogy. Equity and Excellence in Education,
38(2), 123–134.
Sullivan, N. (2003). A critical introduction to queer theory. Edinburgh University
Press.
Talmy, S. (2009). Resisting ESL: Categories and sequence in a critically “motivated”
analysis of classroom interaction. In H. T. Nguyen & G. Kasper (Eds.), Talk in
interaction: Multilingual perspectives (pp. 181–213). National Foreign Language
Resource Centre, University of Hawaii Press.
Tryfonidou, A. (2017). The legal position of LGBT persons and same-sex couples
in Cyprus. The Cyprus Review, 29, 183–213.
Vandrick, S. (1997). The role of hidden identities in the postsecondary ESL
classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 31(1), 153–157.
Wadell, E., Frei, K., & Martin, S. (2012). Professional development through
inquiry: Addressing sexual identity in TESOL. The CATESOL Journal, 23(1),
99–109.
Wimberly, G. L., Wilkinson, L., & Pearson, J. (2015). LGBTQ student achievement
and educational attainment. In G. L. Wimberly (Ed.), LGBTQ issues in education: Advancing a research agenda (pp. 121–139). American Educational Research
Association.
Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk
in the Gender Identity Construction of Filipino
Children
Rafaella R. Potestades
Introduction
Feminist and queer theorists have emphasised that schools are one of the
social avenues for creating gender stereotypes (e.g.,Aikman & Unterhalter,
2007; Butler, 1993; Hassaskhah & Zamir, 2013). These theorists have questioned the premise of biological sex differences—female and male sex organs
and characteristics—as a determiner for one’s role in society. Such biological
essentialism found in the school, family, media, and religion has boxed people
into a web of masculine and feminine labels; thus, stifling the ability of boys
and girls to excel in various fields of study and develop their potential beyond
the binary.
This chapter reports on a research study which looked at the discursive patterns and content of Filipino teacher–student interactions in English
language classroom discussions, such as teachers’ evaluative comments (i.e.,
Praise, Criticism, Acceptance, Remediation) and its impact on the students’
gender identity construction. Fairclough’s (1987) Critical Discourse Analysis
and Baxter’s (2003) Feminist Post-structuralist Discourse Analysis were used
to assess the effect of classroom language socialisation (stories and discussions
carried out in English) on the students’ understanding of their and other
R. R. Potestades (B)
University of the Philippines - Diliman, Quezon City, Manila, Philippines
e-mail: rrpotestades@up.edu.ph
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_8
131
132
R. R. Potestades
peoples’ gender identities. Furthermore, this chapter seeks to shed light on
how sexist or gender binary texts and lessons translate into discursive practices in the English language classroom discussions and sociocultural gender
practices in the female and male students’ behaviours and perceptions about
gender identities.
Gender and Development in Schools
In the Fourth World Conference on Women, the United Nation memberstates agreed that schools should be purged of gender1 biases or sexist
ideologies. Sadly, most states have yet to properly wean out gender stereotypes
in schools’ curriculum content, learning materials, language of instruction
and literacy, and methods of evaluation and assessment (Aikman & Unterhalter, 2007; Moore, 2020; Riley, 2014). The educational system is viewed
as a structure that allows students to construct knowledge with the guidance from teachers; this form of collaborated conversations becomes a site
for the construction and negotiation of gender views (Jaworski & Coupland, 2014). In that regard, English language teaching (ELT) educators may
consciously or unconsciously influence the students’ notions of gender either
about themselves or others.
In the case of the Philippines, most of the country’s English textbooks
portray stereotypical gender expressions and identities. Nevertheless, it is
clear in the Magna Carta of Women2 that this reference for knowledge
has a normalising effect. In skimming through these textbooks, they display
the dominance of gender binary-assigned traits in the lessons and stories.
For instance, women are often viewed to be kind, beautiful, subservient; in
contrast, men are portrayed as dominant and professional (engineers, doctors,
and lawyers) (Tarrayo, 2014).
The unchallenged portrayal of these traditional roles in ELT classroom
discussions may maintain rigid identities which may limit a child’s interests and future choices, such as career opportunities (i.e., only boys are
rational enough to hold high positions in student councils and, ultimately,
government positions).
To help prevent engendering such stereotypes in Philippine classrooms,
researchers like Hernandez and Cudiamat (2017) tried synergising about
methods to integrate gender and development in the classroom. Thus, they
conducted experimental research on the Grade 8 students of Lucsuhin
National High School. They instructed the ELT teachers to use gender-based
differentiated instruction in classroom discussions and the teachers grouped
Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk …
133
their students based on their gender, learning styles, and multiple intelligences. The results garnered heightened learning confidence and post-test
scores with one student citing on the survey “gender based differentiated instruction gives more opportunity to showcase my hidden talent”
(Hernandez & Cudiamat, 2017). Integrating a gender-based differentiated
instruction in the Lucsuhin National High School classroom discourse might
have helped lessen the implications of the students learned-gender binary
(e.g., girls just obediently listening to discussions, boys being called to answer
math questions).
Gendered Classroom Discourse
According to Jaworski and Coupland (2014), a student is perceived to be
a community novice because of being “less knowledgeable” and a teacher
is viewed as a veteran social actor because of their “authoritative knowledge”. The former may develop their gender identity through the latter’s
(re)constitution, challenge, or maintenance of a web of gendered social practices or cultural routines through classroom discourse (Jaworski & Coupland,
2014). Hence, the perpetuation of gender stereotypes begins as gender enculturation, which becomes a prerequisite before one is considered a member
of a speech community or a “veteran” social actor. Just like Butler’s (1990)
concept of identity, language socialisation happens when someone is recognised as a new member of the speech community through the label “It’s a
boy! It’s a girl!” and this label stays with them until they cease to exist.
In classroom discourse, language and socialisation are acknowledged to
be connected, since this is where most linguistic processes of identities are
formalised. In understanding the learning process, interactions that happen
between a teacher and students affect the direction of gendered discourses
(Tannen, 1996). The gender identity building may manifest in two ways:
first, in the political positioning of the genders in the conversation itself
(i.e., prioritising boys in science and mathematics subjects), and second, in
the material sense such as discourses on gender topics (i.e., gender-neutral
bathrooms, familial roles). Gender-biased narratives of characters found in
ELT teaching materials and instruction (Moore, 2020; Swann, 2003) are
also common setting. This has a normalising effect in naturalising certain
masculine and feminine traits in cisgender3 characters.
Language socialisation has a large effect on children’s social identity
(Duranti et al., 2011). The result of such a situation is co-production where
an intersubjective account of gender occurs between the educator and the
134
R. R. Potestades
students (Sunderland, 1994). This is a period in children’s lives when
social structures and cultural interpretations found in the semiotic forms,
ideologies, and practices of the English language guide their social engagement—how to act and what to say—with other people. Thus, in a certain
speech community (i.e., schools or family), children or novices learn the local
language and are guided through culturally constructed social engagements—
in this study, their understanding of their own and other people’s gender
identity in English lessons.
Gender-patterned Interactions in Philippine
Classrooms
The image of the Philippines as relatively better off in the gender and development battle still dominates mainstream media. There exists a Philippines with
female presidents, non-gender binary identities such as the bakla and tibo
(Patiag, 2019), matriarchal families, and gender equality in the labour market
(World Economic Forum, 2018). This perspective is partly true and unfortunately also false. Admittedly, the Philippines have laws and frameworks but
such policies have yet to reach full fruition because of faulty government
systems and different consciousness levels of oppressive gender structures
(Asia Development Bank, 2013). Furthermore, the Philippine LGBTQIA +
(Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Intersexual, Asexual, and other
genders) community appears to be visible in the media and on the streets
compared to other countries, but this country’s tolerance comes with conditions. The support is only present if one maintains the identity accepted by
the majority, being an entertainer. This illusory acceptance has created this
surface-level perception of gender and development which has resulted in the
state deprioritising and even challenging their plights (Tan, 2001). This is not
to discount all the efforts and developments contributed by various women
and LGBTQIA + groups, but rather this is an echo of their concerns that
the war is far from over.
This chapter aims to deconstruct current gender situations and stereotypes which trickled down into the country’s educational system (i.e., learning
materials and classroom instruction). The chapter seeks to shed light on how
such gender ideologies and situations found in classroom discourses affect the
gender identity construction of Filipino children and how they view other
people’s gender identities.
Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk …
135
Our Study
This section describes our study and its context. It also presents the framework that was used to analyse the emerging gender-patterned classroom interactions and the effect of English classroom discourses on Filipino students’
sociocultural gender practice.
Three English Language female teachers and 109 Filipino primary students
(57 females and 52 males) from grade levels one to three from a private
school in Quezon Province, Philippines were observed for this study. The
main sources of analysis are the (a) classroom discussions, specifically how
the educators discuss their English lesson and how they engage the students’
answers, (b) descriptive paragraphs about each student and their family, and
(c) focus group discussion with the students and interviews with the teachers.
The micro interactions specifically assessed were the quantity and quality
of teacher’s comments to female and male students. The tool used was
a modified version of a gender-equity observation checklist, INTERSECT
(Interactions for Sex Equity in Classroom Teaching Observation System)
(Hassaskhah & Zamir, 2013). Analysis sought to understand if there was
a significant difference in the treatment toward male and female students
participating in the interaction. The distinction of non-gender binary
students was not used, as the researcher felt unequipped to make assumptions
about the students’ Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Expression, and
Sexual Characteristics (SOGIESC). This system was crafted to assess the
Observed Frequency, i.e., the number of interactions allotted by the teachers,
and Expected Frequency, i.e., the desired number of interactions to achieve
gender equality or equity. The four evaluative teacher moves are defined as:
• PRAISE: positively reinforces the student’s performance (e.g., “Excellent!”,
“Good!”).
• ACCEPTANCE: passively considers the student’s response as correct or
appropriate (e.g., “Okay”, “Uh-huh”).
• REMEDIATION: represents a constructed comment and encourages a
more acceptable response (e.g., “What do you mean?”).
• CRITICISM: explicitly negates student’s answer or action (e.g., “That’s
wrong”, “Keep quiet”).
The way teachers interact with students, especially as a response to their
academic ideas or classroom behaviour, may affect the students’ achievement,
attitudes, and subject performance (Hassaskhah & Zamir, 2013; Sadker et al.,
1984). For instance, harshly reprimanding or criticising a student for their
136
R. R. Potestades
behaviour may affect how they move or interact with others in the classroom in the future, such as in the case of shaming girls for not sitting
properly by the virtue of being modest or conservative. Such criticism might
further build on the narrative of women and girls’ mobility being restricted
due to their gender. Praising interactions may also signify a teacher’s idea of
“correct” behaviours or “standard” answers such as praising a male student
for answering loudly or applauding their answers of using “obedient” or
“pretty” as “female” adjectives. Acceptance and Remediation interactions may
be indicative of a teacher’s interest in further probing the answer of the
student or eliciting a specific answer as determined by the teacher—which
falls under their roles as Facilitators or Moderators in the discussion (Grasha,
1994). Facilitators have the power to frame discussions according to their
intended goal but not totally enforcing a certain structured discussion to
assure the students’ learning autonomy and independence. The quality and
quantity of these four evaluative moves—which may have consciously or
unconsciously interjected gender ideologies—may have a normalising effect
on what students find as correct or incorrect gender actions, behaviours, and
notions given that they view teachers as authoritative figures.
The effect of the classroom discourses was assessed through the descriptive
essay assignment given after the discussions. In this assignment, the students
were assigned to describe their family members’ attitudes, roles, jobs, and
hobbies. Content analysis was used to find emerging descriptions and adjectives of female and male family members, including the students themselves.
Thematic concepts of gender ideologies found in the teachers’ discussions and
students’ descriptive essays, and how students appreciate it were also analysed.
Analyses on the data sources are framed using Fairclough’s (1987) Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Baxter’s (2003) Feminist Post-structuralist
Discourse Analysis (FPDA) to further explain how this form of gender
discursive practice transforms into a social practice. FPDA views gendered
discourses as performing and constructing gender identities throughout the
interaction. For example, a certain female student being criticised for her
“unladylike movements” and her adjusting to the criticism. FPDA contributes
to CDA by being more nuanced to the concept of gender rather than
CDA’s sole focus on power asymmetry alone; this additional framework
aims to deconstruct disempowering social practices that contribute to gender
inequality.
Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk …
137
Analysis and Discussion of Classroom Interaction
According to the INTERSECT model, the 57 girls were expected to receive
at least 52 per cent of each type of interaction and the 52 boys at least 48
per cent. Based on the collated data from the three primary classes, the three
English teachers equally praised and criticised the students but distributed
more acceptance and remediation interactions to the male students. Out
of 240 acceptance interactions, there were only 95 distributed to the girls
compared to the expected frequency of 125 interactions. In the overall 216
remediation interactions, the teachers only remediated the girls’ answers 77
times out of the 112 expected frequency. Based on the distribution of acceptance and remediation interactions, the teachers relatively relied on the male
students more in furthering the classroom discussion as compared to their
female students.
In the following extracts, it can be seen that, according to Fairclough’s
CDA model, the English lesson and teacher’s interpretation of the story’s
ideas stand as the text that is being turned into a discursive practice
throughout the class discussion. The teachers’ authoritative position indicates a power asymmetry framework in place as the students listen to their
words about story characters as “truth”, so if the students hear that women
are “pretty” or “kind” then they may believe this as the essential truth for
all kinds of women. Baxter’s FPDA (2003) then incorporates gender identity
building as part of the process of the discursive practice turning into a sociocultural practice. In every discussion, the student might physically or socially
adjust to behaviours, actions, or ideas being called out or praised, or they
might adhere to certain narratives such as women being obedient.
The students are coded based on their grade level, sex, and number
according to the order of appearance. For instance, 1G1 means the female
student is from the first grade and is the first girl to talk in the discussion,
whereas 1G2 would be the second girl to talk in the discussion:
Context: In the first-grader’s text The Pot of Gold, the main character Berto
wanted to laze around and stop working; to achieve this, he needed to look
for the Fairy’s pot of gold.
Teacher: What did he want to do? Yes, Via?
1G1: Play all day
Teacher: Berto?
1G1: Berto want to play all day
Teacher: Okay
138
R. R. Potestades
In most of the classroom discussions, many interactions with female students
usually revolved around display questions—these are questions that require
only one answer. In more complex and in-depth discussions that involve
going into the morals or key points of the story, the teachers seem to engage
male students more. This may be because they unconsciously assume that
male students can deconstruct more complex thought processes as compared
to their female students. This is evident in the extract from one of the secondgrade class as the teacher chose to explore 2B1’s answer compared with the
simple acceptance of 2G1’s answer:
Context: In the second grader’s text Why did Mama Change her Mind, the
mother asks her children, Lonnie and Fay, to invite five guests each for
their birthday party. Fay wanted to invite ten girls.
Teacher: The brother is?
2G1: Generous.
2B1: He is generous.
Teacher: He is generous, in what way? You said he is generous. In the end,
what did he do?
2B1: He didn’t get mad at Fay.
Teacher: He didn’t get mad at Fay.
Teacher: What else?
Teacher: He’s generous because?
Teacher: Yes, Clyde?
2B2: He was generous and allowed Fay to have the ten girls in the party.
Teacher: Yes, he was generous and allowed Fay to have the ten girls at the party.
Okay, generous, okay.
The reliance on male students for more in-depth answers are also present in
the third-grade discussion on the father’s role in the family:
Teacher: When you grow up, would you rather be a mother or a father? And
why?
3B1: Father.
Teacher: A father, why?
3B1: Because I want to be myself and I want to be proud of it.
Teacher: Why? What does your father—?
Teacher: What traits of your father do you want to intake?
Teacher: Do you want to be your father’s image? Huh?
Teacher: You are to be like your father? You want to be your mother’s image?
Teacher: No, let’s say for example your mom, your mom is doing a lot of
chores, right?
Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk …
139
Teacher: And your father also doing the same thing but your father is quite
busy, on the contrary, in terms of household chores, right?
Teacher: Whom among? Is it your mother or your father?
In this extract, the male student appeared to be uncomfortable with the
teacher’s constant probing as the other students were laughing at the whole
conversation (i.e., the notion of a man being a mother was unconventional
and funny). This may cause adverse effects on the male students’ perception
of diverse gender identities and expressions (e.g., a man being a “mother” was
a laughable concept).
Furthermore, educators utilise the acceptance-remediation pattern for their
facilitator role to develop the students’ capacity for learning independence
(Grasha, 1994). Since this method is primarily distributed to male students
more, girls may be deprived of the opportunity to establish their own independence from the teacher’s interpretation of certain stories or lessons. In the
long term, this may inculcate female students to utilise rote memory more
rather than their critical thinking skills. This was evidenced in the case of the
second-grade classroom, where the female students are mostly asked display
questions. According to Baxter (2003), during these classroom discourses, the
female students are actually building their identity as “female students” based
on how their teachers interact with them. Thus, there might be a building
expectation that they would only be called to answer display or categorical
questions, or only probed to a certain extent before moving to a male student.
Praise and Criticism
In terms of praise and criticism interactions—although equally distributed to
the students—the educators praised and criticised certain behaviours based
on certain gender stereotypes. The effect is comparatively long-lasting, as
these interactions are only utilised in key and conclusive moments, can
commonly elicit more emotions, and are used to reiterate the teacher’s formal
authority role in being the source of true answers (Grasha, 1994).
This was shown in the extract below as the first-grade teacher requested the
class to clap for one of the female answers on Berto’s stereotypical masculine
traits:
A. Cisgender as the norm in the third-grade discussion.
140
R. R. Potestades
Teacher: Okay, some girls are always happy being girls but sometimes some
girls wish that they could be boys, are you happy being a girl, if yes, why
and if no, why?
3G1: Yes, because my style is mostly a girl and that’s what God gave me, and
I was created as a girl and not a boy.
Teacher: 3 claps again for Faustin.
B. Berto as an active, ambitious, and assertive boy in first-grade discussion:
Teacher: What did he want to do? Yes, Via?
1G1: Play all day.
Teacher: Berto…?
1G1: Berto want to play all day.
Teacher: Okay, Berto wanted to play all day, let’s give her another 3 claps.
In those moments, praises leave a deeper impression than the other interactions and the children may take this as a cue that this is the ultimate
and correct answer about gender narratives. These interactions necessitate the
negation and confirmation of gender narratives, and if left unchallenged, may
further build into a web of knowledge of masculine and feminine traits—as it
may be consistent with what they hear from their families, media, or religion.
Most of the time, these interactions merely show the subtleties of gendering,
but if they are experienced every day every day for their whole foundational
years, they may result in the deep enculturation of cis-heterosexual social
practices.
Construction of Gender Identities and Social
Practices in Classrooms
Based on the classroom interactions discussed above, Filipino female students
are slightly deprived of learning opportunities in areas of understanding and
explaining complex notions derived from the lesson or story. According to
the English stories discussed in class and the students’ descriptive essays
of themselves and their families—which were given as an assignment after
their English lesson—gender topics tended to be more binary and traditional. Students would commonly describe boys as more active and assertive,
having high-paying jobs, and being breadwinners. Girls are discussed as being
cooperative, in low-paying jobs, and as caretakers of families.
Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk …
141
Table 1 shows the gender narratives observed in the Filipino teacher–
student interactions—from their grammar lessons and literary texts—and
which narratives were integrated by the students as assessed through their
descriptive essays.
The children’s gender identities emerge in the discourse as the female and
male identities are generally agreed on by both the teacher and students. The
dominant emerging discourse identity is a result of the student’s acquisition
of certain socially constructed webs of meaning from classroom gendered
discourses (Meadows, 1996).
The impact of the classroom discussions is evident in the descriptive essays
where the students explained their family members’ roles and in the focus
group discussion, where pictures of Barbie and Ken were used in questions
like “Who cleans the house more?” or “Who is stronger?”. In these data
Table 1 Gender narratives identified and accepted in the classroom
Gender narratives in
the literary text/
activity
Gender narratives
accepted by the
children
Boys:
Active and
Assertive
Boys:
Active, Assertive, Funny,
and Receptive
Boys:
Active, Ambitious,
Assertive, and
Strong
Girls:
Attractive due to
Physical
Appearances,
Intelligent, and
Receptive
Boys:
Analytical, Rational,
and Receptive
Girls:
Cooperative, Receptive,
and Tomboy
Girls:
Assertive, Emotional,
and Rational
Boys:
“He”, Provider, and
Strong
Boys:
Heterosexual and
Open Discussion of
Same Sex Attraction
Girls:
Heterosexual
Grade
Level
Gender narratives in the
grammar lesson
Grade 1
Boys:
Intelligent and Rational
Girls:
Cooperative and
Intelligent
Grade 2
Grade 3
Girls:
“She”, Nurturer, and
Homemaker
Girls:
Intelligent and
Receptive
Boys:
Rational,
Receptive, and
Assertive
Girls:
Rational,
Receptive, and
Tomboy
Boys:
“He”, Provider,
Strong, and
Heterosexual
Girls:
“She”, Nurturer.
Homemaker, and
Heterosexual
142
R. R. Potestades
sources, the emerging gender identities were the following: Girls as cooperative, intelligent, and receptive. Boys as active and noisy. Each trait will
be discussed according to where it was derived from and how the students
interacted with that gender narrative.
The Beautiful, Cooperative, and Kind Girl
The three adjectives to describe girls were a general pattern cohesively found
across all the data sources—from the classroom discussions, descriptive essays,
and focus group discussions with the children. One extract analysed is from
the discussion on the female character Fay from the story Why did Mama
Change Her Mind? in the second-grade class. They all agreed that Fay should
be more cooperative with the Mother’s decision:
Teacher: What do you think the writer feels about Fay?
2G1: She should like boys.
Teacher: She should like boys.
2B1: A bad sister.
2G1: She needs to act better.
And this was further highlighted in the discussion of the moral or lesson of
the story:
Teacher: Yes, Chloe?
2G1: Avoid arguments.
Teacher: Okay, to avoid arguments. Avoid fighting with each other.
The cooperative feminine gender theme is further highlighted in most of the
criticism interactions between the teacher and female students. The educator
expected girls to follow instructions regardless of their opinion.
The Philippines might have available cultural resources of women being
strong (e.g., women rebels or suffragists), but as the students are being taught
to understand the world through English, they might follow the narrative
of women being always “cooperative” or “obedient”—which is consistent
with narratives from other social institutions such as the Catholic church
and mainstream media—rather being “malakas” (strong) or “palaban” (fights
back). In this study, girls and women were also defined as “beautiful” and
Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk …
143
“kind” (or good). One of the examples is from their description of the fairy
from the story A Pot of Gold from the first-grade class.
A: ‘Beautiful’ Fairy
Teacher: What do you think is the correct word for this sentence?
1B1: Teacher!
Teacher: Yes?
1B1: Fairy.
Teacher: Fairy?
Teacher: He was surprised when a beautiful lady fairy?
B: ‘Good’ Fairy
1G1: It was a fairy. Tell me what you want Berto, the fairy said.
1B1: Oh, good fairy, said Berto, I want a pot of gold.
These three gender narratives appeared in the descriptive essays of the children as the description of “kind”—synonymous with receptive, generous,
good, supportive—was used 142 times to describe their mothers and sisters
(and themselves, if female). Here are some extracts from the three classes:
Their role at home is cooking every day and taking care of me as well as my
sister… my mother is housewife at home serving me and my sister to caring,
loving, and teaching to respect other people. (First-grade student)
[…] Mom […] she takes care of my brother and me. She does all the household
chores; she is the best mom for me because she is always there when I need
her. (Second-grade student)
While my mother is hands on taking care of us of my brother and very helpful
to teacher us in our lessons. (Third-grade student)
There appears to be a cohesive knitting of what a “woman” is based on
what they see and from their English lessons. Female characters, girls, and
women seem to be a concoction of motherhood, beauty, obedience, and infinite kindness. In the essays, around 78 women and girls are described to
have or dreamt to do nurturing jobs such as being a teacher, nurse, chef,
or flight attendant. Most of the participants in the focus group discussion
also described Barbie as “kind” or “receptive”, so she takes care of children,
listens to them when they have problems, and does the household chores.
In social practice, this may manifest in various ways, for instance, a secondgrade teacher calling out her female student for not listening and asking her
to follow her instructions to listen:
144
R. R. Potestades
Teacher: Okay, what do you do when someone’s talking in the front, you?
1G1: Listen.
Teacher: You listen and behave. Okay, sit properly first and listen well.
This is common among all the three classrooms. When reprimanding female
students, the teachers would mostly just shush them and tell them to listen.
Another example is the same teacher criticising her student for not speaking
“loud” enough in class—a classic example of biological essentialism where
men are perceived to have louder voices, thus, appearing more confident:
2G1: Why did mama change her mind—
Teacher: Louder.
2G1: Mama Miller told Fay and Lonnie that they—
Teacher: Louder.
Teacher: Louder, anak.
Teacher: Okay, Clyde can try.
This may further highlight the importance of the loudness of the male voice;
the teacher may unconsciously use this as a standard for their categorisation
of good students. The teacher may involuntarily pattern their future interactions based on that standard. Educators may ask future female students to
follow what defines a good answer—an “in-depth” one uttered in a loud and
confident voice—and cooperate to obtain good grades. Upon the establishment of such narratives as norms, this may lead to certain social practices that
are coherent to the binary.
The Active and Assertive Boy
In the first-grade teacher’s literary text, the teacher would commonly ask
questions related to Berto’s activeness and assertiveness. The teacher would
accept ideas in relation to her own and would utilise remediation when she
seeks the correct answer. In this case, it was concluded in the classroom that
Berto needs to maintain being assertive or hardworking:
Teacher: The fairy did not give Berto the things he wanted because the fairy
would like Berto to?
Students: Work hard.
Teacher: To work hard, to achieve his dream, to get his pot of gold.
Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk …
145
And another similar conclusion,
Teacher: When the fairy did not give the things he wanted, what did he realise?
1B1: To work hard.
Teacher: Okay, Berto realised that he needed to work hard in order to achieve
his dream.
Teacher: Okay, he realised that he needed to work hard in order to achieve
what he wanted. Because he wanted to be rich, will you be rich by playing
all day?
Furthermore, the teachers maintained this identity through their own perceptions about the boys in the classroom. For instance, the teachers would
commonly direct criticisms to boys more by specifically uttering their bad
behaviour. This is comparatively different to how the girls are instructed to
just listen and behave as compared to actively pointing out the “noisy” and
“active” behaviour of the boys:
Third-grade teacher’s criticisms:
1. Teacher: Rom, will you please sit properly?
Teacher: What’s your problem, Rom?
2. Teacher: Gabriel, you sit down, listen.
These two narratives somewhat appeared in descriptive essays as they
described themselves (male students) and other male family members to be
“active”—synonymous to being sporty, noisy, or loving physical activity—69
times.
I like playing basketball, soccer, sports, and others. I dream to be an NBA
player. (Second-grade student)
My hobbies are biking, sometimes playing with my brother, basketball with
my friends, searching in the internet. (Third-grade student)
In the interview with the teachers, they all agreed that boys were relatively
noisier than girls due to their love for physical activities in the classroom
such as horsing around, playing, or fighting. One effect of this in terms
of social practice is the tendency of the three teachers to perceive the male
students’ disruptive behaviour as unacceptable. Given the assumption that
146
R. R. Potestades
boys are less receptive and emotional than girls, then it must be fine to be
harsher with them in terms of behavioural correction. Constant criticisms
may lead to them growing a dislike to the educational system by associating
it to being shamed or humiliated. This may be one of the causes as to why
more female students perform comparatively better in all measures of education performance and continue to higher education (David et al., 2018; Lai,
2010).
Being assertive was also used to commonly describe fathers such as:
The role of my father is to lead and discipline our family. He also provides our
needs and protect us physically and emotionally. (Second-grade student)
The influence of the teacher’s gender ideologies on the students is mostly
contingent on the consistent gender identities present in the classroom
discussion. The students are more receptive to the consistent gender ideology
found in their parents, teachers, and classmates, regardless of the neutrality of
acceptance and remediation (Chen, 2007) because of social consensus. When
they actively agree to such gender ideologies, this builds and maintains their
current knowledge of gender identities.
There also appears to be an alignment with the students and teachers’ own
concept of gender roles. Teachers permeate the binary by giving examples
based on their own gendered web of knowledge. In addition, they passively
accept traditional gender themes as the standard without suggesting alternative themes. The social consensus of gender roles may be attributed to how
the teachers also maintain such gender ideologies through citing their own
perceptions and through accepting the students’ answers.
Conclusion
When ELT educators are not fully informed of how certain perceptions can
be oppressive, their own traditional gender identities become one of the
dominant sources for a child’s knowledge of SOGIESC. Regardless of one’s
view of males and females as equals, such unconscious gendering still influences the web of gender-knowledge that the child is continuously crafting.
Since there is a form of social cohesion in the gender ideologies of various
social institutions such as their families, schools, religion, and media, then
the predominant perception of women and men pervades in the mind of the
child.
As the data above shows, if the child is immersed in understanding the
world through English—with an ELT educator consciously or unconsciously
Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk …
147
integrating their gender ideologies—then their minds start categorising and
associating things according to that source. This is the result of not having
enough gender identity sources to understand why some children choose to
perform non-stereotypical and queer identities. This deprivation of sources
limits their understanding to certain conditions that are still in line with their
gender stereotypes. For other children, since they do not have these gender
identity sources that challenge traditional gender narratives, they assume that
they have to follow society’s rigid distinction of females and males as seen in
the interactions discussed above.
In times that children want to express themselves differently, the data
presented shows how they are either passively tolerated or shamed by other
people. This causes turmoil to the children because they are constantly disempowered from achieving their goals and performing gender traits that are
contrary to their identity. The result is either oppressing themselves due
to their weirdness and unconventionality or oppressing others for expressing
themselves contrary to their assigned gender.
In resolving these conflicts, my best recommendation is to make sure that
the English language learning process is gender-sensitive and -responsive.
One way, as the classroom interactions above show, is to pay equal attention to all students. ELT educators can actively eliminate biases assigned to
certain students to assure the distribution of equal opportunities. Continuously paying attention to the same students means the concentration of
learning opportunities to those students alone. It is better to open oneself
up to the possibility that children show their intelligence and capabilities in
diverse ways.
In terms of gender discussions, it is vital to diversify the ELT curriculum.
Stories should have a diverse set of characters that display numerous gender
identities and roles. For example, Moana is a good story because it focuses
more on the struggle of being a chieftain, rather than the conflict with
her femininity and the hardships attached to it. Stories that show such
conflicts help children to welcome diversity. Integrating a plethora of diverse
SOGIESC stories can enrich children’s sources of gender identity.
ELT educators can self-assess their lessons in terms of gendering implications. In the case of using adjectives, the portrayal of emotional men, stronger
women, or anything out of the binary can make it easier to build pictures of
different people and diverse SOGIESC. Lastly, the teacher’s role is paramount
in allowing children to express themselves beyond the binary and teachers
need to intervene when students are discriminated against or ostracised for
sharing their own thoughts that may be beyond the rigid gender binary and
traditional notions of sexuality.
148
R. R. Potestades
In this chapter, I have analysed how ELT educators integrated gender
notions in their practice. I have learned that the most important aim for
educators is to allow students to express and perform their gender in whatever way they can. In extremely conservative educational contexts states, even
the act of allowing children to sit, speak, or play in the way they want to can
be sources for them to understand and express their gender identity.
This chapter was written with the thought of making sure that ELT educators become one of the keys in freeing children from suffocating cages of
gender stereotypes and crafting a new generation that understands others
based on dignity and merit, and not on identities alone.
Suggested further readings
Dwyer, C., Dweck, C., & Carlson-Jaquez, H. (2014). Using praise to
enhance student resilience and learning outcomes helping students “bounce
back” in the face of difficulties. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/educat
ion/k12/using-praise.aspx.
This blog expounds on how to use praise as a way to encourage male
and female students to explore subjects beyond their socialised zones (e.g.,
male students in science and math subjects, and female students in English
subjects). This developed mindset suggested by the study also builds the
students’ resilience in case of academic setbacks in the newly explored subject.
Pakuła, L. (Ed.). (2021). Linguistic perspectives on sexuality in education:
Representations, constructions and negotiations. Cham: Palgrave.
This edited collection combines different conceptual frameworks to
examine the role that language plays in the (de)construction of sexuality and
gender in education.
Sauntson, H. (2012). Approaches to gender and spoken classroom discourse.
London: Palgrave Macmillan.
This book is a good primer for educators and researchers who wish to use
queer theory in analysing the marginalisation inflicted to the LGBTQIA +
children in the educational setting, especially in language practices.
Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk …
149
Engagement priorities
• As seen in one of the teacher–student interactions of the male student
becoming uncomfortable with the teacher’s probing on a diverse gender
identity, what are the best strategies that ELT educators can use to avoid
this and make the students more open to such ideas?
• Given their socialised context from various social institutions such as their
families or religion, how can ELT educators encourage their students to
explore activities and ideologies beyond the gender binary?
• In contexts where males or females are left behind in education, what kind
of gender and equality strategy can ELT practitioners implement?
• In integrating gender identities in different learning materials, would you
consider the cultural nuances of other countries or communities (i.e.,
India’s Hijras, the Philippines’ Bakla, or Mexico’s Muxe) or just focus on
the basics of incorporating SOGIESC concepts?
Notes
1. In the international development and humanitarian discourse, “gender” is
commonly defined as the identity of people based on their assigned sex at
birth (i.e., female and male). Often overlooking the transgender identity (i.e.,
a biological female identifying as a man and vice versa).
2. The Philippine’s Magna Carta of Women is a comprehensive women’s human
rights law aiming to eliminate discrimination on the basis of sex. https://pcw.
gov.ph/republic-act-9710-magna-carta-of-women/.
3. Cisgender refers to people whose gender identity matches with their assigned sex
at birth (i.e., biological female identifying as a woman).
References
Aikman, S., & Unterhalter, E. (2007). Practising gender equality in education. Oxfam
GB.
Asia Development Bank. (2013). Gender equality in the labor market in the
Philippines. Mandaluyong City, the Philippines: Asian Development Bank.
Baxter, J. (2003). Positioning gender in discourse: A feminist methodology. Palgrave
Macmillan.
Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. Routledge.
Butler, J. (1993). Critically queer. GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies, 1(1),
17–32.
150
R. R. Potestades
Chen, K. (2007). A study of primary classroom interactions: Is there still gender imbalance in the primary classroom? Retrieved from http://research.ncl.ac.uk/ARECLS.
volume4.html.
David, C., Albert J. R., &Vizmanos J. F. (2018). Boys are still left behind in
basic education. PIDC Policy Notes No. 2018–20. Makati City, the Philippines:
Philippine Institute for Development Studies.
Duranti, A., Ochs, E., & Schieffelin, B. B. (Eds.). (2011). The handbook of language
socialization. John Wiley and Sons.
Fairclough, N. (1987). Language and power: Language in social life. Longman.
Grasha, A. (1994). A matter of style: The teacher as expert, formal authority,
personal model, facilitator, and delegator. College Teaching, 42(2), 142–149.
Hassaskhah, J., & Zamir, S. (2013). Gendered teacher-student interactions in
English language classrooms: A case of Iranian college context. SAGE Open,
1(11), 1–11.
Hernandez, T., & Cudiamat, M. (2017). Integrating gender and development
(GAD) in the classroom: The case of Lucsuhin National High School, Department of Education—Philippines. KnE Social Sciences, 3(6), 1135–1141.
Jaworski, A., & Coupland, N. (Eds.). (2014). The discourse reader. Routledge.
Lai, F. (2010). Are boys left behind? The evolution of the gender achievement gap
in Beijing’s middle schools. Economics of Education Review, 29 (3), 383–399.
Meadows, S. (1996). Parenting behavior and children’s cognitive Development.
Psychology Press.
Moore, A. R. (2020). Understanding heteronormativity in ELT textbooks: A
practical taxonomy. ELT Journal, 74 (2), 116–125.
Patiag, V. (2019, March 3). In the Philippines they think of gender differently. We
could too. The Guardian. Retrieved from www.theguardian.com.
Riley, T. (2014). Boys are like puppies, girls aim to please: How teachers’ gender
stereotypes may influence student placement decisions and classroom teaching.
Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 60 (1), 1–21.
Sadker, D., Sadker, M., & Bauchner, J. (1984). Teacher reactions to classroom
response of male and female students (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
ED245839). Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, New Orleans, Louisiana.
Sunderland, J. (Ed.). (1994). Exploring gender: Questions and implications for English
language education. Prentice-Hall.
Swann, J. (2003). 27 Schooled language: Language in educational settings. In J.
Holmes & M. Meyerhoff (Eds.), The handbook of language and gender (pp. 624–
644). Blackwell.
Tan, M. L. (2001). Survival through Pluralism: Emerging gay communities in the
Philippines. In G. Sullivan & P. A. Jackson (Eds.), Gay and lesbian Asia: Culture,
identity, community (pp. 117–142). The Haworth Press Inc.
Tannen, D. (1996). Researching gender-related patterns in classroom discourse.
TESOL Quarterly, 30 (2), 341–344.
Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk …
151
Tarrayo, V. N. (2014). Gendered word (or world): Sexism in Philippine preschool
English language textbooks. Journal on English Language Teaching, 4 (2), 25–32.
World Economic Forum. (2018). Insight report—The global gender gap report
2018. 13th Anniversary ed. Cologny (Switzerland): World Economic Forum
2018. Available from https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-global-gender-gapreport-2018. Accessed 18 Mar 2019.
Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT
in Japanese Universities
Tanja McCandie
Introduction
While English Language Teaching (ELT) is a profession believed to be dominated by women in terms of numbers, it is not dominated by women in
terms of visible leadership, power or visible representation such as being
head teachers, authors (Prentis & Mayne, 2014) and conference plenary
speakers (The Fair List, 2013). While grassroots movements and organisations are being created to address inequities in ELT such as The Fair List,
EVE: Equal Voices in ELT, TEFL Equity Advocates, Equity ELT Japan, and
the Women in ELT Facebook group, more needs to be done to create actual
change and disrupt the norm of native English speaking white males being
overly represented in positions of power and leadership in ELT. Research and
publications on native-speaker status (e.g., Houghton & Rivers, 2013), racial
discrimination (e.g., Gerald, 2020), and the preference of white teachers
within ELT (e.g. Lee & Simon-Maeda, 2006) have been increasing, yet the
impact of gender, both internationally and within specific countries, has yet
to be thoroughly examined.
The aim of this chapter is to help raise awareness regarding the gender
barriers and conflict that female educators in ELT face, via the experiences of
T. McCandie (B)
Nanzan University, Nagoya, Japan
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_9
153
154
T. McCandie
women teaching in higher education in Japan. This chapter study is part of an
ongoing project centred on removing gender barriers, addressing harassment
and increasing female leadership opportunities for women in ELT in Japan.
Built on notions of gender discrimination and social reproduction theory,
the chapter gives a brief overview of the hierarchy in the Japanese university system, addresses the gender advantages men have in academia regarding
networking, job hunting, and promotions, the challenges of parenthood for
working mothers (toxic) work environments, safety concerns, harassment and
a lack of trustworthiness in reporting procedures. With an international readership in mind, the chapter concludes with practical and detailed suggestions
for improving working conditions and striving for more equitable and inclusive working conditions for all ELT educators all across Japan and around the
world.
While this chapter focuses on the Japanese university, an environment as
affected by engrained cultural norms as any institution, it is my belief that
the experiences and barriers discussed by participants in this study could be
similar to those found in many English teaching programmes, regardless of
country. Nearly all narrative supplied by the present participants centres on
interactions with white, Western, native English-speaking male colleagues, a
group overrepresented in Japanese university EFL departments. It is hoped
that this chapter will add to the literature of gender barriers within ELT and
increase dialogue, aid in reflection, and address the gender status quo within.
Female educators will only be able to reach their full potential with regards
to leadership and visibility when gender privilege is addressed.
Gender Discrimination
Gender discrimination, or prejudicial treatment based on one’s gender
(Parziale, 2018), affects female English educators in Japan (Appleby, 2014;
Nagatomo, 2016). As ELT attempts to address native-speakerism, the belief
that native speakers are owners of a language and therefore expert teachers
(Houghton & Rivers, 2013), and white privilege in terms of equity, more
dialogue surrounding status quo male privilege leading to gender discrimination needs to be examined. Social Reproduction Theory (SRT) and a
feminist framework aid in explaining unexamined gender discrimination and
how male privilege and societal and institutional norms have led to systematic exclusion of women in many facets of ELT. The goal of SRT is to
explore and analyse social norms and question the continual reinforcement
and perpetuation of inequity, so that we can better understand situations
Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities
155
to change them (Bhattacharya, 2017). While much of the exclusion and
inequity in ELT is discriminatory, it is seemingly not done with malicious
intent (Appleby, 2014). SRT offers insight as to why the status quo is maintained and problematic behaviour is largely left unexamined. Regardless of
intent, exclusion and discrimination is harmful and the continual domination of white, native-speaking, male English language educators as status quo
needs to be addressed.
Reports of gender discrimination and sexual harassment within language
schools (McCrostie, 2014) and public and private secondary schools (CurrieRobson, 2014) have received national attention in Japan. Notwithstanding,
there is a lack of research pertaining to removing gender barriers, examining
the clearly male hierarchy and investigating changes needed in many ELT
work environments. The normalisation of gender discrimination and harassment is grounded in social reproduction, and thus SRT provides a tool for
understanding (Bhattacharya, 2017) why ELT trivialises and often accepts
many of these types of incidents. And while gender discrimination and
harassment are highly problematic themselves, women of colour and women
who are not native English speakers must also cope with their other intersections, which exposes them to even more discrimination and harassment.
Intersectionality, the criss-crossing of motherhood, race, language, sexuality,
socio-economic status and many other factors and their implications, is far
less examined than gender discrimination. It is important to emphasise that
this chapter examines the intersections of mainly white heterosexual females,
some of whom are mothers, in the area of ELT at university. Other intersections and their impact on the lives of women in ELT exceed the scope of this
chapter.
Context: Hierarchy in the Japanese University
System
Cummings observes that “the Japanese (university) system is exceptionally
sexist, particularly at the point of entry” (2015, p. 238). Although female
university educators are increasing in number, post-secondary institutions in
Japan remain heavily male-dominated (Nagatomo & Cook, 2019). Men hold
the majority of tenured positions (Kimoto, 2015; Nagatomo, 2016), and
coupled with male-favouring hiring practices, this results in a situation where
part-time jobs will most often be given to men. In 2015, approximately 23%
of all tenured researchers and educators at Japanese universities were female
and 30% of adjunct professors were female (Nagatomo, 2016).
156
T. McCandie
There is a clear hierarchy within university institutions; Japanese men most
often at the top, non-Japanese men (author’s emphasis) below in terms of
position, power, and respect (Whitsed & Wright, 2016). The lack of diversity
is concerning as non-Japanese make up about 5.4% of university educators,
often employed in ELT, with only 32% of these non-Japanese being female
(Nagatomo & Cook, 2019). Approximately 75% of those women are in nonstandard employment (Hayes, 2013). Women, Japanese and non-Japanese,
are generally at the bottom of the ladder in the world of academia because
they are not expected to have careers despite their high level of education
(Nemoto, 2016) and are subjected to gender discrimination that male educators are not. Further contextual details are included in the remainder of the
chapter.
The Study
As mentioned above, this case study is part of an ongoing project that aims to
create awareness regarding harassment in the work environment for English
language teachers. This chapter draws on the first stage of the project and
focuses on female English language teachers and their experiences with workrelated harassment and the changes they would like to see made to create
a better work environment. The project obtained ethical clearance from the
author’s university and follows ethical research protocol.
In this chapter, I examine the experiences of eleven female educators working as English language educators at eleven different institutions
throughout Japan. All participants were recruited from a call for participants
placed in The Gender Awareness in Language Special Interest Group (GALE
SIG) Facebook Group, a special interest group within The Japan Association
of Language Teaching (JALT). Participants represent a wide range of lifestyles
and job status: part-time, contract, tenured, married, single, divorced, breadwinners and dependents (Table 1). It should be noted that ten participants
Caucasian and native English speakers (described as non-Japanese in Table 1
at the participants’ request). Only one participant is Japanese. The lack of
diversity in participants is a reflection of the racialised preference for white
native English speakers that exists in ELT in Japan (Hayes, 2013; Lee &
Simon-Maeda, 2006).
All the participants were required to complete a written personal history
journal so that personal narratives could be collected and data could be
clarified via interviews either face to face, online, or via email (Questions
are listed in Appendix A). To understand the data, all journals, emails, and
157
Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities
Table 1 Participants’ information
Name
Nationality
Employment
status
First
language(s)
Parental
status
Data
collection
P1
Non-Japanese
Tenured
English
J, E
P2
Non-Japanese
Part-time
English
P3
Non-Japanese
English
P4
Non-Japanese
Limited
contract
Contract
Younger
child(ren)
Older
child(ren)
Child-free
P5
P6
P7
P8
Non-Japanese
Non-Japanese
Non-Japanese
Non-Japanese
German
English
English
English
P9
Japanese
Part-time
Full-Time
Part-time
Limited
contract
Tenure-track
P10
P11
Non-Japanese
Non-Japanese
Tenure-track
Tenured
English
English and
Japanese
English
English
J, I
J, E
Older
child(ren)
Unknown
Child-free
Child-free
Child-free
J, I, E
J,
J,
J,
J,
Child-free
J, I, E
Child-free
Younger
child(ren)
J, E
J, E
E
E
E
E
Note J (journaling), E (email correspondence), I (interviews)
interviews were analysed and coded based on experience of harassment and
suggestions about how to improve their work environment(s). Based on
inductive coding, this chapter focuses on the following identified themes:
Networking, promotions, motherhood, toxic environments, physical safety,
and harassment.
Networking, Job Hunting, and Hiring
The English teaching industry in Japan prefers to hire white first language
English male speakers due to native-speakerism (Hayes, 2013; Whitsed &
Wright, 2011). Men in Japan are often socially and culturally expected to
support their families, whereas women are expected to be caregivers (Nemoto,
2016). This leads to an unexamined male privilege, which results in status
quo and social reproduction. Two participants commented on the belief that
men are more in need of work to support their families. One stated: “What
about me? I’m not married and need work to support myself. The belief that
only men need classes to make money is sexist and outdated. I need to make
money too!” Another teacher-participant stated: “I’m the breadwinner. Why
is it assumed that women can never be the ones bringing home the bacon?”
158
T. McCandie
Gender beliefs and hiring prospects create tension, more so in part-time
teacher rooms. Rather than advertise openings for ELT positions, tenured
staff are asked if they know anyone. According to Nagatomo (2015), if
women are hired as English teachers, or retained when classes have been cut,
they may face open hostility from male co-workers. In one participant’s experience, she was actively discouraged from applying for a position within her
own institution by a male co-worker:
He sent me a private email message, telling me that the job was earmarked
for another colleague. I understand he was trying to help his friend, a male
part-time teacher, get a job. The man was married with a small child. I figured
he was to make things easier for his friend, the principal earner in the family
by shooing me out of the way.
The participant contacted a tenured co-worker about the situation and she
was ultimately hired for the position. Another English teacher wrote:
I was in contact with a teacher who told me his school was hiring as a position
was opening. I was asked to an interview and to give a demo. I felt like the
interview went well and, on the way out, the teacher said the interview went
well but that they were required to post the job publicly before they could hire
anyone. A week later he emailed me to say that they gave the job to a different
teacher (a male). I felt like I had been used. I assume they had a friend in mind
who they wanted to hire but had to interview someone else to satisfy admin.
Women in ELT can also be excluded from networking (Hicks, 2013). Lack
of invitations to socialise outside of working hours and gender social expectations of domestic duties often leave women at a disadvantage to hear about
employment opportunities. With most women on the lower rungs of employment, they are also unlikely to be financially supported to attend events like
conferences and symposium via their institution(s) and part-timers do not
receive research budgets. One of the participants said “I had a colleague
tell me that if they ever found out I was going on the job market, they
would report me to higher ups that I was unhappy in my position and
in danger of leaving”. Threatening behaviour not only makes it difficult to
network and job hunt, but can create difficulties in staying in current working
environments.
Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities
159
Promotions and Lack of Mentors
Promotion systems reward publications, not dedication to students and
teaching (Kimoto, 2015). Kimoto (2015) also goes on to write that men
publish more, spend more time on research as they have more support both
at home and at work than women and teach fewer hours than women. This
leads to men being promoted higher and faster than women, as promotion is
tied to publications. One of the issues commented on by participants is the
lack of transparency around point systems and supposed blocking regarding
promotion. One participant wrote:
Before I applied for tenure, I asked the Director about the process. She could
not give me a clear answer because she said there were many details to be
finalised. I thought that the details should be finalised since the ad was already
up. I wondered by what criteria were being judged on. No transparency, despite
all the lip service, has entered the process since I first complained to the
Director in 2014. She later suggested that there was ‘gatekeeping’ by at least
one tenured professor she worked with; allegedly, they had previously blocked
a female from a position the previous year. I reminded him that he had blocked
a female candidate one year ago from getting tenure. At this point, he said he
had not blocked her and that there was no position open at that time (despite
the fact that a position had been advertised).
Another teacher, who had unofficially complained about harassing behaviour
from a senior staff member was shocked to see this person on a panel
regarding promotion opportunities: “When I discovered that he was on the
committee, I reported his behaviour (again) to a staff member. He was vicious
and hostile to me during the interview. I didn’t get the job”.
Due to the lack of women employed in the university system, to find
female mentors and role models is problematic. Men often have more inner
circle knowledge and connections (Cummings, 2015). As one participant
commented “We need to find mentors and learn who the gatekeepers are.
I’ve learned that I need to be more proactive but at the same time, it’s not
easy because everyone is so busy”: Another participant said
If I need help, I know I need to ask the two female professors I work with. I
know they will help me whereas others have made it clear they have no interest.
I have stayed because of the support and advice they give me. Without them,
I would’ve quit by now.
160
T. McCandie
A different participant commented that some institutions in the United States
assign new female staff ELT mentors and this is an idea that she thinks would
be widely received and very helpful:
I know in some US institutions, new female employees are assigned a mentor
who is outside of their department, who takes them under their wing and
supports them and guides them. I think that kind of system here would be
amazing.
With so few female academics in tenured positions, it is hard to find female
ELT mentors who can help women navigate through the corridors of the
ivory towers in ELT in Japan. All of the women who participated in this study
commented on their interest in mentoring other English language teachers
so there is a raised awareness on how female language educators can provide
support to others.
The Struggle of Working Mothers
Cultural norms dictate that women bear the brunt of the domestic duties and
child rearing (Nemoto, 2016). This is not just limited to Japan, of course, but
compared to most developed nations, the expectation for women to remain
at home and be the primary caregiver is very strong.
In academia, female reproductive years often coincide with high productivity years. The time for formation of research niches, networking, tenure
track openings, and publishing is also the time women are socially expected
to decide between a career, a family, or to try to juggle both. Expecting
women and mothers are subjected to gender discrimination at all stages of
employment: job prospects, retention, and promotion to positions of power
and leadership (Nemoto, 2016; Sabat et al., 2016). Young academics are well
aware that if they want to pursue a career in academia, they have no choice
but to research while young (Kimoto, 2015) and while this is often not a
problem for men, it certainly puts pressure on women. English language
teaching at the university level is no different.
Participants with children commented on the difficulties balancing work,
life, and childcare. One mother, who is employed part-time, is not covered
under Japanese maternity laws due to not being a fulltime employee:
I returned to work six weeks after giving birth. I timed my pregnancy to coincide with the summer holidays so that I could have six weeks off because as a
Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities
161
part-timer, I don’t get maternity leave. Institutions need to be more accommodating as I wasn’t given much support or help. Schools should provide a place
to breastfeed, changing facilities for all staff, and showers. I know of women
who have pumped in toilet facilities and closets as there is nothing for mothers
set up.
Another participant who is a mother, upon discussing her children at a new
job, was asked directly who was home looking after her children: “This
is a question men rarely, if ever, are asked”. Another participant said that
numerous times it was hinted that she was a “poor” mother because she was
not at home with her children.
Toxic Work Environments
Female English language educators have commented on the less than savoury
discussions and atmospheres they have had to endure while working alongside with male co-workers (Harshbarger, 2012). Local chauvinism that serves
in the interests of foreign men (Kobayashi, 2014) leads to a toxic atmosphere for all. Misogynistic dialogue and behaviour is well documented in
Japanese ELT environments often at the hands of Western males (Appleby,
2013; Harshbarger, 2012; McCandie & Mulvey, 2018).
Unwelcoming behaviour and open hostility towards Western women at
the hands of Western male colleagues has previously been documented in
the university ELT environment (Appleby, 2014; Nagatomo, 2015). Research
participants made it clear that they have all worked in, or are working in,
toxic environments with misogyny being a concern. The participants shared
numerous stories of times they were made to feel uncomfortable at work due
to discussions about sexual conquests, the ranking of female students in terms
of looks and how good they might be in bed, jokes about domestic violence
and feminists. Also, they felt uncomfortable with comments suggesting that
certain women at their institution(s) were difficult to work with, often
slandered with derogatory gendered language:
I once worked at a college where the self-proclaimed head teacher would
intimidate male teachers into following his lead. He bullied and harassed
students and teachers. Male teachers would comment about female students
in a sexual manner in the teacher’s room and make sexual comments toward
female teachers. For about six months, one female teacher who hailed from
Eastern Europe was followed around by two younger male teachers speaking
162
T. McCandie
in mock Russian accents. She asked me for help and when I reported it to
admin, I was told by the head teacher I was rocking the boat.
One participant, a contract teacher, shared a story about how a white male
tenured professor once stated, upon seeing a particular student, “I want to
smack that student in the face because she always looks bitchy”. This echoes
the remarks of more than one participant who have commented on white
male tenured professors complaining about female students and co-workers
with supposed “resting bitch face” and the need for female educators to
“smile more often” and other comments based on the physical appearance
of females.
None of the women interviewed filed official complaints with their institutions regarding toxic environments. A few participants who did speak out,
either by calling out their male co-workers personally or reporting issues
to senior staff, claimed that they had been labelled difficult, were told they
needed to learn to relax, or were simply brushed off. One participant was told
it was not a “big deal” and to “get over it” when she discussed concerns with
other teachers. Similarly, another part-time teacher participant commented
on the fear of being called a whistle-blower:
If I call out the toxic behaviour in the teacher’s room, the inappropriate jokes,
the discussions about the female students, I’ll be seen as a whistle-blower.
I don’t want to be known as the whistle-blower because it could affect my
chances of getting classes.
Not only do female English language teachers endure toxic behaviour, but
also the fear of losing work if they complain is very real even if they can play
the native-speaker card:
There is no support from full-time staff. They advise you over the phone rather
than put anything in writing that can be traced back to them. Complaining
about poor behaviour and toxic environments may affect my job status or the
number of classes I teach the following year. There is no one you can trust and
fear of losing employment governs everything.
This lack of faith in seeking support enables poor professional behaviour,
lowers morale, increases stress (Kimoto, 2015), and leads to teachers who
feel uncomfortable resigning and finding work elsewhere (Hicks, 2013).
Teachers, regardless of gender, fear speaking out regarding toxic behaviour
that surrounds them in their work environment.
Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities
163
Physical Safety
Four participants reported concerns over their safety, or the safety of students.
Three participants had concerns over unwanted physical contact, one had
concerns about a senior male staff member following her to her apartment,
and another was worried a male co-worker might violently attack her: “He
would sometimes vandalise my bicycle at my apartment and at school”. She
later stated she quit because of the toxic environment, safety concerns, his
threat to kill someone, and nothing being done. Another teacher confided
that she had been sexually groped by her boss, a white native English speaking
male, but did not report it because she felt the reporting system was “useless”.
In later discussion, the participant expressed regret for not making a formal
complaint due to hearing that this particular teacher has gone on to harass
and assault other female teachers. He is currently on the tenure track at the
same institutions where he was employed when he assaulted her.
Unwanted hugs, shoulder massages, and hands being placed on the
backs and arms of participants when male staff were trying to pass/get by
female staff was mentioned as unwanted physical contact. One participant
commented:
Ya know, many of the men I work with think they can put their hands on me.
They do the arm hold or the hand on my back thing to get by or move me
out of their way. A few of them have hugged me after not seeing them over the
holidays. I’ve never seen any of them touch male teachers the way they touch
me. It’s uncomfortable but I don’t say anything about it because I’d probably
be laughed at for complaining.
Not just female ELT educators are at risk. Participants also expressed concern
over teacher/student and student/student interaction:
Sex in the offices between male faculty and female students was such a huge
and constant problem that the university initiated a rule requiring all windows
on doors to be unobstructed. Not one of the men who were known to be
serially sexually involved with students was ever fired.
Another participant wrote:
I recall a male professor who took a group of students out and then focused
on one female student. He asked her out and started calling her every day.
The student felt pressured to go out with him but finally reported him. I don’t
know what happened but he wasn’t fired.
164
T. McCandie
Participants also commented on harassing behaviour from students:
One male student seemed to pick targets. He would sit very close to female
students, use their things without asking, and clearly made them uncomfortable. I started assigning seats to students to keep him away from the female
students. I reported him to the Department Head but they shrugged and said if
he wasn’t touching them and the students weren’t complaining, nothing could
be done. I was complaining but it wasn’t enough.
There is a sense of resentment, anger, and fear amongst participants. There
is a serious issue with the underreporting of incidents and lack of awareness amongst universities’ administrations about just how problematic teacher
safety is, let alone student safety. Even when reported, problematic students
are not removed from courses, university personal rarely speak to students
and staff about their behaviour, and female educators end up disappointed by
the lack of support offered (Harshbarger, 2012). While much of the gender
barriers and discrimination commented on earlier may not be out of maliciousness, unchecked male entitlement clearly leads to concerns over safety
and toxic work environments for English language teachers, particularly those
who are non-Japanese.
Harassment, Sexual Misconduct, and Reporting
Systems
Sexual harassment has a history of being openly tolerated in Japan (Nagatomo
& Cook, 2019), and the world of ELT is no different. Many women, Japanese
and non-Japanese, who participate in the work force are subjected to sexual
harassment. When coupled with power harassment, which men are also
regular victims of, the burden and expectation is that one suffers in silence as
few step forward to file complaints (McCandie & Mulvey, 2018).
Nearly all of the female educators who participated in this research openly
stated they have no trust in the reporting system at their current institution(s). The majority stated they have never had faith in any of the
institutions they have been employed at and many have no idea as to
procedures let alone how to make a formal complaint.
One participant wrote: “I’m on the harassment committee, but in my five
years on the committee, we have never discussed policy or had a single claim
of harassment of any kind brought forward through our committee”. When
asked if she felt her institution would be supportive if she made a claim she
answered:
Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities
165
I don’t think it would be. In theory a student or faculty member being harassed
goes to a member of the harassment committee who reports it to the committee
and it’s dealt with there. But in practice this is not how it works. When a case
arises, it does not go through the committee but instead is often dealt with
quietly.
She later went on to write “Incidents were handled privately with teachers or
administration. Students who were harassed were often unsatisfied with the
outcomes”.
Many of those who participated in this research believe that reporting cases
of harassment would damage their career so rather than report, they suffer
through it or find work elsewhere in hopes of a better environment. One
participant suggested that if she officially filed a harassment report “no one
would hire me” and she would be blacklisted from ELT work in her area.
Many expressed concern over reporting and the impact it would have on
their career:
Harassment is a taboo subject here, restricted only to a conversation between
victim and witnesses. If an open conversation does occur, a lot of excuses are
made regarding why and what happened. You’ll be labelled as a trouble maker.
The default is justification over justice.
According to SRT, social phenomena replicate themselves in that status quo is
often left unexamined and unquestioned. In the case of ELT, this is seen with
the male dominance and questionable behaviour in working environments
often unchallenged. This results in women in ELT in higher education in
Japan being unable to reach their full potential. In turn, this ensures that the
cycle of male dominance continues unless more is done to examine how ELT
could better ensure equity for all, regardless of their intersectionality. Study
participants were all asked what they would do if they had the power to create
safer and more equitable working environments. Below are their suggestions.
Suggestions to Dismantle Gender Barriers
Institutions, regardless of level or sector, have a responsibility to ensure a safe
working environment to all ELT staff and students. The participants put forth
suggestions to create better working environments for everyone, regardless of
gender. They are summarised as the following:
166
T. McCandie
1. Create more transparency with regard to the hiring and promotion of
English language teachers. This transparency would provide clarity as to
why people were hired and/or promoted, and increase motivation for
further professional development regardless of whether they are Japanese
or non-Japanese.
2. Upon hiring, newly hired ELT teachers could be partnered with a senior
teacher who could act as a guide and ally. This would benefit all newly
hired staff, regardless of gender.
3. If there is a high turnover rate of staff, regardless of gender, investigate the
reasons staff are leaving. Low teacher moral, poor motivation, and toxic
environments do not grow nor disappear overnight. If semi-secure staff are
looking for jobs elsewhere, are openly discussing job hunting, and parttime staff are leaving, there are issues that need to be addressed. Ignoring
them will only aggravate the issue.
4. Working mothers are most often the primary parent and are unable to put
in the long hours that many working fathers and child-free educators are
able to. Institutions could be more supportive by looking into solutions to
lessening the working hours of other staff so that there is better work/life
balance for all.
5. Invest in creating reporting systems that ELT educators and students
understand and trust. Female English language educators and students
need to have the option of reporting incidents to women. This would
aid in creating safer work and study environments for all.
6. Rather than placing blame on women for not applying for position,
investigate why women do not want to work at particular institutions.
Conclusion
All educators, regardless of what they teach, where they teach, their race,
gender, and background want to feel valued and respected. The female educators in the present study are no different. They want to feel safe in their
working environment(s), feel they are important to the institution(s) they
are employed at, and have their work and efforts valued. In this chapter
Social Reproduction Theory with a feminist framework was employed to
analyse data on work environments and gender issues and discrimination in
the university work environments. I have explored the type of harassment
female English language teachers deal with, their concerns for physical safety
Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities
167
and how institutions are continuously letting affected people down, regardless of gender, due to socio-cultural acceptance of gender discrimination and
the dysfunctional harassment reporting systems in place.
Toxic work environments, lack of respect for co-workers, especially
mothers, and women left with no choice but to resign are just a few of the
effects of ignoring the concerns of female educators. The lack of transparency
in hiring and promotion greatly affects women in their quest to achieving
upward mobility. Utilising mentorship programmes would certainly go a long
way in better supporting female academic. The lack of awareness regarding
needs for women who are balancing careers and motherhood is holding
women back. The system as it is caters to the needs of men and men only. I
hope this chapter creates more awareness and dialogue about the challenges
women face around the world and the need for more equitable and inclusive
working conditions for all English language educators, as these issues are not
just limited to Japan but exist everywhere.
Suggested Further Reading
Houghton S., & Rivers, D. (2013). (Eds.). Native-speakerism in Japan: Intergroup dynamics in foreign language education. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
This edited collection contains 18 reports of intersectional concerns
relating to the ELT environment in Japan. Authors discuss the complex
dynamics between those with power, those without, and how equity and
inclusion need to be more supported in the education system here.
Nagatomo, D. (2016). Identity, gender and teaching English in Japan. Bristol:
Multilingual Matters.
The first book of its kind, it has been a pivotal source for creating
awareness, useful material, and offering comfort to many women who have
wondered if they are alone in the trenches of the ivory towers.
Wadden, P., & Hale, C. (Eds.). (2019). Teaching English at Japanese universities: A new handbook. London: Routledge.
In this updated edition the authors condense a series of articles written
by primary non-Japanese professors making their way through the Japanese
academic system.
168
T. McCandie
Engagement Priorities
• Women, more so mothers, are sometimes accused of wanting preferential
treatment in academia. The current academic system was designed for men
and by men (Bailyn, 2003). If men are publishing more and teaching less,
this results in more promotions for men and men being at the top. The
hiring and promotion system heavily favours research and publications
while it often ignores teaching, teacher quality, and student support. How
do you think institutions should handle the hiring and promotion system?
What is it like in other ELT contexts worldwide?
• If other institutions in the area have a better gender balance, the issue is
not related to a lack of women educators available, it is more an issue with
systematic problems and toxic work environments. What can institutions
do to address the issue of gender disparity in job applications?
• Toxic work environments affect everyone. How can educators and administrators better deal with environments that are causing great stress to those
within? How can teachers protect themselves when they are employed in
an institution that clearly has a less than supportive environment?
• Intersectionality needs to be discussed. Women of colour and/or first
language speakers of another language suffer more systematic discrimination and face more disadvantages regarding hiring. The same can be said
for members of the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual, Intersexual, Queer
and other communities (LGBTIQ+) community and single mothers. More
needs to done on better supporting and improving conditions for those
who are far more marginalised. How can institutions better address their
support to these communities? What can speakers of English as a first
language do to become better allies? What can ELT teachers do to prevent
discrimination?
Appendix A
Participants were asked to journal the following questions:
1. Please give a brief description of who you are, how long you’ve been
working as a teacher, and your job status and your role as an educator at
your institution.
2. Please explain why you have decided to participate in this study.
3. Please describe what your work environment is like.
Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities
169
4. Is there anything you’d like to share with me about what it is like to work
at your institution?
5. Do you feel supported by the institution administration for teaching
concerns like problematic classes, concerns about the current curriculum
and other related teaching duties?
6. Do you feel you would be supported by the institution if you were
to experience harassing behaviour, or witnessed someone else being
harassed?
7. Could you explain what you know about the policy and procedures of
reporting harassing incidents at your place of work?
8. Have you ever witnessed anyone else being harassed? If yes, was the incident handled by the administration? If no, do you know what not? If
yes, how was it handled? Were those involved satisfied with the outcome?
Why or why not?
9. Have you personally felt harassed at your place of employment? If yes,
was the incident handled by the administration? If no, do you know what
not? If yes, how was it handled? Were you satisfied with the outcome?
Why or why not?
10. Do you have any suggestions on how your institution could lessen or
help prevent harassment from happening?
11. Do you have any suggestions on how your institution could improve on
their policies and reporting procedures regarding harassing behaviour?
12. What do you think educational institutions can do to better support
female employees who have been harassed at work?
13. Is there anything else you would like to discuss about your institutions
environment, harassment guidelines, policies or reporting procedures?
References
Appleby, R. (2013). Desire in translation: White masculinity and TESOL. TESOL
Quarterly, 47 (1), 122–147.
Appleby, R. (2014). Men and masculinities in global English language teaching.
Palgrave.
Bailyn, L. (2003). Academic careers and gender equity: Lessons learned from MIT.
Gender, Work, and Organization, 10 (2), 137–153.
Bhattacharya, T. (Ed.). (2017). Social reproduction theory: Remapping class, recentering
oppression. Pluto Press.
170
T. McCandie
Cummings, W. (2015). The invisible academy: A US perspective on the Japanese
academic profession. In A. Arimoto, W. Cummings, F. Huang & J. Shin (Eds.),
The changing academic profession in Japan (pp. 235–241). Springer.
Currie-Robson, C. (2014, September 28). Eikaiwa, deal with sexual harassment
of teachers, before it’s too late. The Japan Times. Available at: https://www.jap
antimes.co.jp/community/2014/09/28/issues/eikaiwa-deal-sexual-harassment-tea
chers-late/#.WiNKA4hpHIU.
Harshbarger, B. (2012). A faulty ivory tower: Reflections on directing the ELP from
2006-2012. Language Research Bulletin, 27, 1–14.
Hayes, B. E. (2013). Hiring criteria for Japanese university English-teaching faculty.
In S. Houghton & D. Rivers (Eds.), Native-speakerism in Japan: Intergroup
dynamics in foreign language education (pp. 132–146). Multilingual Matters.
Hicks, S. (2013). On the (out) skirts of TESOL networks of homophily: Substantive citizenship in Japan. In S. Houghton & D. Rivers (Eds.), Native-speakerism
in Japan: Intergroup dynamics in foreign language education (pp. 147–158).
Multilingual Matters.
Houghton, S., & Rivers, D. (Eds.). (2013). Native-speakerism in Japan: Intergroup
dynamics in foreign language education. Multilingual Matters.
Gerald, J. (2020). Worth the risk: Towards decentring whiteness in English language
teaching. BC TEAL Journal, 5 (1), 44–54.
Kimoto, N. (2015). In A. Arimoto, W. Cummings, F. Huang, & J. Shin (Eds.), The
changing academic profession in Japan (pp. 89–102). Springer.
Kobayashi, Y. (2014). Gender gap in the EFL classroom in East Asia. Applied
Linguistics, 35 (2), 219–223.
Lee, E., & Simon-Maeda, A. (2006). Racialized research identities in ESL/EFL
research. TESOL Quarterly, 40 (3), 573–594.
McCandie, T., & S. Mulvey. (2018). ELT and #metoo in Japan. The Journal and
Proceedings of the Gender Awareness in Language Education (GALE) Special Interest
Group of the Japan Association for Language Teachers, 10, 34–49.
McCrostie, J. (2014, June 16). Harassers exploit Gaba’s ‘man-to-man’ lesson format.
The Japan Times. Available at: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2014/
06/16/issues/harassers-exploit-gabas-man-man-lesson-format/.
Nagatomo, D. (2016). Identity, gender and teaching English in Japan. Multilingual
Matters.
Nagatomo, D., & Cook, M. (2019). “He said, she said”: Female and male dynamics
in Japanese universities. In P. Wadden & C. Hale (Eds.), Teaching English at
Japanese universities: A new handbook (pp. 159–164). Routledge.
Nagatomo, D. H. (2015). In the ivory tower and out of the loop: Racialized and
gendered identities of university EFL teachers in Japan. In Y. Cheung, S. Said
& K. Park (Eds.), Advances and current trends in language teacher identity research
(pp. 102–115). Routledge.
Nemoto, K. (2016). Too few women at the top: The persistence of inequality in Japan.
Cornell University Press.
Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities
171
Parziale, A. (2018). Gender inequality and discrimination. In R. Kolb (Ed.),
Encyclopedia of business ethics and society (pp. 1552–1557). Sage.
Prentis, N., & Mayne, R. (2014). Where are the women in ELT. International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language. Available at: https://gender
equalityelt.wordpress.com/where-are-the-women-in-elt-iatefl-talk/.
Sabat, I. E., Lindsey, A., King, E., & Jones, K. (2016). Understanding and overcoming challenges faced by working mothers: A theoretical and empirical review.
In C. Spitzmueller & R. Matthews (Eds.), Research perspectives on work and the
transition to motherhood (pp. 9–31). Springer.
The Fair List. (2013). Available at: http://thefairlist.org/.
Whitsed, C., & Wright, P. (2011). Perspectives from within: Adjunct, foreign,
English—Language teachers in the internationalization of Japanese universities.
Journal of Research in International Education, 10 (1), 28–45.
Whitsed, C., & Wright, P. (2016). A bricolage exploration in genkan space: Tengu
and adjunct TEFL in the Japanese university context. International Journal of
Qualitative Studies in Education, 29 (4), 594–615.
Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing
Comprehensive Sexuality Education in the ELT
Classroom
Paola Cossu, Gabriela Brun, and Darío Luis Banegas
Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to describe a workshop offered to EFL teachers
in southern Argentina in 2019. The workshop sought to support teachers
in the inclusion of gender-related topics in the EFL lesson as required by
Argentinian laws. Thus, the chapter seeks to illustrate how diversity in ELT
can be promoted by empowering teachers to include gender issues in the EFL
classroom.
This chapter sits at the intersection of teacher continuing professional
development (CPD) , comprehensive sexuality education (CSE), and content
and language integrated learning (CLIL). For the purposes of our exploration, we conceptualise CPD as a necessary ongoing and career-long process
of reflection and learning-oriented towards improvement, change, autonomy
and empowerment. According to de Vries et al. (2013), CPD may involve,
P. Cossu (B)
ISFD 129, Junín, Argentina
G. Brun
ISFD 129, Junín, Argentina
D. L. Banegas
School of Education, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_10
173
174
P. Cossu et al.
and usually overlaps with, reflection on experiences, collaboration with
colleagues, and updating knowledge and skills. CPD can take many forms:
from self-initiated actions such as attending a workshop or conference to
formal and top-down activities such as mandatory in-house courses (Cirocki
& Farrell, 2019). In a reflective report on reflective practice and effective
teacher development, Darling-Hammond et al. (2017) suggest that meaningful CPD activities reflect the following features: content-focused, active
learning, supporting collaboration, use models of effective practice, coaching
and expert support, feedback and reflection and sustainability. While what
these features mean and imply may vary across contexts, we concur that CPD
should be envisaged as a prism for local knowledge generation in a reflective
and proactive environment.
In the remainder of the chapter, we first conceptualise CSE and CLIL
succinctly. We then describe the workshop and include some of the activities
carried out. Last, implications for similar CPD initiatives are suggested.
CSE and CLIL
CSE is a rights-based and gender-focused approach to sexuality education. It
is curriculum-based education that aims to equip learners with the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that will enable them to develop a positive
view of their sexuality, in the context of their emotional and social development (UNFPA, 2014). Following UNESCO (2018), more specifically, CSE
is
• scientifically accurate: it is based on facts and evidence related to sexual
and reproductive health (SRH), sexuality and behaviours;
• incremental: CSE is a continuing educational process in which new
information builds upon previous learning;
• age- and developmentally-appropriate: CSE content is responsive to the
changing needs and capabilities of students as they grow;
• based on gender equality: CSE contributes to gender equality by building
awareness of the centrality and diversity of gender in people’s lives;
• culturally relevant and context-appropriate: CSE fosters respect and
responsibility within relationships, helping students to examine and challenge norms and behaviours socially and culturally constructed;
• transformative: CSE contributes to the formation of a fair society by
empowering people, promoting critical thinking and strengthening young
people’s citizenship. It builds the skills and attitudes that enable students
Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing …
175
to treat others with respect and empathy, regardless of their race, social or
economic status, sexual orientation, gender identity or sex characteristics,
and
• able to develop life skills needed to support healthy choices: this includes
the ability to reflect and make informed decisions, communicate and
negotiate effectively and demonstrate assertiveness.
In Argentina, the National Law Nº 26,150 or Comprehensive Sexuality
Education Law was passed in 2006. The law establishes the right of all
students to receive CSE in all educational institutions, both private and
state-run. It observes that sexuality involves biological, psychological, social,
affective and ethical aspects, that it cannot be understood without reference
to gender, and that diversity is a fundamental characteristic of sexuality. In
other words, sexuality goes beyond a biological standpoint and is seen as a
complex social construct as well as a subjective experience.
In 2008, the Federal Council of Education introduced the National
Curricular Guidelines, which suggest CSE topics for different school subjects
or areas and strategies for each educational level. Additionally, the CSE
programme in Argentina features five intertwined axes (Marina et al. 2014)
that ensure an integral approach to all human dimensions:
•
•
•
•
•
acknowledge gender perspective;
respect diversity;
value affectivity;
exercise our rights; and
take care of the body.
As CSE was originally introduced as an educational programme in Argentina
(Banegas et al., 2020), teachers may need a tangible and explicit pedagogical
platform that allows them to put CSE and a gender perspective into action. In
the case of teachers of English, CLIL may be considered a conducive framework to support EFL teachers given the centrality that curriculum integration
plays.
It may suffice to define CLIL as, in a broad sense, an educational or, in
a narrow sense, a language teaching approach that originated in Europe but
has now spread beyond European borders (e.g. Hemmi & Banegas, 2021).
As an educational approach, CLIL means teaching a complete school subject,
modules, or units of work through an L2, often English. This is the option
usually implemented in the European Union, particularly with young learners
(e.g. Gallardo del Puerto et al., 2020; Pladevall-Ballester, 2019) or in (private)
176
P. Cossu et al.
bilingual schools in other settings (e.g. Garzón-Díaz, 2018). At the other
end of the continuum, we find CLIL as an L2 teaching approach through
which content or topics (e.g. geographical features, international historical
events, or sexual education) from school subjects are used to contextualise and
add meaning and relevance to language learning. When adopted, languagedriven CLIL is usually the norm in state schools and higher education in,
for example, South America (e.g. De la Barra et al., 2018), and Argentina in
particular (e.g. Cendoya & Di Bin, 2010).
Whatever the CLIL model, research studies around the world (e.g., Doiz
et al., 2014; Martínez-Agudo, 2019; Otwinowska & Foryś, 2017) coincide in viewing CLIL as an opportunity to improve motivation, cognitive
skills and L2 proficiency, particularly within the areas of academic language,
and intercultural and global citizenship awareness (Porto, 2016, 2018). The
underlying assumption is that such areas exhibit improvement due to the
fact that CLIL pedagogies rely on curriculum integration, authenticity of
topics, input and tasks, and therefore learners feel driven to learn content
and language (Hemmi & Banegas, 2021) integration is a key element and
therefore good CLIL practices should provide opportunities for language and
content support simultaneously. On this aspect, Ball (2018) highlights that
primacy should be assigned to tasks as it is the task that helps merge content,
procedures, and texts.
Considering the relevance that tasks have in CLIL, it is important that they
are pedagogically sequenced. In other words, learners should be provided with
logically sequenced and meaningful lessons. Put differently, it is the teacher’s
role to invest quality time and professionalism in lesson planning. While
the literature provides complementary frameworks and guidelines for CLIL
lesson planning (e.g. Ball et al., 2015; Genesee & Hamayan, 2016), effective
lesson plans need to feature: (1) coherence at the levels of aims, procedures,
content, and assessment, (2) scaffolding and support through multimodal
resources, (3) task sequence from less to more linguistically and cognitively
demanding tasks, (4) links with learners’ prior knowledge, (5) collaborative
learning, and (6) room for systematic language awareness together with the
development of oral and written language skills.
One framework usually used to strengthen CLIL implementation and
CLIL lesson planning in particular is to adopt Coyle’s (2008) 4C’s model.
This model suggests that four parameters, which are in synergy in practice, should be embedded in CLIL: content, communication. cognition, and
culture. Content refers to the subject matter of the lesson (e.g. gender diversity). In CLIL, content is expected to derive from the school curriculum.
Communication entails language learning. In CLIL lessons, learners should
Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing …
177
be provided with instances to develop the language of learning (key concepts
and terms), the language for learning (language needed to solve a task, for
example, comparative adjectives to compare and contrast two figures), and
the language through learning (spontaneous learners’ language needs). In
turn, cognition represents the cognitive processes and procedures involved
in learning content and language in tandem. In CLIL, cognition is related
to ensuring that activities are sequenced from lower-order (e.g., remembering
a term) to higher-order thinking (e.g., evaluating) skills. Last, culture refers
to developing learners’ awareness of self and others in context. For example,
a CLIL lesson on gender diversity may encourage learners to reflect on how
they or others use language to label other people according to binary gender
roles and how we can all develop inclusive language practices.
In our view, teachers navigating the interconnections between CLIL and
CSE could be supported by providing CPD opportunities in which lesson
planning takes centre stage so that theoretical underpinnings about CLIL and
CSE could be practically explored through explicit lesson planning with a
specific target group in mind.
Context
In 2019, Instituto Superior de Formación Docente N° 809, a state teacher
education institution in Esquel, southern Argentina, held a regional conference for teachers and student-teachers of English. The main theme was
inclusion and diversity and the main aim was to raise awareness of diversity in English language teaching with a focus on special education needs and
comprehensive sexuality education. The event was attended by around 150
teachers and student-teachers who worked in primary, secondary and higher
education. However, most of the teachers worked in secondary and primary
education. Darío Banegas, co-author of this chapter, was in charge of coordinating the event and invited Gabriela Brun and Paola Cossu, co-authors of
this chapter as well, to deliver a workshop on CSE given their interest and
experience in the province of Buenos Aires and their involvement in CPD
courses.
178
P. Cossu et al.
The Workshop
The workshop was called CSE in the English Classroom: constructing and reconstructing knowledge through engaging and empowering tasks. It aimed at raising
awareness about teaching CSE content and revising the participants’ practices. The workshop consisted of three parts: (1) a theoretical framework,
(2) examples of tasks that integrate CSE topics, namely gender and diversity, with language skills, and (3) a hands-on section in which the attendees
drafted CSE-CLIL lesson plans.
Theoretical Framework
Brun and Cossu began by situating the workshop within a conceptual
framework which included two views on teacher identity and a view on
education to support the inclusion of CSE in ELT. One such teacher identity
is that of the teacher as a reflective practitioner, who is capable of “permanently re-examining the social fabric and social assumptions about the
purposes of schooling within which he or she must daily practise” (Cowen,
1995, p. 21), including personal knowledge and deep-seated assumptions
and biases. Teaching CSE calls for thoughtful teachers who continually
think about their teaching so that it is meaningful to students’ interests
and needs. This is tightly linked with the second identity discussed in the
workshop, which is that of the teacher as a sociocultural mediator. As Nieto
(2017) claims, teachers become sociocultural mediators by learning about
students’ cultural, religious, family, intellectual and personal resources for use
in pedagogy and instruction. As teachers co-construct teaching and learning
experiences with their students, they need to be aware of what matters behind
the subject they teach and what students need to know to make informed
decisions and become social agents.
Thus, teaching is best seen as the practice of freedom which, as hooks
(1994) points out, is carried out with the aim of allowing students to live fully
in the world. In this respect, teaching cannot be understood without critical
pedagogy. Drawing on Freire’s (1973) ideas, critical pedagogy views education
as an inherently political and power-related act and addresses issues of social
justice and social change through education, including language teaching
(Akbari, 2008). Therefore, critical pedagogy relates the school context to the
wider social context in which it is embedded. It primarily aims at empowering
students to think and act critically with the ultimate purpose of social change.
As mentioned before, this is precisely what CSE seeks: social transformation
through education.
Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing …
179
Tasks
In the second part of the workshop, Brun and Cossu discussed and shared
lesson plans with activities that integrate CSE content with language skills.
The lesson plans respected Coyle’s 4C’s model: content, cognition, culture
and communication and had a unifying thread, which was visibility and
representation in terms of gender and diverse family configurations. These
topics are of particular relevance because they tend to be regarded as sensitive and are thus generally left out both in mainstream ELT material and
in teacher-produced material. Given the fact that CSE ultimately aims at
equipping learners with the skills they need to become respectful citizens of
the world, the treatment of such topics fosters the development of critical
thinking, which is one of these skills.
The first CSE topic introduced in the workshop was diverse family configurations. In our experience, we have met many teachers who regard this
topic as controversial, which results in them avoiding the topic altogether
or teaching the most visible or representative family members, excluding,
for example, families with same-gender parents, childless families, one-parent
families, among others. Many teachers in the audience shared this view and
agreed that instances of CPD such as this workshop are necessary to reflect
upon their practices and preconceptions and thus acquire tools to provide
significant, challenging and relevant learning experiences for all students.
It was agreed that the topic of family provides a natural context for introducing diversity. Welcoming diverse families means that children can see their
world reflected in their school, while also learning about the diversity of the
community around them. In the lesson plan that Brun and Cossu presented,
which were targeted at children with a pre A1/A1 level, students learn about
the different family configurations that exist, such as LGBTQ+ led families,
single-parent families, grandparent-families, migrant families, among others.
In terms of culture, the introduction of the topic of diverse families may
encourage learners to reflect upon and respect multiple family structures in
their community and expand their understanding of family diversity in the
world.
The lesson plan starts with the teacher sharing pictures of their family
and introducing it to students, taking the opportunity to use meaningful
language such as “there are (4) of us”, “we like to (play together)”, “this is
my (daughter)”. The visual material presented to students should include
as much diversity as possible, for example, students can be shown a poster
portraying various types of families made up of people of different shapes
and sizes. This diversity can be further explored in other tasks such as reading
180
P. Cossu et al.
texts on diverse types of families and matching them to different images. The
texts can easily be turned into an audio or video, or can be read aloud to
foster listening skills development. In the workshop, we discussed the need
to adapt the activities to make them context-sensitive not only in terms of
the skills practised but also the topics presented.
Literature is an ideal vehicle for the inclusion of CSE content in a contextualised and motivating way. In this case, Brun and Cossu used a picture
book, The Family Book (Parr, 2010), which illustrates families that take many
shapes and sizes, including LGBTQ+ led families. Although the book is
not created for EFL instruction, it is particularly useful because it contains
very simple language and the illustrations help get the message across. After
showing some pages from the book, participants were asked to think of the
meaningful and relevant language which can be taught with this resource.
Some of the items mentioned were colours, numbers and animals, among
others. There was a lively discussion about the power of literature to promote
critical awareness and to integrate language and CSE content meaningfully.
In terms of cognition, students may not only compare and contrast the
different families presented in the book, but also these with their own. This
is a favourable opportunity for teachers to culturally and socially mediate the
text, inviting students to reflect upon the diversity represented in the book as
well as that in their homes and community.
As a final outcome for the lesson plan, Cossu and Brun suggested thinking
of an activity that would be a true instance of the diversity present in the
classroom. For example, students may make a detailed drawing and description of their families. It should be their choice who to include as this would
be reinforcing the idea that love makes a family. They should be encouraged
to add details that are special to their particular family, which is an opportunity for them to actually see the diversity in their local context. Figure 1 is
a sample produced by a 9-year-old from Junín (Argentina) and presented in
the workshop. The text written by the student reads: My family is small. My
family members are my mum, baby, my brother and my dads. For reasons of
space and scope, we will not analyse the teacher’s feedback.
The second series of tasks, whose central topic was women’s visibility in
STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) and the world
of work, was targeted at teenage students. The main aim was to show the
audience how to incorporate a gender perspective into any lesson, in this
case, dealing with science and subject-specific vocabulary. This part of the
workshop was introduced through a thought-provoking clip (Elle UK, 2015)
which shows women being underrepresented in areas such as the arts, the
media, politics, and business.
Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing …
181
Fig. 1 My family is small
A discussion followed about the extent to which ELT materials actually
reflect the reality of our students and what teachers can do as intercultural mediators. As an example, attendees were shown a page from New
English File Pre-intermediate (Oxeden et al., 2005) and were asked to critically observe the title and images presented. Section D of this unit presents
passive voice and is entitled Mothers of invention. The images included show
different inventions and two people: a man in a laboratory checking a pair of
nylon stockings, and a woman in a kitchen using a dishwasher. In the workshop, the participants exchanged views on the messages behind the images:
the title links women with motherhood and the images perpetuate socially
constructed gender roles in which women are confined to the kitchen and
household chores. This same discussion can be held in the classroom as a way
of questioning sexism in coursebooks and developing critical thinking skills.
It was also suggested that, besides working with the language in the unit,
students may also engage in other tasks such as finding out about the life of
Ada Lovelace, the first computer programmer, thus visibilising women in a
traditionally male-dominated realm. The audience was constantly reminded
of the importance of helping students reflect upon these issues when the
opportunity arises.
Next, attendees were asked to draw a scientist and give them a name
and later on describe their drawings to the audience. This activity had two
purposes: to explore the teachers’ representations of scientists and see whether
there was gender bias, and to share a simple activity to use in the classroom
182
P. Cossu et al.
for students to examine their preconceptions in this respect. The majority
of attendees drew the stereotypical white male scientist wearing a lab coat,
glasses and working in a chemistry lab. Sharing their descriptions gave the
participants the opportunity to see clear examples of gender bias in their
own drawings and realise the importance of both becoming aware of these
existing stereotypes and helping students critically reflect upon their own.
We all agreed that representation matters and, in this case, girls need to see
images of a wide range of professions so that they can see their future selves
reflected.
Moving from women in STEM to the world of work, Cossu and Brun
suggested some tasks that can be easily added to any project or coursebook
unit on jobs and professions in order to devote some attention to the issue
of women’s underrepresentation. One such task is to provide students with a
list of jobs/professions and ask them to associate these with a gender. Certain
professions tend to be thought of as being typical of women or men, such as
kindergarten teachers being women and mechanics being men. The purpose
is to have students engage in higher-order thinking skills by debating and
supporting their arguments. Another task mentioned was asking students to
search for the word footballer or baby-sitter on Google images and count
how many women are portrayed as footballers and how many men are shown
as baby-sitters. This activity was carried out in the workshop, followed by a
discussion about stereotypes, the way language shapes our view of the world
and the importance of having students critically evaluate the influence of the
media. As a final task, students may be asked to imagine they are graphic
designers who will create posters advertising courses that challenge assumptions on gender expectations and jobs. A poster produced by a 14-year-old
student from a secondary school in Junín, Argentina was shown as an example
(Fig. 2).
This second series of tasks showed that teachers can easily adapt their
lesson plans so that they include CSE content, bearing in mind that the
development of critical thinking skills is fundamental.
Delivery of effective CSE requires knowledgeable and motivated teachers
who can examine their own attitudes and gain confidence to discuss sensitive and controversial topics in a non-judgmental and rights-based manner.
Taking this into consideration, the last series of tasks Cossu and Brun shared
in the workshop was thought to be carried out in the context of English
teacher education. Also framed within CLIL, it aimed at critically analysing
stories for children in terms of gender stereotypes and reflecting upon how
these can affect the way we think and view the world. The suggested language
Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing …
183
for this lesson plan was adjectives for description, time expressions and
narrative tenses.
After brainstorming typical stories for children such as Cinderella, Little
Red Riding Hood, Rapunzel among others, the participants discussed ways
in which most female and male characters are depicted, and word clouds with
adjectives that describe them were created (Fig. 3). Teachers may want to
focus on one story and have students read it to identify the language features
mentioned above and highlight examples of gender stereotypes or sexist incidents. The presenters showed the video How it should have ended: Little Red
Riding Hood (HISHEkids, 2015), which shows an empowered little girl who
cleverly deceives the wolf. The audience compared and contrasted how the
Fig. 2 Poster of a female mechanic
Fig. 3 Word cloud
184
P. Cossu et al.
main characters are portrayed in each case, an activity which may also be done
by using, for example, a Venn diagram or a similar graphic organiser. They
came to the conclusion that these traditional tales usually have the same plot,
where beautiful and dutiful princesses are rescued by handsome and vigorous
princes. Next, some memes were shown, which were made by students at
a teacher training college, in order to show participants how students can
be encouraged to think outside the box, challenging the stereotypes in the
stories. To round off this last series of tasks, the participants were presented
with one possible final outcome: students are asked to write their own fractured version of a typical tale for children, which requires them to use the
language, apply the content and practise the skills dealt with in the teaching
sequence.
Lesson Planning
In the third part of the workshop, the teachers were required to draft lesson
plans integrating CSE content with language, framed within CLIL. They
were given four CSE topics and resources to select from (Table 1). The
teachers chose the target group and stated the aims of the plans. They worked
in small groups and created a poster to share their proposals.
Teachers grouped themselves and selected the topic for their lesson plans.
They were allotted 60 minutes to discuss and write their proposals. Brun and
Cossu monitored the groups providing guidance and clarifying doubts. There
was fruitful discussion among participants on the selection of topics and the
possible tasks. The majority chose the topics toys and gender and consent.
Table 1 Topics and resources
Level
CSE topic
Resource
Primary
Toys and
gender
Primary
Diversity
Secondary
Consent
Secondary
Gender
stereotypes
Supermarket brochures and posters.
http://bit.ly/2H6Wv6Z
http://bit.ly/2OzFWo8
Todd Parr’s book “It’s ok to be different”
(2009)
Video
Ask. Listen. Respect: a video about consent
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6X5I7
xoxEY
Video
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie on storytelling
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VfzgtOuAco&t=835s
(minute 10–11)
Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing …
185
The reasons given were that toys are a prescribed topic in the curriculum and
common in most course books. Albeit challenging, consent is an issue that
needs to be addressed. A few participants opted for the topic of diversity,
claiming they felt comfortable with the resource provided.
Even though none of the groups worked with the topic of gender stereotypes, one of them did address the issue in the development of their lesson
plan on the topic of toys.
Thirteen posters were produced which were later socialised. Table 2 shows
participants’ choices in terms of language and main tasks for each CSE topic.
In general, the participants could integrate language and content easily.
For example, in one of the posters, the participants decided to teach past
simple, comparative and superlative adjectives and vocabulary related to social
networks while addressing the topic of “consent”. In terms of cognition, the
activities proposed involved reading and completing texts, comparing and
contrasting, and writing a different version of the story shown in the video
provided as a resource for the lesson plan. There were also some instances
of reflection seen in activities such as discussing the pros and cons of social
media, though there was no instance of critical discussion of the CSE topic
chosen. However, during the presentation of their proposal, the teachers clarified that there would be a space for students to discuss the topic of “consent”.
For example, they may propose ways to set clear boundaries and reflect upon
why these are so important in healthy relationships. The final outcome of
Table 2 Summary of lesson plans
CSE topics
Language items chosen
Main tasks
Toys and
gender
Toys, games, colours, parts of the
body, adjectives, prepositions,
have got, there is/are, likes and
dislikes, singular and plural
nouns
Feelings, emotions, adjectives,
verb to be, have got, parts of
the body
Brainstorming, analysing
images, listing, classifying,
inventing, and describing
toys, creating a playground,
designing a leaflet
Brainstorming, analysing
pictures from the book,
discussing content of the
book, reading, writing and
drawing, adding pages to
the book
Discussing the influence of
social media, writing a
different version of the
video, discussing the
content of the video,
explaining consent through
a metaphor
Diversity
Consent
Vocabulary related to social
media, past simple, comparative
and superlative adjectives, likes
and dislikes, I want/I don’t want
186
P. Cossu et al.
this lesson aimed at practising some higher-order thinking skills as students
would be working collaboratively to author a different script for the video.
Another proposal that showed a close integration of CSE content and
language is shown in Fig. 4. In this case, the topic chosen was “gender
stereotypes and toys” and the activities proposed involve both lower-order
as well as higher-order thinking skills (LOTs and HOTs, respectively) such
as identifying stereotypes, explaining, agreeing and disagreeing and designing
a gender-neutral leaflet. The different tasks promoted instances of discussion
and reflection, especially in the final outcome, which required students to
work collaboratively to create a product which, as the participants claimed,
reflects the need for children to see toys advertised in stereotype-free leaflets.
Fig. 4 Poster presented by a group of participants in the workshop
Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing …
187
Even though some lesson plans focused mainly on language, there was a
deliberate attempt at including the 4 Cs. In those lesson plans that did not go
beyond tasks that aimed at lower-order thinking skills, teachers noticed the
need to add activities that would both aim at HOTs and be true instances
of reflection. For some teachers, it was the first time they were required to
plan a lesson including CSE topics and in this sense, the workshop opened
a window into CSE and gave the participants the opportunity to think of
proposals that could be considered the first steps towards transformative
teaching practices.
Conclusions and Implications
Even though this workshop was limited in terms of its time frame, it
was a welcome initiative for teachers and teachers-to-be to reflect on their
own teaching and acquire useful tools for the effective implementation of
lesson plans that respectfully address CSE content and teach the language in
tandem. In other words, this instance of CPD was beneficial in a number of
ways. Firstly, this experience enabled participants and presenters to analyse
how gender issues are dealt with in the materials they choose or are required
to use. Secondly, we engaged in discussion about possible ways of adapting
this material so as to better reflect reality in our classrooms and help students
become critically aware of instilled assumptions about gender in our everyday
lives. Finally, this workshop was fertile ground for reflection upon the need
to go beyond the obligation imposed by the law and understand that, as
educators, the inclusion of CSE concerns us all. CSE contributes to raising
awareness of gender diversity and diversity in different aspects of human life.
We are aware that in other contexts CSE has a different approach. In some
other settings, some of the issues discussed in CSE and this workshop may
be taboo or even illegal (e.g., homosexuality). However, CPD workshops on
gender may be built around topics that reduce confrontation or antagonism.
For example, in this workshop we did not touch on sensitive topics such as
abortion, we concentrated on describing families and discussing the role of
women in society and how they are represented.
More instances of CPD like the one described in this chapter are needed
if teachers are to become more familiar with diversity in ELT, and with
CSE content in particular. Teaching from a gender perspective is not only
an invaluable experience for students and teachers alike but it is also our
responsibility as educators if we adhere to the two views on teacher identity
188
P. Cossu et al.
presented in the first part of the workshop, namely the teacher as a reflective practitioner and as a sociocultural mediator. These CPD instances might
include not only opportunities for reflection but also hands-on experience to
equip educators with the knowledge and strategies they need to address all
gender diversity in ELT.
Suggested Further Reading
Dellenty, S. (2019). Celebrating difference: A whole-school approach to LGBT +
inclusion. London: Bloomsbury.
Although it does not concentrate on ELT, this volume examines the
roots of prejudice in primary and secondary schools and it includes strategies to eradicate bullying and celebrate diversity instead. The book should
be approached as a programme that cuts across all areas of educational
institutions.
Paiz, J. (2020). Queering the English language classroom: A practical guide for
teachers. London: Equinox.
This book succeeds in providing teachers of English with researchinformed practical suggestions to make their situated practices inclusive and
diverse in relation to identities and values.
Shane, K. (2020). The educator’s guide to LGBT + inclusion: A practical resource
for K -12 teachers, administrators, and school support staff . London: Jessica
Kingsley.
Set in the context of US schools, the author tackles the issue of bullying
and subsequent consequences such as truancy or suicidality for LGBT+
students. Drawing on good practices and latest research, the volume includes
guides to create a safer environment and update school policies.
Engagement Priorities
• The experience described in this chapter is in response to a national law.
Would you engage in a similar initiative if CSE were not mandatory across
the curriculum?
• Some institutions, parents, and teachers may disapprove of merging CSE,
diversity and CLIL as it may go against their principles. How could we
ensure that diversity is approached with care and respect of personal beliefs?
• Do you think that publishers will eventually include diverse families in
their coursebooks as discussed in the workshop?
Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing …
189
References
Akbari, R. (2008). Transforming lives: Introducing critical pedagogy into ELT
classrooms. ELT Journal, 62(3), 276–283.
Ball, P. (2018). Innovations and challenges in CLIL materials design. Theory into
Practice, 57 (3), 222–231.
Ball, P., Kelly, K., & Clegg, J. (2015). Putting CLIL into practice. Oxford University
Press.
Banegas, D. L., Jacovkis, L., & Romiti, A. (2020). A gender perspective in initial
English language teacher education: An Argentinian experience. Sexuality and
Culture, 24 (1), 1–22.
Cendoya, A. M., & Di Bin, V. (2010). A CLIL experience based on the use of
tasks and different genre types. Latin American Journal of Content & Language
Integrated Learning, 3(1), 11–17.
Cirocki, A., & Farrell, T. S. C. (2019). Professional development of secondary school
EFL teachers: Voices from Indonesia. System, 85 (1), 102–111.
Cowen, B. (1995). The state and control of teacher education: The knowledge fit for
teachers. In R. Gardner (Ed.), Contemporary crises in teacher education (pp. 18–
34). BATROE.
Coyle, D. (2008). CLIL—A pedagogical approach. In N. Van Deusen-Scholl & N.
Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education (2nd ed., pp. 97–111).
Springer.
Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective teacher
professional development. Learning Policy Institute.
De la Barra, E., Veloso, S., & Maluenda, L. (2018). Integrating assessment in
a CLIL-based approach for second-year university students. Profile: Issues in
Teachers’ Professional Development, 20 (2), 111–126.
de Vries, S., Jansen, E. P., Wim, W. A., & van de Grift, J. C. M. (2013). Profiling
teachers’ continuing professional development and the relation with their beliefs
about learning and teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 33(1), 78–89.
Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J. M. (2014). CLIL and motivation: The effect
of individual and contextual variables. Language Learning Journal, 42(2), 209–
224.
Elle UK. (2015, October 7). More women #ELLEFeminism [video] YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GEKo22ryWxM.
Freire, P. (1973). Education: The practice of freedom. Writers and Readers.
Gallardo del Puerto, F., Basterrechea, M., & Martínez-Adrián, M. (2020). Target
language proficiency and reported use of compensatory strategies by young CLIL
learners. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 30 (1), 3–18.
Garzón-Díaz, E. (2018). From cultural awareness to scientific citizenship: Implementing content and language integrated learning projects to connect environmental science and English in a state school in Colombia. International Journal of
190
P. Cossu et al.
Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 24 (2), 242–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/
13670050.2018.1456512.
Genesee, F., & Hamayan, E. (2016). CLIL in context: Practical guidance for educators.
Cambridge University Press.
Hemmi, C., & Banegas, D. L. (Eds.). (2021). International perspectives on CLIL.
Palgrave.
HISHEkids. (2015, February 10). Little Red Riding Hood—Fixed Fairy Tales
[video] YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WG3_gnKSDh4.
hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education as the practice of freedom.
Routledge.
Marina, M., et al. (2014). Clase 2: “Los ejes de la ESI”, Educación Sexual Integral,
Especialización docente de nivel superior en educación y TIC, Buenos Aires,
Ministerio de Educación de la Nación.
Martínez-Agudo, J. (2019). Which instructional programme (EFL or CLIL) results
in better oral communicative competence? Updated empirical evidence from a
monolingual context. Linguistics and Education, 51(1), 69–78.
Nieto, S. (2017). On becoming socio-cultural mediators. University of Michigan.
Otwinowska, A., & Foryś, M. (2017). They learn the CLIL way, but do they like
it? Affectivity and cognition in upper-primary CLIL classes. International Journal
of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 20 (5), 457–480.
Oxeden, C., Latham-Koenig, C., & Seligson, P. (2005). New English file. Macmillan.
Parr, T. (2010). The family book. New York, N.Y: Little, Brown.
Pladevall-Ballester, E. (2019). A longitudinal study of primary school EFL learning
motivation in CLIL and non-CLIL settings. Language Teaching Research, 23(6),
765–786.
Porto, M. (2016). Ecological and intercultural citizenship in the primary English as
a foreign language (EFL) classroom: An online project in Argentina. Cambridge
Journal of Education, 46 (4), 395–415.
Porto, M. (2018). Intercultural citizenship in foreign language education: An
opportunity to broaden CLIL’s theoretical outlook and pedagogy. International
Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. https://doi.org/10.1080/136
70050.2018.1526886.
UNESCO. (2018). International technical guidance on sexuality education: An
evidence-informed approach. Revised edition.
UNFPA. (2014). Operational Guidance for Comprehensive Sexuality Education: A
Focus on Human Rights and Gender.
Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular
They: Inclusive EFL Teacher Education
Carolyn Blume
Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to describe a novel conceptual and practical
approach to preparing future English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers
for gender-sensitive instruction by locating a blended-learning unit on the
topic within a module on inclusive language education in an English
language teacher education programme. This chapter will first summarise
the unit’s theoretical underpinnings in light of discourses on gender normativity in EFL and locate this teaching unit in the current context of German
EFL teacher education. Subsequently, the implementation of the unit in
a blended-learning format will be described. While the learning opportunity described herein is situated within a unique context, this examination
of digitally mediated reflective teacher education pertaining to one particular inclusive discourse has implications for other settings, in terms of both
the opportunities it provides for comparative analysis and its potential for
transfer.
While discourses about diversity in EFL instruction in German schools
date back to the 1970s, these have traditionally focused on differences in
learners’ English language abilities, and how teachers can best be prepared
C. Blume (B)
Technical University Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany
e-mail: carolyn.blume@tu-dortmund.de
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_11
191
192
C. Blume
to address these disparities (Trautmann, 2010). It is only since the German
ratification of the United Nations’ Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities (UN CRPD) in 2009 that EFL teacher preparation has begun
to address additional forms of diversity, with the primary focus on students
with special educational needs and a secondary focus on learners whose first
language is not German. This more expansive consideration of diversity has
in turn created an opening with which other forms of diversity, including
issues of gender, are more likely to be thematised (König et al., 2015).
Relevant initiatives to accompany these discourses are just beginning to
gain traction in German universities and professional colleges where initial
teacher education takes place. These initiatives are sometimes hampered by
a variety of structural and cultural barriers relating to discourses of diversity
more broadly (Trautmann, 2010). At the same time, the German Ministry of
Education and Research has funded myriad initiatives to strengthen teacher
education in, among other areas, inclusive teaching practices for diverse
educational settings (BMBF, 2019).
Given the status of English as a core subject in German schools, and the
relevance of English language skills for political, economic, social, cultural
and civic participation, the ability of future language teachers to address
the academic and affective needs of all learners in the English classroom
is of paramount importance. Moreover, the multi-faceted role of EFL in
constructing identities via classroom discourses and language acts (Nelson,
2009) underscores the need for teaching practices that foster inclusive identity construction and enable learners to participate in these discourses. Thus,
preparing future teachers of English to address these needs requires preparation that provides them with the ability, at a minimum, to identify and
consider the implications of gender-related issues in the EFL classroom. This
in turn presupposes that these pre-service teachers (PSTs) can cultivate the
reflective skills that will enable them to skilfully relate theoretical knowledge to practical approaches as they pertain to, among other things, issues
of gender.
Embedded within a broader framework of learner diversity, a module was
developed at the Leuphana University in Lüneburg, Germany, to provide
initial EFL teacher education on inclusive foreign language teaching and
learning. While diversity in this sense emphasises the various ways in which
individual learners differ from one another, the notion of inclusion, as it is
used here, focuses on the teaching of these individual learners in a common
setting. Thus, the focus is on meeting the needs of a diverse group of learners
coming together in an inclusive EFL class.
Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular …
193
This unit, within the module on inclusion in ELT, is conceived for PSTs
in an early stage of their university studies. It is designed to sensitise these
students to issues of gender as one aspect of diversity, highlighting the ways
in which these issues are mediated in the language learning classroom. Intertwining theoretical and practical elements, the module focuses on issues
of linguistic inclusion and exclusion, presentations of gender normativity
and assumptions about gender-related language learning differences. It does
this by utilising a blended-learning format, which fosters students’ agency
by enabling differentiation based on personal interest, language facility and
prior knowledge. While the difficulty in modifying PSTs’ deeply-held beliefs
is well documented, developing empathy, building epistemic and practical
knowledge, and enabling reflection is a promising approach to addressing the
gap between students’ theoretical knowledge and their ultimate instructional
practice (Richardson, 2003; Scorgie, 2010).
Gender Contextualised in an Inclusive
Curriculum
The module within which this unit is located explores various aspects of
learner diversity for future EFL teachers. Gender issues thus become situated
in an inclusive educational framework that more globally seeks to dismantle
barriers erected by socially constructed and verbalised norms (Trautmann,
2010).
In light of the centrality of language in shaping identity, and its role
in constructing and propagating specific ‘social ideologies’ (Sauntson, 2017,
p. 148), an examination of such integral aspects of identity within the
language learning setting is unavoidable. Especially in schools, which both
socialise and educate (Merse, 2017), identity, social norms and language
cannot be disentangled. This is apparent in the most prosaic of activities,
as early-stage learners acquire the language with which to describe themselves, their family, hobbies, and likes and dislikes. In later sequences, learners
discuss what they did in the recent past, and with whom. It is only within
a language learning setting cognisant of diverse identities, and how language
itself codifies these identities, that these issues can be addressed in ways that
are inclusive. This dovetails with premises of effective teacher education,
which itself necessitates substantial reflection regarding one’s own personal
and professional identity (Korthagen, 2004).
194
C. Blume
Gender in German EFL Teacher Education
Although some gender-related issues are increasingly incorporated into
German EFL materials for classroom use, there continues to be a
dearth of resources addressing the professionalisation needs of (pre-service)
teachers. This is especially true as it relates to themes surrounding nonheteronormativity, i.e. the rejection of heterosexuality as the sole norm for
gender and sexual identity (Motschenbacher & Stegu, 2013). As Banegas
et al. (2020) point out, a body of literature addressing issues of gender study
in the foreign language classroom exists, but there is generally scant information regarding foreign language teacher preparation on these topics. Overall,
it appears that incorporating issues of gender remains a novelty in German
teacher education, with an even greater paucity of empirical studies regarding
the impact at either the teacher preparation or classroom level.
Some research has been carried out to examine gender sensitivity in
existing EFL materials in Germany, for example, with the focus on gender
roles in textbooks (Benitt & Kurtz, 2016), and with sobering implications
for PSTs needing guidance. A few secondary level textbooks (ages 11 through
18) address gender-related themes, by, for example, portraying or discussing
homosexual relationships, but the ancillary teacher materials provide no
thematic support (Claussen et al., 2017; Edelhoff & Schmidt, 2013). As
Mittag (2015) points out, some of the relatively ambitious themes and
content presuppose a teacher’s ability to work with the materials critically
and reflectively. However, materials and professional opportunities to develop
these competencies are largely absent.
The unit described in the following sections highlights elements of an
initiative that attempts to generate this competence, by providing PSTs
with opportunities to reflect on the meaning of gender-inclusive EFL, and
by offering illustrations of gender-inclusive EFL teaching. Merse (2015)
identifies several critical ways in which EFL teachers can contribute to decentralising heteronormativity in the EFL classroom. The most important
aspect, he argues, is that a true ‘pedagogy of inclusion needs to be complemented with a pedagogy of inquiry’ (p. 15), referring in this latter case to
constructivist approaches. This recommendation aligns with principles of
teacher education in general, and reflective EFL teacher education in particular (Gerlach, 2018), and informs, in addition to the content of the unit
described below, the pedagogical approach that is used.
Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular …
195
A Blended-Learning Approach
to Gender-Sensitive EFL Teacher Preparation
Conceptualised as one unit of a semester-long module on preparing PSTs for
inclusive EFL teaching, the unit on gender inclusivity described below was
designed for early-stage (third semester) university students in an Englishmedium programme of study culminating in a bachelor’s degree in teaching
EFL at either the elementary or early secondary levels, or at vocational
schools. Designed with a learning management system (LMS) that includes
both online and on-site phases, the unit includes obligatory and facultative
elements in order to take into account the participants’ prior knowledge, areas
of special interest and language skills.
In light of time constraints, an emphasis is placed on raising students’
awareness and examining potential areas of inclusive teaching practice within
an inquiry-based structure, with limited reference to theoretical knowledge
development. The team of primary and secondary English teachers, special
educators, university professors, students and subject specialists at state institutions who developed module (Straub et al., 2019) chose to focus on
experiential activities that facilitate reflection and input that summarises
key conceptual understandings. Thus, while the ways in which gender roles
are discursively constructed is critical to understanding inclusive language
teaching, readings on this topic are not included. Instead, students engage
with digitally mediated tasks in a preparatory phase online, as summarised in
the overview in Table 1 and described in detail below, before participating
in two interactive lectures that briefly convey key conceptual understandings about gender diversity and gender-inclusive EFL teaching. Subsequently,
participants critically evaluate various educational materials in light of their
gender inclusivity, consider how language usage constructs inclusion or exclusion, and analyse research findings regarding gender differences in language
learning.
The compulsory module, which was awarded the university’s prize for
excellence in teaching in 2019,1 has since been offered three times, reaching
a total of approximately 135 PSTs. In the following sections, selected activities designed to sensitise students to gender-related issues, inform them and
encourage reflective practitioner attitudes and skills through cognitive and
affective activities are described in more detail (Scorgie, 2010).
196
C. Blume
Table 1 Gender-sensitive EFL teacher preparation unit overview
Stage
Objectives
Activities
Online 1.1
• To raise awareness of the
problematic nature of
heteronormativity in a typical
German EFL classroom
• To generate alternative
responses to heteronormativity
• To acquire theoretical
knowledge on issues of
heteronormativity in EFL/ESL
• To improve listening
comprehension
• To examine gendered language
in the context of EFL teaching
and learning
• To identify opportunities for
gender sensitivity
• To examine the political, social
and cultural implications of
using gendered language in
the context of EFL teaching and
learning
• To identify ways to incorporate
nongendered language in
language and teaching practice
PSTs read an excerpt from an
anonymised online forum and
answer questions designed to
scaffold their comprehension
and reflection
Online 1.2
In-person
1.1
In-person
1.2
Online 2.1
Online 2.2
In-person
2.1
• To generate an awareness of
the range of gender and sexual
diversity in the general
population
• To mediate between German
language resources and English
usage
• To critically evaluate the
heteronormativity of existing
EFL materials
• To reflect on the implications
of the materials review
PSTs view a video with
interactive elements and
respond to closed-format
questions
In a plenary, PSTs debrief the
initial online activity
PSTs then work in small groups
to analyse learner products
In a brief expert talk, PSTs are
introduced to concepts of
gatekeeping and
performativity before
evaluating style guides’
recommendations regarding
nongendered language
usage. Finally, PSTs compare
the language used by L1 and
L2 English speakers
PSTs use given links, and
research on their own, to
develop a Wiki that defines
terms pertaining to gender
and sexual identity and
diversity
PSTs evaluate images from
selected EFL resources in
terms of their representation
of diversity
PSTs engage in a discussion
regarding their evaluation of
the EFL resources
(continued)
Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular …
197
Table 1 (continued)
Stage
Objectives
Activities
In-person
2.2
• To critically assess the
appropriateness of
gender-inclusive educational
materials for specific EFL
settings
• To understand and evaluate the
advantages and disadvantages
of various conceptual
approaches towards
gender-inclusive EFL instruction
• To improve listening
comprehension
• To critically examine empirical
research regarding
gender-based learner
differences in EFL
• To improve reading
comprehension
• To align illustrative materials
and tasks with the different
approaches towards
gender-inclusive EFL instruction
PSTs work in small groups to
evaluate additional EFL
materials
Online 3.1
Online 3.2
In-person
3.1
In-person
3.2
• To critically evaluate existing
research regarding gender
differences in language
learning
PSTs view a pre-recorded
lecture and respond to
comprehension questions,
using the answers provided
to check their understanding
PSTs read one section of
Schmenk’s (2009) analysis of
studies on gender-based
learner differences in EFL
PSTs work in groups to
examine illustrative materials
and tasks, and identify their
appropriateness for the
various models of
gender-sensitive EFL
instruction
PSTs work in expert groups to
summarise their assigned text
excerpts and share the
conclusions with the other
course participants. In a
plenary, common themes are
identified
Raising Awareness
The unit begins with an online activity that has, as its primary goal, the objective of raising empathy for a given learner and scaffolding the transition from
learner to teacher, thereby initiating reflective processes. Using a prompt from
a public online posting, students are assigned the task of analysing a forum
contribution by Lia, who posts her frustrations anonymously:
So, there was this sentence in the book: ‘Jamie’s girlfriend was there too.’ As
a girl asked whether Jamie is a girl’s name, [the teacher] just responded: ‘No,
look carefully. Jamie’s girlfriend. That has to be a boy’s name. A girl can’t have
198
C. Blume
a girlfriend, well, actually […], no, definitely a boy.’ God, was I angry, but
she wasn’t willing to engage in a discussion […]. It really depressed me and
made clear that teachers are actually not the smartest and most tolerant […]
Greetings, Lia. [Author’s translation]
Following the model of a reflective task (Gerlach, 2018), students initially
summarise the incident before being prompted to identify the options open
to both Lia and the teacher in this situation. Finally, students consider why
Lia may have used the venue of an online forum to express her frustration
with this incident. The students enter their responses online, and may view
anonymous answers of other students once they submit their own answers.
In this way, the PSTs contribute their own initial analyses of the situation,
and subsequently explore their peers’ perspectives, leading to opportunities
to elaborate or modify their own positions, which are then discussed in the
following class session. The anonymity of the online phase facilitates safety
and open dialogue.
Given the importance of developing the PSTs’ awareness of the ways in
which diversity is relevant to all aspects of the language classroom, a second
activity requires students to reflect on their conceptions of normed English.
Designed primarily to raise participants’ awareness of the ways in which
heteronormativity in the language classroom is exclusionary, students are
required to correct a passage in which, among bona fide errors, the singular
they construction is used (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Examining learner products
Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular …
199
A discussion ensues when the students try to clarify whether Kim is a
male or female name, so that they can assign the corresponding pronoun
to the passage. Through a series of dialogically constructed, scaffolded questions, the students are challenged to consider the reasons why the use of a
singular, gendered pronoun has been impressed upon them as the only correct
language form and what the implications of this steadfast imposition might
be for variously gendered students. Additional issues relating to gatekeeping
of (English speaker) identity and notions of performativity are touched on
here as well (Pennycook, 2004), and connections are made to the inclusion
of diverse identities in the EFL classroom more generally.
The information that common style guides recommend the use of the
singular they provokes multilayered reflection pertaining to linguistic varieties,
language norms as artefacts of interaction, and the exclusionary reification of
supposedly standardised forms. Using Sunderland’s (2000) observation that
‘experience suggests that while non-native speakers of English are happier
with he or she than “singular they”’ (p. 211) while the reverse is true of
native speakers’ as a starting point, students are encouraged to think about
how issues of authority and power are intertwined in language. Finally, in an
important conceptual development, students begin to question—if they have
not done so already—the authority of their own teachers, creating discursive,
linguistic and pedagogical distance between themselves and those to whom
they were apprenticed as learners (Lortie, 1975).
Understanding the Discursive Construction
of Gender in EFL
After completing the initial activity online, students view excerpts of a video
featuring Professor John Gray as he discusses non-heteronormative invisibility and identity in English language learning materials.2 Students assess
their comprehension of the video and engage in an initial analysis of its
content by means of embedded interactive questions,3 completing multiple
choice, fill-in-the-blank, true–false and summative tasks. Despite the fact that
these formats are largely behaviourist, they facilitate student agency via unfettered access to the video and immediate feedback. In addition to acquiring
content knowledge regarding the topic at hand, students’ understanding of
the academic and colloquial language in the video is scaffolded.
Subsequently, students contribute to an online Wiki in the LMS, defining
terms related to various issues of gender identity. Provided with an initial
collection of German language resources as a series of links, students employ
200
C. Blume
their mediation skills to translate the content to the target format, language
and audience. The co-construction of the Wiki creates a lasting resource that
demonstrates how students’ understanding and knowledge of the themes and
language deepen as entries accumulate or grow over the course of the semester
(Lund, 2008). In this way, participants also contribute to the visibility of
gender-related themes in EFL teacher preparation.
In another online activity, students complete a survey, evaluating the
degree to which various materials reflect or counteract common gender
stereotypes. In one image and text from a popular German textbook,
Charlie, who is portrayed as typically male, participates in, and simultaneously disrupts, his sister’s ballet class. Whereas some students acknowledge the
atypical presentation of a boy attending a ballet class, others point out that his
behaviour is disruptive to the otherwise all-girl class. Furthermore, his sister
comments on his antics with a good-humoured ‘Oh, Charlie!’ The depiction
of a boy as a troublemaker opens the door to subsequent class discussions
of how such stereotypes may harm all genders. Although the majority of the
illustrations derive from texts and materials commonly used in German EFL
classrooms, some images from EFL textbooks used in Iran are incorporated
(Skliar, 2007). The inclusion of these images highlights the absence of varied
cultural portrayals in German EFL textbooks, such as those of women in
headscarves and invites intersectional analyses. Students begin to consider the
ways in which stereotyping codifies gender identity in ways that are reductive
and exclusive (Schmenk, 2004).
Encouraging Reflective Practice
In the first year of the programme, a guest lecturer from Great Britain
with expertise in gender-related teaching in EFL provided insights into her
research in person for this module (Way, 2016). In subsequent iterations,
students have watched the lecture online for the unit described in this chapter,
completing guiding viewing activities prepared by the lecturer and students
who originally participated.4 In her lecture, Way recapitulates the theoretical and conceptual issues related to gender-sensitive teaching in EFL before
discussing evidence of the challenges faced by youth who identify as nonheteronormative. Subsequently, using the tripartite structure elucidated by
Nelson (2009) and Macdonald et al. (2014), she describes the ways in which
teachers can address these issues productively in the classroom, namely in
terms of counselling, controversies, or discursive approaches. Way takes care
to point out the pitfalls and potential of the three variations before modelling
Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular …
201
a critical inquiry approach to examining illustrative materials that support the
various approaches, ending with a collaborative evaluation of the materials’
appropriateness for the PSTs’ situated teaching environments.
The next phase heralds a shift in focus to examining stereotypical perceptions of the role gender plays in language learning, with a focus on how
research on this topic frequently oversimplifies the complexity of gender and
its role in language learning. In expert groups, students read a chapter of
Schmenk’s (2009) book questioning received wisdom about gender-specific
patterns in EFL, and one of three subsequent sections detailing a particular empirical study, as well as Schmenk’s critiques of the study. In this way,
students grapple with some of the research that delineates language learners’
strengths and weaknesses along binary gender distinctions, as well as the
methodological and analytical criticisms of the given study, before translating
these conclusions to their potential teaching practice.
Evaluation
Although the entire module was evaluated in a mixed methods approach
that analysed its impact on attitudes towards inclusive EFL, beliefs about
EFL learners and participants’ reflective competence (Blume et al., 2019),
the research did not focus specifically on gender-related beliefs and knowledge. Therefore, despite evidence that the participating students developed
more inclusive beliefs and more sophisticated reflective schema overall, the
relationship between the unit described here and these changes is not documented. The closed-response items in the various instruments did not address
gender-related issues specifically, and no student mentioned them in response
to the open-ended prompts. This silence suggests that the topic was not seen
as warranting comment, itself a telling indicator of the module’s perceived
significance. Additional anecdotal evidence suggests that the affective and
cognitive impact of the module varied among participants.
Like the learners in Nelson’s (2015) study, at least some students found
the unit on gender ‘personally meaningful’ (p. 6). While not systematically
elicited from students, one programme member volunteered during the Way
lecture that they had not been exposed to any of the themes or content
in their own secondary schooling, leaving them with a feeling of exclusion (personal communication, 1 November 2017). Another student revealed
during class how the lack of broad gender representation in her own school
career made her feel invisible, so that she was glad to have ideas about how
202
C. Blume
she could address this topic differently in her future classroom (personal
communication, 6 November 2017).
Evidence for cognitively-based reflection based on an empathetic stance
can be gleaned from student work completed in the course of the module.5
In response to Lia’s situation, for example, participants contributed written
answers that demonstrated their understanding of the issues as they relate
to Lia, the teacher and the EFL classroom. In hypothesising about what
the teacher might have done in response to the question regarding Jamie’s
sexuality, one student wrote the following:
If the teacher would have had in mind that some students of her class could be
gay, she maybe would have acted more open-minded. They could have talked
about that topic in class and be open and tolerant about it. If she wouldn’t
have ignored the situation the students would not be upset about it.
Most responses in this task reveal empathy with Lia and criticise the teacher’s
handling of the situation. Notwithstanding, the following excerpt indicates
that some participants have a more nuanced understanding of the factors
shaping the teacher’s behaviour in comparison to their peers:
The worst case might be that the teacher thinks that people who decide not to
live in heterosexual relationships are ‘not normal’. Another possibility would
be that she doesn’t know how to talk about a delicate topic like sexuality in
general with her students. She might also rate her students as too young to deal
with topics that are out of the ordinary and - in her opinion - could confuse
them.
A minority of students’ entries demonstrate a lack of critical understanding
for the issue, despite the scaffolding intended to support this development:
In a situation like this, the teacher could have looked for real proof to determinate [sic] if the person is a male or a female. But in my case, I will suggest not
paying attention to that detail because I do not think it makes any difference
to the story if the character is male or female.
Finally, many students were able to generate alternative strategies for the
unknown teacher in this incident, including validating the learner’s query,
encouraging students to identify text-based evidence that reveals Jamie’s
gender, and using the incident as a springboard for a discussion of gender
and stereotypes.
Three students in the initial cohort of 27, for which there is complete
data, wrote their term papers on the issue of gender in the EFL classroom.
Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular …
203
Expanded upon in a subsequent undergraduate thesis, one author later interviewed non-heteronormative EFL learners regarding their preferences for
gender-sensitive language learning environments. Although an in-depth analysis of these projects would more fully illuminate the connections between
the authors’ attitudes and knowledge, and the content of the module, the fact
that some students opted to focus on gender themes for their research suggests
that the unit created receptivity towards the topic and an understanding of
the relevance of these issues.
Conclusion
Given the dearth of materials and research regarding teacher preparation
for gender-inclusive language teaching, this contribution documents a pilot
project designed to raise awareness and inculcate PSTs with the attitudes
and knowledge necessary for a truly diverse EFL setting. By implementing
online activities and opportunities for dialogical interaction as well as reflective growth, the unit illustrates how these concepts can be integrated into a
module focusing on ways to meet the needs of all language learners.
While empirical evidence of its impact is beyond the scope of this description, student responses indicate that the mixture of activities designed to
encourage reflective practice in this regard contributed to awareness, empathy
and increased knowledge among some participants. In the future, further data
collection and analysis could determine the degree to which the outcomes
are shaped by specific activities and elements. More significantly, a long-term
study that traces the attitudes and activities of these future educators once
they enter the language learning classroom could reveal the ways in which the
inclusive principles and practices of this unit are reflected in their teaching.
By incorporating the aforementioned unit in a module otherwise devoted
to issues of learner diversity, an appropriate conceptual framework was established. This approach provides learners with contextualisation in line with
universal themes of equity, non-discrimination and inclusivity. In doing so,
it avoids the marginalisation of gender and sexuality-related themes that can
occur when a separate module on these issues is offered (Rayaprol, 2011). It
additionally facilitates an understanding of intersectional issues when examining educational practice in heterogeneous classes, complexifying as it does
the identities of the future teachers’ putative students. While this approach
limits, due to the range of topics that necessarily need to be covered in the
module as a whole, the development of theoretical understandings of gender
204
C. Blume
identity and construction, it insures that the entire cohort is required to
critically examine the implications of gender issues for teaching EFL.
In addition to carefully considering the ways in which the content of the
unit scaffolds the understanding of the PSTs in the module, the pedagogical
methods that are used are equally important. Although it is notoriously difficult to change PSTs’ beliefs, the data raised in conjunction with this module
suggests that the guided reflection that took place during this unit may effect
belief change (Blume et al., 2019). Nevertheless, the difficulty of strengthening reflective skills remains apparent, as the data reveal a generally low level
of reflection and significant disparities in reflective abilities regarding issues of
diversity in the cohort overall. Thus, the challenge remains of understanding
how to improve reflection as it pertains to diversity, and especially for those
PSTs who struggle with envisioning inclusive environments.
The activities that generated the most discussion and reflective responses
were those that linked issues of identity and language to EFL instruction.
Concentrating on the role of language in terms of informing identity, manifesting gender norms and highlighting stereotypical portrayals in media and
research, this unit connects theoretical notions of inclusion to subject-specific
discourses and practices. In so doing, it raises awareness of how language itself
can contribute to inclusive practice.
Suggested Further Reading
Decke-Cornill, H., & Volkmann, L. (Eds.). (2007). Gender studies and foreign
language teaching: A conference held at Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena in the
spring of 2006 . Tübingen: Narr Francke.
This edited volume brings together a range of gender-related topics relevant to foreign language teachers. With one exception, the contributions are
in English and address issues central to second language learning, such as
interaction and culture.
Elsner, D., & Lohe, V. (Eds.). (2016). Gender and language learning: Research
and practice. Tübingen: Narr Francke.
This edited volume emerged from a lecture series designed to raise awareness among pre-service and in-service teachers of gender-related issues in EFL
learning and teaching. It offers a series of essays and guiding questions on
various aspects of gender-related language teaching, including a definitional
foundation and analyses of research regarding gender differences in language
learning, gender construction in language and texts, and gendered teaching
and representation.
Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular …
205
Motschenbacher, H. (2010). Language, gender and sexual identity: Poststructuralist perspectives. IMPACT: Vol. 29. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
This monograph focuses on an analysis of gender-related issues in linguistics from a post-structuralist perspective. Addressing issues of linguistic
structure, gender-informed research in various linguistic fields, and gendered
discourse, the text is a sophisticated introduction to the field of queer
linguistics, and is most suited for teacher educators or researchers.
Engagement Priorities
• The chapter indicates that the impetus for the module development
emerged from recent interest in education for diversity and increased
immigration from non-European regions. How might teacher educators
productively address the concerns of PSTs regarding conservative attitudes
about issues of gender diversity among recent immigrants?
• The unit described in this chapter was designed for a specific context,
namely a German EFL teacher preparation programme. What elements
of this unit could be relevant for other settings, especially ones without the
contextualising frame provided by the focus on diversity?
• To what degree does the blended-learning approach adopted in this case
both provide and limit certain pedagogical opportunities?
• The research shows that most PSTs ultimately adopt the pedagogy and
practice of their school mentors or school communities. How can the
receptivity towards gender-sensitive instruction initiated in this module be
sustained over the course of subsequent years of study and adopted in practice, especially when mentors or school communities are sceptical of such
inclusivity?
Notes
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LXcrJujeHxM&feature=youtu.be.
2. The video has since been replaced online with a more recent version of Gray’s
lecture, and can be found here: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/gen
der-sexuality-elt-%E2%80%93-inclusive-education-vs-queer-pedagogy.
3. https://h5p.org/.
4. https://tefl.web.leuphana.de/?page_id=808.
5. All responses were collected anonymously via Moodle (LMS). Students were
informed in advance that their work would be analysed for research-related
purposes and had the opportunity to decline participation.
206
C. Blume
References
Banegas, D. L., Jacovkis, L. G., & Romiti, A. (2020). A gender perspective in initial
English language teacher education: An Argentinian experience. Sexuality and
Culture, 24 (1), 1–22.
Benitt, N., & Kurtz, J. (2016). Gender representation in selected EFL textbooks:
A diachronic perspective. In D. Elsner & V. Lohe (Eds.), Gender and language
learning: Research and practice (pp. 169–188). Narr Francke.
Blume, C., Gerlach, D., Roters, B., & Schmidt, T. (2019). The ABCs of inclusive
English teacher education: Attitudes, beliefs, and (reflective) competence. TESLEJ, 22(4), 1–18.
BMBF. (2019). Interim results of the ‘Qualitätsoffensive Lehrerbildung’—Initial findings from research and practice. Federal Ministry of Education and Research.
Claussen, S., Hanus, P., Klemm, K., Schröder, K., & Bier, H. (2017). Camden town.
Diesterweg.
Edelhoff, C., & Schmidt, T. (Eds). (2013). Notting Hill Gate 1. Braunschweig:
Diesterweg.
Elsner, D., & Lohe, V. (Eds). (2016). Gender and language learning: Research and
practice. Narr Francke.
Gerlach, D. (2018). Reflective tasks: An approach to integrating reflective practice.
English Language Teacher Education and Development, 21, 58–63.
König, L., Surkamp, C., & Decke-Cornill, H. (2015). Negotiating Gender.
Aushandlungs- und Reflexionsprozesse über Geschlechtervorstellungen im
Fremdsprachenunterricht anstoßen. Der Fremdsprachliche Unterricht Englisch,
49 (135), 2–9.
Korthagen, F. A. J. (2004). In search of the essence of a good teacher: Towards
a more holistic approach in teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education,
20 (1), 77–97.
Lortie, D. C. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociological study. University of Chicago Press.
Lund, A. (2008). Wikis: A collective approach to language production. ReCALL,
20 (1), 35–54.
Macdonald, S., El-Metoui, L., Baynham, M., & Gray, J. (2014). Exploring LGBT
lives and issues in adult ESOL. British Council. Available at: https://esol.britishco
uncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/informational-page/Exploring_LGBT_L
ives_Issues_Adult_ESOL.pdf. Accessed 2 Feb 2020.
Merse, T. (2015). Queer-informed approaches and sexual literacy in ELT: Theoretical foundations and teaching principles. Language Policy, 26 (1), 13–20.
Merse, T. (2017). Other others, different differences: Queer perspectives on teaching
English as a foreign language. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Department of English
and American Studies, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München.
Mittag, M. (2015). Geschlecht als leerer Signifikant. In J. Wedl & A. Bartsch (Eds.),
Teaching Gender? Zum reflektierten Umgang mit Geschlecht im Schulunterricht und
in der Lehramtsausbildung (pp. 251–260). transcript Verlag.
Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular …
207
Motschenbacher, H. (2016). Gender, inclusion and English language teaching: A
linguistic perspective. In D. Elsner & V. Lohe (Eds.), Gender and language
learning: Research and practice (pp. 97–112). Narr Francke.
Motschenbacher, H., & Stegu, M. (2013). Queer linguistic approaches to discourse.
Discourse and Society, 24 (5), 519–535.
Nelson, C. (2015). LGBT content: Why teachers fear it, why learners like it.
Language Issues, 26 (1), 6–12.
Nelson, C. D. (2009). Sexual identities in English language education: Classroom
conversations. Routledge.
Pennycook, A. (2004). Performativity and language studies. Critical Inquiry in
Language Studies, 1(1), 1–19.
Rayaprol, A. (2011). Teaching gender in Indian universities: Reflections on feminist
pedagogy. Sociological Bulletin, 60 (1), 65–78.
Richardson, V. (2003). Pre-service teachers’ beliefs. In J. Raths & A. C. McAninch
(Eds.), Teacher beliefs and classroom performance: The impact of teacher education
(pp. 1–22). Information Age Publishing.
Sauntson, H. (2017). Language, sexuality, and education. In S. Wortham, D. Kim,
& S. May (Eds.), Discourse and education (3rd ed., pp. 47–159). Springer.
Schmenk, B. (2004). Language learning: A feminine domain? The role of stereotyping in constructing gendered learner identities. TESOL Quarterly, 38(3),
514–524.
Schmenk, B. (2009). Geschlechtsspezifisches Fremdsprachenlernen? Zur Konstruktion
geschlechtstypischer Lerner- und Lernbilder in der Fremdsprachenforschung (2nd
ed.). Stauffenburg Verlag.
Scorgie, K. (2010). Fostering empathy and understanding. A longitudinal case study
pedagogy. In C. Forlin (Ed.), Teacher education for inclusion: Changing paradigms
and innovative approaches (pp. 84–92). Routledge.
Skliar, O. S. (2007). Gender representations and gender bias in ELT textbooks published
in the Middle East: A case study of ELT textbooks published in Turkey and Iran.
Unpublished Masters thesis, Department of English Language Education, Middle
East Technical University.
Straub, R., Spöhrer, S., & Meimerstorf, L. (2019). Disziplinen- und phasenübergreifende Kooperation für die Lehrkräftebildung fruchtbar machen – Einsichten
aus dem Entwicklungsteam TIES im Kontext inklusiven Englischunterrichts.
In C. Blume, D. Gerlach, N. Benitt, S. Eßer, B. Roters, J. Springob, & T.
Schmidt (Eds.), Perspektiven inklusiven Englischunterrichts: Gemeinsam lehren und
lernen: Dokumentation zur Tagung vom 20. und 21. September 2018 an der
Leuphana Universität Lüneburg. Available at: https://inklusiver-englischunterri
cht.de/tagung-2018/. Accessed 2 Feb 2020.
Sunderland, J. (2000). Issues of language and gender in second and foreign language
education. Language Teaching, 33(4), 203–223.
208
C. Blume
Trautmann, M. (2010). Heterogenität – (k)ein Thema der Fremdsprachendidaktik?
In A. Köker (Ed.), Herausforderung Heterogenität: Ansätze und Weichenstellungen
[Barbara Koch-Priewe zum 60. Geburtstag] (pp. 52–64). Klinkhardt.
Way, P. (2016). LGBT inclusive materials in ELT: An investigation into teacher and
learner responses towards nonheteronormative materials within a UK-based context.
Unpublished masters thesis, School of English and Languages, University of
Surrey.
Special Education Needs
The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach
to Differentiation
Anssi Roiha and Jerker Polso
Introduction
Due to trends in inclusive education, teachers are often faced with increasingly diverse and heterogeneous classes that cannot be effectively taught
by simply following a one-size-fits-all approach. Consequently, recognising
students’ individuality and uniqueness in learning has started to receive more
attention in many educational contexts across the world. However, attending
to learners’ individual needs poses its challenges to teaching. Differentiation is
often presented as a solution to this predicament and is considered to be one
of the key features in inclusive education. In short, differentiation is a pervasive pedagogical approach that transcends all teaching (Tomlinson, 2014) and
that aims to accommodate and cope with the diversity of students (Suprayogi
et al., 2017). It encompasses a myriad of practices that teachers can use to
support the learning and even upbringing of each student.
This chapter endeavours to respond to the theme of diversity in English
language teaching through differentiation. Initially, we discuss the theoretical
underpinnings of differentiation. We then present our 5-dimensional model
A. Roiha (B)
University of Turku, Turku, Finland
J. Polso
University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_12
211
212
A. Roiha and J. Polso
of differentiation (hereafter 5D model) which we have created in the Finnish
educational context. Finally, we take a critical view of the model and reflect
on ways in which it could be used in less-resourced educational contexts.
Theoretical Background of the 5D Model
Differentiation is not a theory of its own but rather a synthesis of several
theoretical perspectives. The 5D model builds on the theoretical concepts of
constructivism, zone of proximal development , multiple intelligences and motivation. Differentiation can be seen to rely on the constructivist approach
to learning, according to which students actively construct their learning.
This individual process is influenced by their prior knowledge (Rauste-von
Wright et al., 2003). It is important that teachers are aware of students’
pre-understanding of a topic and approach their learning individually. Zone
of proximal development (hereafter ZPD) is a concept by Vygotsky (1978)
that relates to students’ individual learning. Vygotsky (1978) defines ZPD as
the distance between a student’s actual development level and their potential development level attainable under the guidance of their teachers. The
5D model advocates that teachers become aware of their students’ ZPD
to provide them with appropriate challenges. Therefore, in ideal circumstances, every student would always work on their individual ZPD. Gardner’s
(2008) theory of multiple intelligences suggests that human intelligence can
manifest in nine different forms. While suffering from the lack of empirical evidence, the theory nevertheless underscores the diversity of learners
and how teaching should cater for the needs of all students, which is also
one of the postulates of the 5D model. Also, motivation (e.g. Dörnyei &
Ushioda, 2013) underpins differentiation as differentiated teaching is based
on students’ interests. When students are interested in what they are learning,
they are also more inclined to face challenging learning situations (Nakamura
& Csikszentmihalyi, 2009).
One of the most influential conceptualisations of differentiation is that
of Tomlinson (2014) who defines differentiation as a proactive teaching
approach that endeavours to maximise each student’s learning. Tomlinson
(2014) argues that teachers can modify content, process, product or learning
environment based on students’ readiness, interests and learning profiles. By
content, Tomlinson (2014) refers to the aims students are expected to reach
and the materials used to achieve this. Process, in turn, relates to the types
of activities students will engage with to form an understanding of the topics
The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach …
213
discussed whereas product represents what students have learnt. Tomlinson’s
(2014) views of differentiation as a pervasive and student-centred teaching
approach are also underpinning the 5D model (Section “The 5D Model in
Practice”). However, the 5D model aims to offer a more concrete and tangible
instrument for implementing differentiation than Tomlinson’s (2014) more
theoretical conceptualisation.
Other scholars who have influenced the 5D model are Thousand et al.
(2007). They argue that ideally differentiation adheres to the universal design
for learning (hereafter UDL) approach. According to Thousand et al. (2007),
in order to differentiate, teachers need to gather information about the
students and based on that, proactively design the content, product and
process in their teaching. The UDL approach emphasises the importance
of getting to know one’s students and constantly revisiting one’s teaching.
In that way, the UDL creates a cycle in which gathering information
about the learners works as a premise. When differentiation is defined in
a broad sense (e.g. Tomlinson, 2014), it resembles UDL as they can both
be seen as proactive approaches in which teaching is made accessible for all
learners. Similarly, the 5D model perceives differentiation as an ongoing and
constantly evolving process. Like Thousand et al. (2007), we also want to
highlight the importance of knowing one’s students well as a starting point
of differentiation.
The 5D Model in Practice
Practitioners seem to understand differentiation somewhat differently and
find it challenging. Typically mentioned challenges include lack of time and
resources, large class sizes and lack of knowledge of effective differentiation
methods (e.g. Roiha, 2014; Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). Particularly novice
teachers often feel that they lack the appropriate knowledge to differentiate
purposefully (van Geel et al., 2019). The primary aim of the 5D model is to
provide both pre- and in-service teachers with an easy-to-use framework for
implementing differentiation.
The 5D model of differentiation is not a scientific framework but rather
a practical tool for differentiation. It relies on the notion that differentiation is implemented holistically in five dimensions of teaching which are
teaching arrangements, learning environment , teaching methods, support materials and assessment . The 5D model progresses from general to specific. First,
it is essential to ensure that the general teaching arrangements and learning
214
A. Roiha and J. Polso
Fig. 1 The 5-dimensional model of differentiation (Adapted from Roiha & Polso,
2020)
environment support the learning of each student before moving on to differentiating more specifically in teaching methods or with support materials.
Also assessment has a central role in differentiation. Only when the support
in all the other dimensions is in place can students’ learning be assessed in
a differentiated way. Assessment measures the students’ progress in relation
to their individual goals. It guides the teaching and gives vital information
to teachers in terms of differentiation. In the 5D model, each dimension
is informed by the students and their individual characteristics, such as
learning profile, self-esteem, interests, readiness, needs, motivation, personality
and history. The model is not tied to any specific subject but can be applied
in all education (Fig. 1).
The model has been studied using a small-scale survey with 40 Finnish
teachers (Laari et al., 2021). The study showed that teachers focused
predominantly on differentiation of teaching methods, learning environment
and assessment. The least employed dimension was teaching arrangements.
However, on average, all the dimensions received attention consolidating
the proposition that the 5D model covers the areas of differentiation in a
comprehensive way (Laari et al., 2021). Next, we elaborate on the different
dimensions of the 5D model and outline several differentiation practices in
each dimension with respect to English language teaching.
Dimension 1: Teaching Arrangements
The first dimension in the 5D model is teaching arrangements by which we
mean various macro-level differentiation practices that can be implemented
both within and between classes. In this section, we focus on flexible grouping,
The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach …
215
co-teaching, remedial teaching, learning assistants and part-time special-needs
education.
Flexible grouping is a teaching arrangement in which students are
temporarily grouped based on certain criteria such as learning abilities,
learning styles, social relationships or interests. Although the research results
on flexible grouping differ (e.g. Tieso, 2005), in our teaching experience,
we have found it to be an effective method to acknowledge the diversity
of learners. Flexible grouping does not aim at permanent homogeneous
groups. It is important that the teaching in the groups is differentiated and
tailored based on the students’ needs. The teacher can, for instance, group
the students based on their learning styles and instruct each group in a
more personalised way while the others are working on more mechanical and
independent activities.
Flexible grouping is a natural method to use when practising oral communication in English language. Sometimes students can be grouped based on
their interests, and at other times, based on their ability levels. The groups can
then engage in conversations about their preferred topics at an appropriate
level. For some students, topics or vocabulary can be given beforehand as
homework. In addition to interests and abilities, students can also be grouped
based on their learning preferences. One group can consist of students who
prefer to study a textbook chapter through drama while another group is
engaging with the chapter using computers. The idea of flexible grouping
is that the groups are not fixed but rather their composition is changed
frequently. The grouping should not be stigmatising, and it should not have a
negative effect on students’ learner self-image, which can easily happen with
permanent homogeneous grouping.
Another teaching arrangement, which pertains to flexible grouping, is coteaching. In the literature, the definition and practices of co-teaching vary
and concepts such as supportive teaching, parallel teaching, complementary
teaching or team teaching are often used interchangeably (e.g. Thousand
et al., 2006). By co-teaching in the 5D model we mean all forms of teaching
in which two or more teachers simultaneously teach in the same classroom.
Similarly to flexible grouping, the advantages of co-teaching have not been
indisputably proven. A few meta-analyses, however, seem to indicate that
co-teaching is a beneficial approach concerning students’ learning outcomes
(e.g. Murawski & Swanson, 2001; Scruggs et al., 2007). Positive results on
co-teaching have been found also in Finland (Ahtiainen et al., 2011). In
English lessons, the subject teacher can practise co-teaching with the classroom teacher or special-needs teacher. From the perspective of differentiation,
co-teaching enables the teacher to focus on individual students more which
216
A. Roiha and J. Polso
helps the teacher to know the students better and thus directs future differentiation. Students also benefit from both teachers’ expertise and the teaching
can be more versatile even when the class-size consequently increases. For
instance, the teacher who has a better knowledge of English can instruct a
grammar activity while the more artistically oriented teacher can go through
a topic using drama or visual arts.
Remedial teaching is another functional teaching arrangement. Its purpose
is to prevent and mitigate learning difficulties. Remedial teaching should be
provided to all learners who have (occasional) difficulties in learning English.
In Finland, the Basic Education Act (628/1998) obligates teachers to arrange
remedial teaching to all students who have temporarily fallen behind in
their studies. The most common way to implement remedial teaching is
to reactively provide additional guidance when certain difficulties have been
observed. However, it is often useful to provide remedial teaching proactively.
The teacher can go through a grammatical feature or a textbook chapter
in advance to pre-empt learning difficulties and provide a student with a
better grasp of the content covered in lessons. An alternative to traditional
remedial teaching is to arrange students’ access to different year-level English
lessons. In most syllabi, English follows a spiral structure, that is, certain
themes are covered in different grade levels in different breadth and depth.
For instance, a Grade 5 student who struggles with the language can join
the Grade 3 English lessons and consolidate their understanding of a certain
grammatical structure. Conversely, a student in need of extension can join a
higher grade level to receive extra challenges and more appropriate teaching.
If resources are scarce, older or high-performing students can be utilised
in remedial teaching. High-performing students teaching struggling peers
both strengthens the content knowledge of the high-performing student and
improves their social skills, while simultaneously serving as remedial teaching
for the weaker student.
Learning assistants provide a valuable resource for teachers in terms of
differentiation. Learning assistants are very common in Finland since in
2015, there were approximately 7500 learning assistants working in Finnish
schools. In 2018, there were around 2200 comprehensive schools (Grades
1–9), i.e. on average 3–4 learning assistants work in each Finnish school.
Learning assistants are usually educated professionals who can effectively
support the learning of both low and high achievers. Learning assistants also
enable the use of flexible grouping or co-teaching. As an example, learning
assistants can carry out a mechanical activity to the rest of the class while
the teacher is simultaneously instructing a small group of students who need
extra assistance.
The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach …
217
Part-time special-needs education is a Finnish idiosyncrasy, which we
would like to highlight as an excellent teaching arrangement enabling differentiation also in English language. Part-time special-needs education means
that a student receives temporary support from the special-needs teacher
either in-class or outside the classroom. Finland has a strong culture of special
education. In academic year 2017–2018, nearly a quarter of comprehensive
school students, i.e. 22%, received part-time special-needs education (Official
Statistics of Finland, 2018). It is even proposed that part-time special-needs
education has been an important factor behind Finland’s PISA success (Kivirauma & Ruoho, 2007). Similarly to remedial teaching, according to the
Basic Education Act (628/1998), a student who has difficulties in learning is
entitled to part-time special-needs education. Even though there is no track
record of the subjects in which part-time special-needs education is offered,
typically special-needs resources are allocated to academic subjects such as
languages. The struggling students can for instance cover a grammar topic
or textbook chapter in the guidance of the special-needs teacher. In Finland,
the special-needs teacher also periodically tests all the students to detect, for
example, dyslexia and to prevent students from developing a more severe
learning difficulty later on.
Dimension 2: Learning Environment
The second dimension in the 5D model relates to learning environment,
which we have broadly divided into physical and psycho-social environments. It
is important to pay attention to both of them, as they can have a significant
impact on students’ learning (Brooks, 2011; Yeager & Walton, 2011).
The physical learning environment needs to be based on the students’
needs. Differentiation is best practised in foreign language classrooms which
have places for a wide range of work, for instance, writing, reading, individual work and group work. The ideal classrooms are easily modifiable and
adaptable to different learning situations. In truly differentiated classrooms,
students do not necessarily have their own named places, but the current
place can be selected based on the type of work they are doing. As profound
differentiation is a whole school approach, different classrooms of the school
can be equipped differently. For example, one classroom can have a setting
that fosters group work while another one can have a lot of information technology equipment. In this way, teachers can also practise flexible grouping
and make use of the different classrooms more effectively.
When the general physical learning environment is in place, it may be
easier to modify the learning environment of an individual student. Students
218
A. Roiha and J. Polso
can, for instance, have a list of English sight words or high-frequency words
laminated on their desks or their seat can be next to a wall with other important language visuals. A conducive language classroom has a lot of support
material on display. Tourism and marketing material, such as posters with
slogans or tourist magazines offer a visual and easy access to written language.
Also comics or children’s books are practical. Naming and labelling everyday
objects or for example colours in the classroom might benefit students. It is
important to make sure that the material is clearly organised and on its place
and that the overall view of the classroom is calming rather than excessive.
Regarding the psycho-social learning environment, diversity and different
strategies can be normalised in differentiated classrooms. The teacher plays
an important role in creating such an atmosphere in the classroom. Differentiation entails that not all students need to work on the same tasks or in the
same way. It is important to verbalise the different practices and the reasons
behind them to the entire class. For instance, teachers can explain why some
students are using audio books and others computers instead of a textbook.
Talking openly about the different needs of students promotes the acceptance
of difference and normalises diversity.
Collaborative learning and the use of different groupings enhance positive classroom atmosphere. Particularly in English lessons, speaking often
causes anxiety in students. Therefore, it is important that the psycho-social
learning environment promotes students’ feeling of safety to speak and use
the language. Teachers can also support the active participation of individual
students by using small-groups and by paying attention to students’ affective
features when forming the groups.
Dimension 3: Teaching Methods
The third dimension of the 5D model covers teaching methods. Particularly suitable for differentiation are student-centred teaching approaches such
as inquiry- and phenomenon-based learning (e.g. Murdoch, 2015; Symeonidis & Schwarz, 2016). These approaches naturally direct students towards
transdisciplinary learning which is the current trend in many educational
contexts. Several teaching methods can be used within the framework of
the above approaches. For instance, projects allow for more individualised
and student-centred learning than traditional teaching. Projects also enable
to set individual learning objectives or to use collaborative learning. They
support students’ understanding of themselves as individual learners with
specific strengths. The working time with projects is often flexible. Some
students may need several weeks to complete their project, whereas others
The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach …
219
might finish theirs in only a week. The product of the project can also vary,
and it can take the form of a recording, video, poster or PowerPoint presentation based on students’ skills, abilities and preferences. With clear guidelines,
projects can be used to practise certain language features.
Another differentiated teaching method, which bears similarities to traditional project work (Stoller, 2002), is what we have labelled contractual project
work. The idea is that students set individual goals for themselves (in the
guidance of their teacher), plan their learning process and make a learning
schedule for themselves. Contractual project work calls for and also supports
self-directness and learner autonomy and has to be carefully scaffolded by the
teacher. The method is very independent and individual, and students can
progress at an individual pace. Contractual project work can be done either
individually or in pairs or groups. Both ways suit language teaching extremely
well. Students can, for example, decide which grammar form or vocabulary
they want to study in a given week and how to organise this.
Station work is a functional teaching method, in which students work in
different stations for a certain period of time. This method enables individual
progress as well as the use of peer support and collaborative learning. From
the standpoint of differentiation, the stations can contain differentiated work
and the groups can be formed with differentiation in mind. The teacher can
focus on supporting the stations or the groups that need more assistance while
the others can work more independently. Some stations can be dedicated to
scaffolded group discussions while others focus on reading or writing. There
can also be an information and communication technology (ICT) station
and game station in which students practise the language through play. The
time frame for this working method can range from one lesson to a week
depending on the extent of the stations.
Within all the above-presented methods, teachers can differentiate their
teaching focusing more specifically on the four main language skills: listening,
speaking, writing and reading. Listening comprehension can be differentiated in various ways. It is important that teachers pay attention to their own
speech. By altering the complexity of the language, the teacher can take all
learners into account better. A topic can first be introduced using complex
language and after that in a more simplified way. It is useful to support
important speech such as instructions or the main message, for instance, with
visuals, gestures or expressions. When listening to texts, students can be given
vocabulary lists with most important words or even the entire transcript of the
text which they can follow while listening. Under some circumstances it can
be justified to provide the students with the transcript both in English and in
220
A. Roiha and J. Polso
the students’ first language. The transcripts can also be given to students to
read at home before the listening activity at school.
In differentiated classrooms, the students who struggle with speaking can
be granted the opportunity to answer in single words or sometimes rely on
their first language, which is in line with the principle of translanguaging.
As a pedagogy, translanguaging refers to enabling learners to use their full
linguistic repertoire to make meaning (Nikula & Moore, 2019). Students
can also be given sample sentences or vocabulary lists to support them in
various conversation exercises. In general, students feel safer when they work
in small-groups (Pihko, 2007). The groups can occasionally be formed so that
the weaker learners are grouped together in order for the teacher to support
them more intensively. Students with difficulties speaking English can also
be allowed to record their reading or oral production at home and give the
recording to the teacher to be listened to at school.
Although the emphasis in foreign language learning tends to be on oral
production, writing is still an important skill that needs practising in English
lessons. Similarly to speaking, teachers can differentiate the writing objectives
of the students. Instead of requiring full sentence production, some students’
goal could simply be to produce single words in English. From the perspective
of differentiation, open-ended writing assignments are particularly suitable
to use as they can be completed according to the students’ individual abilities. When writing an essay, the high achievers can produce complex texts
with multiple subordinate clauses whereas the low achievers can only write in
simple sentences or even in bullet points.
Reading in a foreign language is a challenging and tedious task for many
learners. Teachers can take several measures to alleviate this process. Firstly, it
is important to provide students with texts that are at an appropriate level for
them. With low-achieving readers, common texts often need simplification.
Teachers can shorten and simplify the texts for instance by replacing difficult
words with easier synonyms or by deleting the subordinate clauses that are
not essential to the text. Teachers can also make annotations to the text or
underline, bold, italicise or translate the key words and phrases. Students can
also be given glossaries or word lists to support their reading. Sometimes these
can be made by a high achiever as a differentiated activity. Simplified texts can
be used also in the years to come, which will save time for further preparation.
Often it is good to pay attention to visual aspects of the text (e.g. font size,
subheadings, diagrams) and to teach reading strategies for the students. One
can also utilise students’ own texts which better engages them in learning.
The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach …
221
Dimension 4: Support Materials
The penultimate dimension of the 5D model is support materials which
can be used to aid students’ learning. English language classrooms may offer
robust support if they are equipped with plenty of language-related materials that provoke students’ interest in the language such as games, maps,
posters, magazines and books in English. Individual student’s learning can
be supported with a variety of tools depending on the student’s needs.
For instance, for students with Attention Deficit (Hyperactivity) Disorder
features, reducing stimuli by using partitions, noise-cancelling headphones
or even wearing a hood or a cap in the lesson can make them concentrate on
learning. Likewise, for example, seating cushions or structuring one’s work
with an hourglass or a time timer can help to focus more actively.
Communication is a crucial part of language learning. Concurrently,
speaking and especially English pronunciation is often the most challenging
part of language learning for many students. Sometimes students can have
difficulties with their oral motor functions, particularly if the phonemes of
one’s first language differ a lot from the English phonemes. There are a variety
of practical tools to support and direct students’ pronunciation. For example,
a mirror can be used for this purpose. With the mirror, students can observe
the position of their tongue, for example during sounds /θ/ (e.g. thing) and
/ð/ (e.g. other). Another useful way to demonstrate the correct pronunciation, keeping safety measures in mind, is to use a candle and have the
students observe how the flame flickers when pronouncing certain sounds.
Students can also use digital devices to record and listen to their own speech
and compare it to a model recording. Video recordings are an excellent tool
also in practising public performance and presentations with more advanced
language learners.
ICT in general offers a wealth of possibilities for differentiation. Some
students can use computers and headphones to listen to the texts multiple
times while others carry on with the lesson. Audio recordings of the texts can
be given to low achievers before the lessons so they can familiarise themselves
with the texts in advance. The students who feel anxious about speaking in
front of the class can record their speech on their phones at home and play it
at school. For writing, most computer writing programmes have a spell-check
function that highlights spelling mistakes and guides the students’ production. There is also an abundance of online exercises available that can be used
in differentiation for different students.
222
A. Roiha and J. Polso
Dimension 5: Assessment
The final dimension of the 5D model is assessment, which guides students’
learning more than any other factor (Hayward, 2012). For that reason, it is
pivotal that differentiation also extends to assessment. In Finland, differentiation is very much embedded in assessment as the Finnish National Core
Curriculum for Basic Education (2014) states that ‘even mild learning difficulties and any shortcomings in the students’ skills in the language of instruction […] should be taken into account when planning and implementing
assessment and demonstration situations’ (Section 6.2).
Assessment is often roughly divided into pre-assessment, formative assessment and summative assessment. They all have different purposes, but similar
methods can be used in all of them. To ascertain students’ prior knowledge
and level of ability, teachers must utilise pre-assessment which is a prerequisite of effective differentiation. Only by knowing the students’ current level,
teachers can plan and implement their teaching purposefully. Based on the
students’ pre-knowledge, individual goals can be set and their progress can
later be assessed in relation to these goals. Formative assessment can also
be translated as assessment for learning as its function is predominantly to
support and guide students in their learning process. Summative assessment,
on the other hand, means assessment of learning and is usually implemented
at the end of a teaching period (Harlen, 2012).
In English language teaching, multiple assessment methods can be used in
all of the above-mentioned forms of assessment. Too often teachers still tend
to rely on a written exam at the end of a unit. In accordance with the 5D
model of differentiation, assessment should expand also to other methods
of assessment, such as portfolios, learning journals, presentations, projects,
homework or pedagogical discussions. If a teacher chooses to use exams as
the central means of assessment, it is important that the exams and the entire
exam situation is differentiated. For low achievers, it is beneficial to limit the
content they need to learn and create the exams accordingly.
That way the students do not need to revise the entire course book but
only the parts they will be tested on. Other ways to take students’ individuality into account is to provide them with individual exams which have
questions that are at an appropriate level. For instance, the learners who
struggle with English can have exams that contain more recognition instead
of production and application exercises. Students will also have the opportunity to demonstrate their learning orally which is often in line with the
objectives of teaching. That is, typically the primary goal is to learn how to
orally communicate in the language while the exams often focus mostly on
The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach …
223
assessing reading and writing. During the exam situation, students should
also be provided with the assistance that they require. This could entail extra
time, added teacher assistance or even a group or take-home exam.
Self-assessment is emphasised also in differentiation. The European
Language Portfolio (hereafter ELP) is a good example of differentiated selfassessment in foreign languages. In it, the learners reflect on their language
learning and intercultural experiences. The ELP consists of a language passport, language biography and dossier (Council of Europe, n.d.). Each learner
can work on the ELP according to their individual abilities and it can take
the form the learner wants, thus promoting individuality and differentiated
working culture.
It is important to keep in mind that not all students need to be assessed in
the same way or even at the same time of the learning process. Some students
can benefit from a formative pedagogical discussion halfway the unit whereas
for the others, the teacher can rely on them progressing in their learning as
expected. Similarly, even though the majority of the class can demonstrate
their learning with a written exam, some students can be given the option
to do so with a recording or video. Differentiated assessment methods do
not automatically mean differentiated goals or individualised curriculum. In
general, students need to be given the chance to be tested at their own level
rather than making them take a test that they will fail.
Conclusion
This chapter addressed differentiation in English language teaching. We have
endeavoured to demonstrate how the 5D model can serve as an exemplar
for the implementation of differentiation in various educational contexts.
The model has been created in the Finnish education system and therefore
some of the practices described in this chapter may not be feasible in other
contexts as such. However, it is important to bear in mind that the model
only provides a framework for differentiation and the various differentiation
strategies in each dimension can and should vary according to the context.
For example, teachers can use various assessment and teaching methods, as
long as they are approached from the perspective of differentiation. The
dimensions of the model are also emphasised differently in various contexts
depending on the resources available and the needs of the students. In some
schools, it is possible to implement very systematic and extensive differentiation with teaching arrangements, while in others differentiation focuses more
on teaching methods and support materials. The main purpose of our model
224
A. Roiha and J. Polso
is to foster a mindset of differentiation whereby one uses the differentiation
practices feasible in one’s own school setting. For instance, with regard to
support material, their purpose is to facilitate students’ learning. Therefore, it
is not necessary to use a professional seat cushion to help concentrate if the
student’s own pillow serves the same purpose.
We acknowledge that the lack of time poses its challenges to differentiation. Our model is meant to provide a wide range of ideas on how to
differentiate in several dimensions. In an ideal situation, all the dimensions
should receive equal attention but this is not always possible in practice.
Therefore, we encourage teachers to focus first on one or two dimensions
and start to gradually build their toolkit of differentiation practices. Moreover, differentiation is partly a value judgement; teachers must decide how
much time they spend on certain things. It is also important to acknowledge
different levels of differentiation. If teachers adopt differentiation as a part of
their teaching philosophy, they approach all teaching with students’ individuality in mind and use small-scale differentiation practices, such as extra time
or differentiated homework, flexibly and spontaneously.
We argue that effective differentiation requires a change in the way traditional education is perceived. At a school level, differentiation calls for a more
collaborative working culture in which teachers and other professionals truly
cooperate. At the classroom level, not all students need to work on the same
tasks, in the same way or at the same time. For the 5D model to yield the best
outcome, it is equally important to designate resources for differentiation.
For instance, co-teaching or support materials require financial investment.
This also requires commitment and participation from the school administration. We believe that the 5D model can respond to student diversity
and provide English language teachers with tools to face heterogeneous classrooms. Profound differentiation helps each learner to study in the mainstream
class and to reach their maximum potential in English language learning.
Suggested Further Reading
Peterson, J. M., & Hittie, M. M. (2010). Inclusive teaching. The journey
towards effective schools for all learners. Boston: Pearson Education.
This book discusses inclusion thoroughly and from several viewpoints.
The book also provides a lot of practical examples of how inclusion can be
supported in schools.
Roiha, A., & Polso, J. (2020). How to succeed in differentiation? The Finnish
approach. Woodbridge: John Catt Educational Ltd.
The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach …
225
This book discusses the 5D model in more detail and offers more concrete
ways to differentiate one’s teaching.
Tomlinson, C. A., & Moon, T. N. (2013). Assessment and student success in a
differentiated classroom. Alexandria: ASCD.
This book focuses on differentiated assessment which is a topic that challenges many teachers. The book is well structured and covers several aspects
of differentiation such as pre-assessment, ongoing assessment and summative
assessment.
Engagement Priorities
• Teachers often find differentiation challenging. What challenges can you
identify for successful differentiation? How could you personally tackle
these challenges?
• In your teaching, do you mostly focus on supporting the learners who
have learning difficulties or the learners who need extra challenges? Can
you come up with ways to also support the other end of the continuum?
• Can you think of differentiation methods which would benefit all students
in the classroom?
• When reflecting on the 5D model, do you find it to be a useful and tangible
approach to differentiation in your respective country and educational
context? Why/why not?
References
Ahtiainen, R., Beirad, M., Hautamäki, J., Hilasvuori, T., & Thuneberg, H.
(2011). Samanaikaisopetus On Mahdollisuus. Tutkimus Helsingin Pilottikoulujen
Uudistuvasta Opetuksesta. Helsinki Department of Education.
Basic Education Act. (628/1998). Available at: https://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaanno
kset/1998/en19980628.pdf. Accessed 24 Jan 2020.
Brooks, D. C. (2011). Space matters: The impact of formal learning environments
on student learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 42(5), 719–726.
Council of Europe. (n.d.). What is the ELP? Available at: https://www.coe.int/en/
web/portfolio/introduction. Accessed 21 Jan 20.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2013). Teaching and researching motivation (2nd ed.).
Routledge.
Finnish National Core Curriculum for Basic Education. (2014). (4th ed.). Helsinki:
Finnish National Board of Education.
226
A. Roiha and J. Polso
Gardner, H. (2008). Multiple intelligences: New horizons. Basic Books.
Harlen, W. (2012). On the relationship between assessment for formative and
summative purposes. In J. Gardner (Ed.), Assessment and learning (pp. 87–102).
Sage.
Hayward, L. (2012). Assessment and learning: The learner’s perspective. In J.
Gardner (Ed.), Assessment and learning (pp. 125–139). Sage.
Kivirauma, J., & Ruoho, K. (2007). Excellence through special education? Lessons
from the Finnish school reform. International Review of Education, 53(3), 283–
302.
Laari, A., Lakkala, S., & Uusiautti, S. (2021). “For the whole grade’s common good
and based on the student’s own current situation”: Differentiated teaching and
the choice of methods among Finnish teachers. Early Child Development and
Care, 191(4), 598–611.
Murawski, W. W., & Swanson, H. L. (2001). A meta-analysis of co-teaching
research. Remedial and Special Education, 22(5), 258–267.
Murdoch, K. (2015). The power of inquiry: Teaching and learning with curiosity,
creativity and purpose in the contemporary classroom. Seastar Education.
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2009). Flow theory and research. In S. J.
Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive psychology (2nd
ed., pp. 195–206). Oxford University Press.
Nikula, T., & Moore, P. (2019). Exploring translanguaging in CLIL. International
Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 22(2), 237–249.
Official Statistics of Finland. (2018). Special education [e-publication]. Available at: https://www.stat.fi/til/erop/2018/erop_2018_2019-06-19_tie_001_en.
html. Accessed 21 Jan 2020.
Pihko, M. K. (2007). Minä, Koulu ja Englanti. Vertaileva Tutkimus Englanninkielisen
Sisällönopetuksen ja Perinteisen Englannin Opetuksen Affektiivisista Tuloksista.
University of Jyväskylä.
Rauste-von Wright, M., von Wright, J., & Soini, T. (2003). Oppiminen ja Koulutus.
WSOY.
Roiha, A. (2014). Teachers’ views on differentiation in content and language integrated learning (CLIL): Perceptions, practices and challenges. Language and
Education, 28(1), 1–18.
Roiha, A., & Polso, J. (2020). How to succeed in differentiation? The Finnish approach.
John Catt Educational.
Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & McDuffie, K. A. (2007). Co-teaching in inclusive classrooms: A metasynthesis of qualitative research. Exceptional Children,
73(4), 392–416.
Stoller, F. (2002). Project work: A means to promote language and content. In J.
Richards & W. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in language teaching: An anthology
of current practice (pp. 107–119). Cambridge University Press.
Suprayogi, M. N., Valcke, M., & Godwin, R. (2017). Teachers and their implementation of differentiated instruction in the classroom. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 67 (2), 291–301.
The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach …
227
Symeonidis, V., & Schwarz, J. F. (2016). Phenomenon-based teaching and learning
through the pedagogical lenses of phenomenology: The recent curriculum reform
in Finland. Forum Oświatowe, 28(2), 31–47.
Thousand, J. S., Villa, R. A., & Nevin, A. I. (2006). The many faces of collaborative
planning and teaching. Theory into Practice, 45 (3), 239–248.
Thousand, J. S., Villa, R. A., & Nevin, A. I. (2007). Differentiating instruction:
Collaborative planning and teaching for universally designed learning. Corwin Press.
Tieso, C. (2005). The effects of grouping practices and curricular adjustments on
achievement. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 29 (1), 60–89.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2014). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all
learners (2nd ed.). ASCD.
Tomlinson, C. A., & Imbeau, M. B. (2010). Leading and managing a differentiated
classroom. ASCD.
van Geel, M., Keuning, T., Frèrejean, J., Dolmansb, D., van Merriënboerb, J., &
Visscher, A. J. (2019). Capturing the complexity of differentiated instruction.
School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 30 (1), 51–67.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological
processes. Harvard University Press.
Yeager, D. S., & Walton, G. M. (2011). Social-psychological interventions in
education: They’re not magic. Review of Educational Research, 81(2), 267–301.
Uncovering Diverse Perspectives
and Responses to Working with English
Learners with Special Educational Needs
Robert J. Lowe, Matthew Y. Schaefer,
and Matthew W. Turner
Introduction
Students with special educational needs (SEN) are part of the diverse fabric
of ELT classes, and this is increasingly being recognised by the field. This
can be observed through the designation of inclusion as a key concept in
ELT Journal (Stadler-Heer, 2019), and the publication of dedicated practical
teacher resource manuals for teaching SEN learners (e.g., Kormos, 2020).
However, while SEN support in mainstream education is well-established
(Cotterill, 2019), and research has been carried out regarding the language
learning of SEN students (Enjelvin, 2009), little attention has been paid
to the professional development of language teachers who work with SEN
students. This chapter attempts to address this through an exploration of
R. J. Lowe (B)
Department of English Communication, Tokyo Kasei University, Tokyo, Japan
e-mail: robert-l@tokyo-kasei.ac.jp
M. Y. Schaefer
Center for Language Education and Research, Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan
e-mail: myschaefer@sophia.ac.jp
M. W. Turner
Faculty of International Tourism Management, Toyo University, Tokyo, Japan
e-mail: turner@toyo.jp
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_13
229
230
R. J. Lowe et al.
five English-as-a-foreign-language teachers’ pedagogical responses to teaching
learners with a range of SEN in a Japanese university English programme.
In Japanese higher education, English is often a required subject of study.
In the past, these compulsory classes were usually offered on a departmentby-department basis and were often taught by part-time lecturers. However,
an increasing number of universities are developing programmes with large
numbers of instructors, who are tasked with teaching English to the entire
student body. These programmes may be taught primarily by non-Japanese
staff, or, increasingly, by a mix of Japanese and non-Japanese instructors.
What these instructors most often have in common, however, is their
professional training. The majority of instructors on courses such as the one
investigated in this chapter received their professional training from institutions in the so-called West, most commonly in the form of a masters
in applied linguistics or Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
(TESOL). While such qualifications are considered standard in the field, they
generally do not include courses on teaching students with special educational needs (Abdallah, 2017; Sowell & Sugisaki, 2020), which are a common
feature of more standardised and mainstream government-approved teacher
education programmes, such as those accredited by the Japanese Ministry
of Education (Carpenter, 2020). The five teachers included in this study,
although highly qualified, shared a lack of official SEN training, and are thus
reflective of many ELT professionals around the world.
While there are various definitions related to special needs and learning
differences, for this chapter we have chosen one used by the Department for
Education and Skills in the UK, which considers SEN to be when a student
“has a significantly greater difficulty in learning than the majority of others
of the same age, or has a disability which prevents or hinders him or her from
making use of facilities of a kind generally provided for others of the same
age” (DfE, 2015, p. 16). We have chosen this definition because it is broad
enough to cover conditions such as sensory and/or physical impairments, as
well as cognition and learning needs, communication and interaction difficulties, and social, emotional and mental health difficulties (Connor, 2017).
We define inclusive education as approaches to teaching which make the class
accessible to students regardless of their abilities and needs.
In 2016, the Japanese government implemented the Act on the Elimination of Disability Discrimination, which suggested that higher education establishments provide reasonable accommodations for SEN students
(Boeltzig-Brown, 2017). This has helped encourage a growing awareness of
SEN issues within Japanese universities, with some institutions implementing
Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and Responses …
231
support frameworks aimed at achieving more inclusive education (Young &
Schaefer, 2019). Examples of these policies include more formal identification of specific SEN diagnoses and improved awareness raising and sharing
of information among teachers. Despite this, given that the majority of practitioners’ teacher education did not include a focus on SEN support, they
may have concerns about their ability to provide a suitable learning environment for SEN learners (Kasparek & Turner, 2020; Lowe, 2016). However, as
yet little is known about the nature of language teachers’ beliefs and practices
in light of these changes.
In this chapter, we first provide some background on the study and define
key concepts such as teacher cognitions, before introducing the teachers
whose experiences are discussed. We then draw on the reflective accounts of
the five teachers to examine both their pedagogical responses to teaching their
SEN learners, and the changes in their beliefs that resulted from this experience. We hope that the experiences described here will resonate with those
of readers, and will help teachers to consider how they could make their own
classes accessible to the diverse group of students who are gathered together
within the broad label of SEN.
Our Study
This chapter considers teacher cognitions; that is, the “unobservable cognitive
dimension of teaching” (Borg, 2003, p. 81). Teacher cognitions encompass beliefs, knowledge, assumptions, attitudes regarding students, teaching
contexts and instructional approaches. Teachers’ cognitions are influenced
by their initial training, contextual factors related to their specific teaching
settings, professional development activities, and classroom practice (Borg,
2003). Previous studies about supporting SEN learners have demonstrated
that teachers’ attitudes and stereotypes can impact upon student performance in school (Hornstra et al., 2010; Smith, 2013), with other studies
focussing on the position of language teachers’ sense of preparedness and
self-efficacy (Nijakowska, 2019). There is little research, however, on the
relationship between teacher cognitions and the instructing of SEN learners
in EFL settings. As such, this chapter explores how assumptions and prior
beliefs may influence approaches taken by practitioners when teaching SEN
students, and also how these experiences may subsequently have influenced
their developing beliefs, knowledge and attitudes. The project was guided by
the following questions:
232
R. J. Lowe et al.
• To what extent did teachers feel prepared to support SEN learners, and
what were their initial perspectives on teaching SEN learners?
• What approaches did they take in creating an inclusive environment for
their learners, and how did their perspectives change?
We selected a case study approach to navigate these questions. Case studies
are in-depth analyses of issues within contexts that attempt to draw meanings and understand issues from the perspective of participants in a specific
setting (Harrison et al., 2017; Stake, 1994). Applied to teacher education,
case studies derive insightful pedagogical principles by presenting stories of
contexts that help reach more poignant understandings of issues (Duff,
2019). We utilised reflective writing to learn about our case, which Borg
(2006) describes as a process whereby teachers express written thoughts “in
relation to particular topics and experiences” (p. 293). Participants’ retrospective accounts included their teaching background and any previous
training or experience with regard to SEN, in order to understand how their
cognitions changed as a result of the experiences detailed here.
The Participants and Context
The five participants were selected due to their experiences working with
SEN learners on an English communication programme at a private university in Tokyo, Japan. This was a required large-scale programme for first-year
students, employing forty-two lecturers, with course aims including the development of discussion skills, communication strategies, and spoken fluency.
The course followed a strongly unified curriculum, meaning that lesson aims,
methodology, and assessment measures were all standardised. Students were
assessed chiefly through their ability to appropriately employ set phrases
that demonstrated performance of target discussion behaviour (e.g. “I think
that…” as a way to introduce an opinion). The set phrases included both
statement stems and questions (e.g. “What do you think?” to ask for an
opinion), as well as utterances for negotiation of meaning (e.g. “I’m sorry
but I don’t understand”) so that students were expected to remain active
throughout their discussions, which could last up to twenty minutes.
Support for instructors assigned to teach SEN students was provided
by programme managers (PMs) and administration staff, with information
about their students’ needs and advice about possible accommodations given.
Regular meetings in which instructors would explain how their students were
Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and Responses …
233
responding to the course, any adjustments made, and whether or not other
students’ learning experience was being affected were also organised.
The multiple participants represent a cross section of voices, in terms of
teaching experience and background, combining to form a singular case that
details the diversity of actions and perspectives of SEN accommodation in
a university programme. This table provides some background information
about the participants: Table 1.
The study also considers diversity in terms of the type of SEN students
the instructors taught and, therefore, the range of accommodations applied.
The following are summaries of this information for each participant (Note:
the participants are named using pseudonyms). However, it should be
remembered that accommodations for SEN students, while to some extent
generalisable, are also specific to individuals. What works for one hearingimpaired student, for example, may not work for another, and so all of these
examples should be seen as illustrative rather than guidelines for how to
accommodate certain types of SEN.
Ashley
I taught a student with (severe) autism and a stutter […] He was hardworking
and very focused on using English only in our lessons, but he required extensive
preparation time to help him comfortably participate in a discussion.
He requested and received 1-to-1 instruction […]. It was recommended to
follow the same script every week and sit side-by-side. I allowed him prep time
Table 1 Participants’ background information
Pseudonym
Ashley
Celine
Doug
Johnny
Yumi
Postgraduate
qualification
Other related
qualifications
Prior teaching
experience
SEN
Guidance?
MA TESOL
(US)
MA TESOL
(UK)
BA Linguistics
(US)
TESL
Certificates
Nothing
reported
Yes, in-house
training
MEd TESOL
(US)
MA TESOL
(US)
BA Education
(US)
BA English (US)
MA TESOL
(US)
Japanese High
School
teaching
license
University ESL
teaching
Teaching
assistant in
Japan
Peace Corps in
China
University
EFL/ESL
teaching and
administration
EAP/ESP
teaching
Yes, limited
Nothing
reported
Yes—part of
license
234
R. J. Lowe et al.
between activities and modified some activities, such as the 3-2-1 Fluency [this
is a speaking fluency activity, adapted from Maurice (1983), in which students
repeat the same monologue three times with increasing time pressure]. For
Fluency, he would write out his responses to the questions before class and then
just practise reading and re-reading them for speed […] Before each discussion
he had 10 min to silently prepare […].
At the start of each lesson we would review the lesson plan together. At the
end of each lesson I would give him the following week’s lesson plan so he
would be aware of what would happen.
Celine
This student was almost completely blind. He would use a braille machine to
help support his studies since he could not read visual text. He used the braille
machine in order to read and use the course textbook, but it took more time
for him to retrieve and locate information than it would for other students
using their coursebook.
[H]e was responsive to feedback about his discussion skills, […] had strong
self-initiative [and] would often memorise prompts or topic questions to aid
his learning and participation in class activities. Nevertheless, he sometimes
struggled to know when to ask a question or take initiative in the discussion,
and instead would wait to be called upon in the discussion rather than to
initiate a topic himself.
[W]e had to make several accommodations in the class. First, the quizzes were
printed in braille, and I would record his answers to the quiz personally while
the other students took the written quiz. We also [made] braille flashcards of
the phrases learnt in class to facilitate his acquisition of the new language. As
for giving instructions, everything was done orally and presented in advance as
a class. For instance, if we were to discuss three questions in an activity, myself
or other students would read out loud all three questions before starting the
activity. In the feedback portion of the lesson, I would usually have the students
ask each other questions in pairs or in a group about their strengths or points
to improve in the discussion. […]. I took the approach that each activity would
have to be simple enough in order for it to be easily remembered through quick
verbal explanation.
Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and Responses …
235
Doug
I taught one student who used a wheelchair. I was informed before the first
lesson that I should adapt my lessons to avoid requiring him to move around
in the classroom. […]
[…] I modified the lesson so that other students would move around him for
alternative groupings. This was a minor accommodation, and one that I also
used for students who were temporarily injured or otherwise had difficulty
moving around.
I taught another student who didn’t verbalise in English or in any other
language. [Doug taught this student one-to-one after she had failed the regular
‘group’ version of the course.] This seemed related to severe anxiety. She seemed
somewhat passive in that she did not initiate communication, but she seemed
active in the sense of processing everything and responding according to her
interests and needs.
We [i.e. Doug, the programme managers, and co-teachers] converted all the
speaking tasks into real-time writing tasks. I also took advice from previous
teachers about sitting side-by-side with the student, using a small whiteboard
and phrase cards, and being careful about eye contact and body language while
waiting for the student’s response. […] I was especially sensitive to reading the
student’s emotional state and tried to calibrate my subtle behaviours and the
overall classroom atmosphere to co-create a sense of safety.
Johnny
The student, [with] auditory processing disorder, [had] a lot of anxiety around
learning a language due to his disability […] The student [was] visibly nervous
in class. He [did] better in pairs than in groups.
The main accommodation here [was] to spread pairs and groups out across a
large classroom, to which this class was assigned with this learner in mind. I
[…] also [used] guided discovery and dialogue comparisons for target language
presentations as these have a more visual/reading component, and when
students discuss these they tend to do so more quietly than when they discuss a
test-teach-test […] prompt. I […] also [tried] to be sensitive and encouraging
with respect to the student’s anxiety.
Yumi
[The student’s] body was half-paralysed because of a vaccine. She was in a
wheelchair and had difficulty writing.
236
R. J. Lowe et al.
She was passionate about learning and was hardworking (though she said it
took some time for her to start accepting her condition and get the passion for
learning back).
I asked other students to move so that she did not need to move much.
However, when she said she could or when she wanted to, I also let her
move in class, too. I made sure that she had enough time to write when she
worked individually, or increased more pair speaking preparation time (instead
of writing) when they generated ideas for discussions.
Participant Reflections
Questions were shared with the participants via email to structure and
guide their reflective writing. The questions encouraged the recounting of
different stages of supporting SEN learners, from pre-experience perspectives, to teaching experiences, through to post-experience perspectives. The
emergent themes have been collated and synthesised into paragraphs.
Pre-experience Perspectives
When asked about their general attitude towards teaching SEN students, all
agreed that some kind of accommodation should be provided in EFL classrooms. Johnny and Doug explicitly said that they had a general attitude of
inclusivity regarding SEN issues, although both admitted that this was somewhat vague. As Doug put it, “my attitude was that teachers should try to
teach the actual students in their classroom as well as they can”. However,
they also acknowledged that they primarily thought of physical disabilities
when first approaching the issue. Johnny revealed that his prior beliefs came
mainly out of his experiences in the service industry, where he had to consider
how customers “should be able to enjoy a meal in a barrier-free environment”. Doug acknowledged that he held a “deficit” view, i.e. teachers should
teach the majority of students to certain standards, but it is understood that
not all students would reach this standard and that “some university courses
weren’t for everyone”. Therefore, his attitude to SEN students was focused on
how disabilities were connected to “standards” in relation to target learning
outcomes. He saw how mobility and sensory issues were unconnected to
these standards, and therefore appropriate accommodations were relatively
easy to identify, while developmental or cognitive issues were strongly related
to these standards, and therefore it seemed unrealistic to expect students with
Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and Responses …
237
such disabilities to meet them. Similarly, Ashley expressed general apprehension at not knowing the feasibility of accommodating SEN learners while still
meeting the curricula aims.
Celine, Yumi, and Ashley strongly implied that they agreed with inclusive
approaches. Celine expressed support for systems in which teachers, students,
administration, and, when applicable, the students’ parents co-create and
oversee a formalised plan for adapting courses for students’ needs. She also
said that teachers should be provided with consultation, as necessary, to
“prevent burnout, and give the teacher an opportunity to talk through any
difficulties or concerns, and allow for some oversight on classroom teaching”. Both Celine and Yumi stressed the importance of communicating with
SEN learners at the beginning of courses to better understand their individual
circumstances and needs. Celine added that teachers should also educate
themselves generally about students’ particular disabilities. Yumi felt that
teachers’ abilities to provide appropriate accommodations included letting
students do what they could or want to do, but not risk overly pushing them.
She also saw it important “to communicate with other students [and] support
their understanding of what support to provide as a classmate” and to give
equal attention to all class members.
The teachers were also asked to reflect on their feelings upon learning that
they would have a SEN student in their class. There were initially mixed
feelings, with slightly unfavourable trends. Doug and Johnny expressed both
positive and negative thoughts, with Yumi and Ashley focusing only on
concerns. Regarding his student with mobility issues, Doug had no worries.
In keeping with his general attitude to such students, he felt that making
the necessary adjustments to his classroom practice would be “an interesting
and novel challenge, especially because it was not a particularly difficult challenge”. For his student with developmental issues, he had more concerns. He
said that he was initially confused about how a non-verbal student could
complete a speaking course. However, he was somewhat assured by the
amount of collaborative planning among PMs and fellow teachers, and their
willingness to make significant adjustments towards creating an engaging
course for the student, thus allowing her to use language in a relatively
authentic way. However, another concern that Doug had was that the adapted
course may not be successful and feature high levels of discomfort in the
classroom for him and the student. He also worried that it “might not end
up being educational for the student and instead just be a frustrating hoop
to jump through”. Ashley had similar concerns as well as self-doubts, due
to her lack of training, asking herself if she was “the best qualified person
for this student?” Johnny was pleased to be given the opportunity to help a
238
R. J. Lowe et al.
student and to try something new, but also admitted to feeling “burdened by
the extra work” he might have had. Celine’s concerns were very much tied
to her general attitude—she wanted to know as much as possible about her
students’ individual needs to effectively communicate with them, and have
someone to discuss how to design appropriate accommodations with.
Experiences
When asked if, in retrospect, there were any accommodations the participants
wish they had made, some interesting responses emerged. Several expressed
regret that they had not spoken directly with students about their needs or
classroom experiences. Yumi noted: “I had a chance to talk to the student
more after they completed the […] course […] but I wish I had had that
conversation at an earlier stage”. Doug similarly stated: “I wish that I had
taken more time to check in with him (and other students) about his experience of the course and if any other adjustments would be helpful”. In general,
it seems that these teachers grew an awareness of the need for direct student
dialogue about their needs.
The mix of practical concerns with those focused more on the participants’ attitudes towards their students was also reflected in their suggestions
of how their experiences could benefit others in the future. Some suggested
that attitudinal adjustments were needed. Johnny, for example, said that
teachers should be as “helpful and patient” as possible, while others made
more specific recommendations. For example, Yumi expressed regret that she
had focused “too much” on the student’s disability, and this prevented her
from seeing the student in a similar way to other class members. Doug gave
perhaps the most wide ranging response:
…the principles of universal design seem really helpful for improving one’s
overall teaching for all students. Students with disabilities can help us clarify
how we can teach with more sensitivity to our actual students’ actual needs.
The accommodations that we make for students with identified disabilities
can also helpfully inform our accommodations for other students. Here, I’d
point to the example of using similar mobility accommodations for temporarily
injured students or students simply feeling bad.
This statement highlights ways in which Doug’s experiences provided an
opportunity for him to fundamentally reconsider his classroom practice;
moving from the more formalised disabilities of the students to the individual
differences of all the students in a class.
Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and Responses …
239
Finally, participants were asked whether their experiences matched prior
expectations. As noted earlier, participants mentioned having somewhat negative expectations in advance, marked by uncertainty around their ability to
offer SEN support. However, reflecting on their experiences, this trepidation seems to have transformed into confidence. Johnny suggested that his
concerns were “unfounded”, possibly because “this fear motivated me to think
very carefully about how to best teach the students”. Celine reported the experience as being “interesting and pleasurable” because the student was “keen”
and worked well with other class members. Doug similarly noted that despite
concerns, he finally felt he was “simply teaching”, and further stated that
while the “normality” of teaching these students challenged his assumptions,
in retrospect he thought it strange that he would have “expected anything
different”.
Post-experience perspectives
The teachers were divided into those who felt a significant shift in attitudes
after their experience of teaching SEN learners (Ashley, Johnny, and Doug)
and those who felt a minor one (Celine and Yumi). Johnny reflected on two
key points. First of all, reflecting through his subsequent position as a PM,
he clearly felt that his negative reaction when he was asked to teach a SEN
student (“burdened by the extra work”) was erroneous:
I know it’s not a great reaction, and it’s one I try to discourage among the
teachers I supervise, but I did have that reaction myself initially. As a manager
I think it’s important to acknowledge that teachers may feel this way and then
help them get over it by viewing the situation as a whole-class issue rather
than an individual student issue. I think this can help reduce this reflexive
discrimination to be more goal-oriented and, ultimately, lead to better inclusive
practice as a matter of course.
Johnny became aware that hidden disabilities (i.e. cognitive or developmental
issues) necessitate more numerous and more complex accommodations than
physical disabilities, representing a shift in focus from his prior perspective.
This also led him to realise how unaware he may have been of disabilities
previous students of his may have had. Overall, the experience raised important issues for Johnny in terms of the need for better pre-service teacher
training regarding SEN accommodation and for greater inclusivity with as
wide a range of disabilities in mind as possible.
Ashley was generally impressed by the programme’s framework to provide
appropriate support. This helped her reflect on the importance of taking into
240
R. J. Lowe et al.
account context, issues of visibility, and that teachers assigned SEN duties
“demonstrate enough experience in teaching in general, enough maturity, and
enough flexibility and organisation to handle such a special circumstance”.
Ashley also came to feel that teacher attitudes towards teaching SEN students
as being “beyond their pay grade” were potentially damaging and should be
tackled. The experience led her to believe in the importance of having teacher
support networks, as this was a key factor in alleviating prior feelings of apprehension. Doug shared this idea of the benefits of collaboration, though he
focused more on teachers and students working together to shape the course
into its most effective form. This came out as his biggest shift in perspective: from an “unexamined and unrecognised assumption” that SEN learners
should be taught only by experts in particular disabilities to a more “positive”
view in which SEN students are included in mainstream classes. In addition,
he reflected on how considering alternative classroom activities and forms of
assessment leads to important questions about what is good for all students,
not only SEN learners.
Celine focused on a criticism of how the programme dealt with SEN
issues, feeling that “there was sometimes unnecessary burden put on students
to achieve certain things that assumed they were equal in ability to other
students”. This was in line with her prior perspective, but now she had an
example of a dyslexic student who she felt was being unfairly assessed on
reading skills. She voiced support for the possibility of an exemption or
alternative being offered. Yumi’s experience also reinforced her previous attitude, which was that teachers should provide academic support to meet SEN
students’ needs in accordance with how other students are taught.
All respondents identified both challenging and enriching experiences,
although the challenges were generally framed as welcome opportunities to
develop aspects of their teaching skills. Yumi felt unsure of how to respond
to her student’s openness with discussing her disability and difficulties inclass. Yet, she additionally said that this was something she would appreciate
the opportunity to learn to do. Celine reflected more generally on the challenges of creating an inclusive environment and how “all students regardless
of disability have a right to access education, and so as teachers we have
to ask ourselves some difficult questions about what language education
means in the classroom”. On a similar topic, Johnny’s experience raised for
him the complex issue of “the feasibility of individualised instruction versus
the need for standardised learning outcomes”, with Ashley facing a similar
problem regarding how her student may have fared in a class among other
students. Her other challenges focused on her particular SEN student’s needs,
including a lack of eye contact. Doug mentioned the challenge of overcoming
Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and Responses …
241
his own doubts about whether the modified version of the course he was
teaching was effective, including whether or not the learning outcomes that
were being achieved and assessed were really appropriate.
In addition to these challenges, there were positive experiences that the
respondents found similarly enlightening. Yumi learned, through listening
to her student’s in-class comments, that “being disabled does not define the
student”. Similarly, Johnny began to view disabilities as individual learner
variables, noting that “a disability is just part of a profile, and understanding
that total profile, whether a student has a disability or not, is helpful if not
necessary in optimising that student’s learning experience”. In addition, he
realised that each SEN student that he taught had informed his teaching and
teacher training. Doug shared this point, noting that the experience allowed
him to think more “flexibly, sensitively, and responsibly” when teaching
subsequent classes. He also noted that adapting curriculum elements helped
him understand the course better and develop alternative routes to identical
goals, or rethink goals altogether. In addition, he found the collaboration
involved in teaching his particular SEN student motivating and a reminder
that novel experiences, while initially worrying, are often more achievable
than expected. Ashley also reflected on how her initial difficulties meant
that eventual successes she saw in the student made the course all the more
rewarding.
Discussing Participants’ Responses
and Developing Teacher Cognitions
The data outlined above revealed a number of insights about the effects that
attending to learners’ special educational needs had on teacher cognitions.
Initially, participants expressed quite sensitive attitudes towards the teaching
of SEN students in general and assumptions that appropriate accommodations should be made for the students in order for them to participate
in class. This is one area in which the beliefs of the participants showed little
change, and even expanded in some cases. Through reflections, the participants articulated claims of holding inclusive views before their experiences, of
having classes tailored towards inclusivity, and of identifying times when they
could have been more inclusive. What did appear to change is their knowledge and understanding of SEN, their beliefs about special educational needs
protocols, and their feelings of confidence regarding abilities to teach these
learners.
242
R. J. Lowe et al.
With regard to their beliefs about the nature of SEN, there were some
significant developments. While all the teachers had differing experiences,
a number of common themes emerged regarding their evolving cognitions.
The first of these was the realisation that learner disabilities should simply be
regarded as individual differences, and not necessarily considered as something different from the other individual differences present among other
class members. For example, Doug realised that accommodations that are
made for SEN learners can also be beneficial to all, and that class and materials design should take into account the class as a whole, rather than being
designed for the majority, with accommodations targeted at accommodating
the minority of SEN learners.
Another major thread in the narratives revolved around the self-confidence
of participants. The teachers who already had some degree of training had
better ideas of what should be done (creating individual learning plans, etc.),
while those who had no prior experience indicated a greater level of anxiety
about the prospect of teaching SEN students. These teachers expressed a
general sense of apprehension, either because they were concerned about
students being able to meet the “standards” of the course, or because they
felt unprepared. On learning they had a SEN student in-class, most had
mixed feelings. While some felt that making the necessary accommodations
would be interesting, others worried that the presence of the student would
make the course difficult to teach. Apprehensions were also raised about
the possibility of “discomfort” between the teacher, the student, and the
other class members. However, these worries soon dissipated when teaching
commenced—as Johnny said, this concern was “baseless”. The participants
felt that the classes quickly gained regularity, with concerns about SEN all
but fading. There was, on this point, a remarkable transformation in the
self-beliefs of the teachers, who went from being unsure of themselves to
being confident and feeling able to provide advice to others. This mirrors
their growing knowledge of SEN (and it seems likely these two points were
self-reinforcing).
Conclusion
The majority of language teachers entering the ELT profession via fieldspecific training (MA TESOL degrees, etc.) have very little, if any, training in
teaching SEN students. It is therefore valuable to understand the processes
such teachers go through when engaging in this kind of teaching for the
first time. In this chapter, we explored the developing cognitions of a small
Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and Responses …
243
group of teachers who found themselves teaching SEN students for the first
time, and the implications this had for their practice. The reflective accounts
revealed some general developments in the cognitions of the participants in
this study, particularly regarding their knowledge of and beliefs regarding
SEN, and their self-confidence in being able to teach SEN learners. The experience of teaching students with special educational needs seems to have been
a positive one for the teachers, contributing to new professional knowledge
and changes in their professional identity and classroom practice.
This is, of course, only a small case study, and the case in question was
quite privileged, as all the teachers were working in a programme which held
diversity and inclusion as a priority and provided a great amount of support
to this end. Other teachers with less institutional support may have a very
different experience, and thus it would be beneficial to see more studies in
the future which explore a more expansive range of contexts. This study,
however, provides a starting point for this research and provides some suggestive examples of how teachers can approach the teaching of diverse SEN
learners sensitively, inclusively and confidently.
While it may be intimidating for teachers to work with SEN learners for
the first time, the findings of this chapter suggest that taking an inclusive
approach, treating the learner as an individual, and discussing their needs
with them directly, can go a long way to overcoming initial concerns. In addition, our findings have implications in terms of TESOL programmes, which
may need to incorporate inclusive pedagogies (Kormos, 2020). Further, it
raises the question of whether treating special educational needs as examples
of individual differences rather than as a unique category, can help teachers
to successfully include all learners in the class.
Suggested Further Reading
Gray, A. (2018). Effective differentiation: A training guide to empower teachers
and enable learners with SEND and specific learning difficulties. Abingdon:
Routledge.
This general guide establishes good practice with supporting SEN pupils.
Kormos, J., & Smith M. (2012). Teaching languages to students with specific
learning differences. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
This book details the complex language learning processes of people with
specific learning differences.
Stevens, C. S. (2013). Disability in Japan. Abingdon: Routledge.
244
R. J. Lowe et al.
This title provides an overview of the history, situation, and discourse of
disability in Japan.
Emergent priorities
• The teachers in this chapter felt unprepared for teaching SEN learners.
How prepared do you feel to teach students with special educational needs?
• Most ELT training programmes do not include SEN instruction as a major
topic. How can ELT training better prepare teachers for teaching SEN
learners?
• One major insight from the teachers in this study was that rather than
thinking of SEN learners as a special group, teachers should focus more
generally on differentiated learning. Should SEN be considered as something separate from other individual differences?
References
Abdallah, M. M. (2017). Towards improving content and instruction of the
‘TESOL/TEFL for Special Needs’ course: An action research study. Educational
Action Research, 25 (3), 420–437.
Boeltzig-Brown, H. (2017). Disability and career service provision for students with
disabilities at institutions of higher education in Japan: An overview of key legislation, policies, and practices. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability,
30 (1), 61–81.
Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on
what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language Teaching, 36 (2),
81–109.
Borg, S. (2006). Teacher cognition and language education: Research and practice.
Bloomsbury.
Carpenter, J. (2020). EFL education for the visually impaired in Japan: Data
from five interviews. Latin American Journal of Content & Language Integrated
Learning, 13(1), 57–78.
Connor, J. (2017). Addressing special educational needs and disability in the
curriculum: Modern foreign languages. Routledge.
Cotterill, T. (2019). Principles and practices of working with pupils with special
educational needs and disability. Routledge.
DfE. (2015). SEND code of practice. London: DfE Publications. https://www.gov.
uk/government/publications/send-code-of-practice-0-to-25.
Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and Responses …
245
Duff, P. (2019). Case study research: Making language learning complexities visible.
In J. McKinley & H. Rose (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of research methods in
applied linguistics (pp. 144–153). Routledge.
Enjelvin, D. G. (2009). Teaching French to a non-sighted undergraduate: Adjusting
practices to deliver inclusive education. Journal of Further and Higher Education,
33(2), 265–279.
Harrison, H., Birks, M., Franklin, R., & Mills, J. (2017). Case study research:
Foundations and methodological orientations. Forum: Qualitative Social Research,
18(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.17169/fqs-18.1.2655.
Hornstra, L., Denessen, E., Bakker, J., van den Bergh, L., & Voeten, M. (2010).
Teacher attitudes toward dyslexia: Effects on teacher expectations and the
academic achievement of students with dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities,
43(5), 515–529.
Kasparek, N., & Turner, M. W. (2020). Puzzling about special educational needs
in EFL teacher development: A duoethnographic inquiry. In R. J. Lowe & L.
Lawrence (Eds.), Duoethnography in English language teaching: Research, reflection
and classroom application (pp. 112–132). Multilingual Matters.
Kormos, J. (2020). Specific learning difficulties in ELT. Cambridge University Press.
Lowe, R. (2016). Special education needs in English language teaching: Towards a
framework for continuing professional development. ELTED, 19, 23–31.
Maurice, K. (1983). The fluency workshop. TESOL Newsletter, 17 (4), 29.
Nijakowsaka, J. (2019). Foreign language teachers’ preparedness to cater for special
educational needs of learners with dyslexia: A conceptual framework. European
Journal of Special Needs Education, 34 (2), 189–203.
Smith, D. (2013). Deaf adults: Retrospective narratives of school experiences and
teacher expectations. Disability and Society, 28(5), 674–686.
Sowell, J., & Sugisaki, L. (2020). An exploration of EFL teachers’ experience
with learning disability training. Latin American Journal of Content & Language
Integrated Learning, 13(1), 114–134.
Stadler-Heer, S. (2019). Inclusion. ELT Journal, 73(2), 219–222.
Stake, R. E. (1994). Case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook
of qualitative research (pp. 236–247). Sage.
Young, D., & Schaefer, M. Y. (2019). Collaborative support for students with
disabilities. In P. Clements, A. Krause & P. Bennett (Eds.), Diversity and inclusion
(pp. 136–142). JALT.
Dyslexia and Its Role in the Teaching Reform
in China
Stuart Perrin
Introduction
This chapter explores how the teaching of English through English for
specific and academic purposes (ESAP) courses, as part of an English medium
instruction (EMI) programme in mainland China, has had positive benefits
for the teaching of dyslexic students. This is of particular relevance because
dyslexia is not recognised as a disability within mainland China, and therefore
it often falls outside the scope of special education needs.
The growth of EMI can be considered an international phenomenon in
higher education (Galloway & Rose, 2021). Macaro defines EMI as ‘the use
of English language to teach academic subjects (other than English itself )
in countries or jurisdictions where the first language of the majority of the
population is not English’ (2018, p. 1). As Jiang, Zhang and May (2019)
report, one country that has seen a growth in EMI courses and programmes
in China. Students in China start to study English at a young age, typically
during their primary education years, so in effect those who later study on
EMI programmes or at EMI institutions are expected to be well-prepared.
S. Perrin (B)
Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, China
e-mail: stuart.perrin@xjtlu.edu.cn
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_14
247
248
S. Perrin
Much of this growth can be attributed to favourable changes in the
regulatory system, which have allowed the possibility of international education collaborations. Perhaps of greatest significance is the Regulations of the
People’s Republic of China on Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running
Schools («中华人民共和国中外合作办学条例»), passed in 1983 by the
Chinese Ministry of Education (MoE), allowing for Chinese—foreign joint
educational ventures. Similarly, the Education Act of the People’s Republic
of China (1995) further encouraged cooperation, including partnerships
or joint ventures between Chinese and UK/USA/Australian institutions
(Huang, 2007). In 2003, the opening up of the Chinese Higher Education
sector to foreign involvement and cooperation within the country was further
encouraged with the 2003 law on Chinese-foreign cooperation in Running
Schools. The MoE further stated the target of increasing the number of
EMI courses in The National Medium and Long-Term Education Reform
and Development Plan Guideline (2010), and this message has been further
enhanced through the Belt and Road initiative (Macaro & Tian, 2020). As
of June 2018, the MoE indicated that there were about 1090 active Chineseforeign cooperative institutions and projects at the undergraduate level and
above, including 9 full joint venture institutions, with partners ranging from
the UK and USA to Russia and Israel (Redden, 2018).
Whilst not all of these programmes or institutions teach in English, as
has been highlighted, the MoE encourages the use of English. This has
equally led to an increase in the number of ESAP courses provided across
the full spectrum of universities and colleges, as students need to learn
the academic English skills and literacies required for successful study on
these EMI programmes (Madhaven Brochier, 2016). The growing number of
ESAP classes as a result of the growth of EMI programmes, and the increased
attractiveness of China as a destination for degree-level study, has also had an
unexpected positive impact on the teaching of students with dyslexia, both
international and local mainland Chinese students.
The chapter begins with a discussion on special needs education within
mainland China, focusing especially on how dyslexia is viewed and dealt with,
particularly with regard to the Chinese language. A brief discussion follows
on the effect that EMI has had on raising awareness of dyslexia. The core of
the chapter is the description of a case study of one Joint Venture University (JVU, University X) within mainland China. It draws on the teaching
practices of ESAP, and shows how aiming for inclusive, global education and
redesigning some ESAP modules, led to consider the best approaches and
support needed to teach (ESAP to) dyslexic students. It highlights the similarities between the skills and techniques used for teaching ESAP students
Dyslexia and Its Role in the Teaching …
249
within the language classroom and teaching dyslexic students, concluding
with suggestions and insights that can have a wider impact on the learning
and teaching experience of students with dyslexia within mainland China and
beyond.
Special Needs Education Within China
In the 1980s, mainland China started to legislate for inclusive education for
all, passing a legal mandate in 1986 that the compulsory education system
needed to include education for all students with disabilities (Pang, 2010).
For children with visual, hearing and mental impairments, special schools
were created, further strengthened by the Teachers’ Law (1993) and the
Education Law (1995) which both call for offering educational initiatives for
individuals with disabilities.
Vehmas (2010) suggests that special education is about identifying categories of special needs and designing specific curricula to meet those needs.
However, within mainland China there is no specific definition of inclusion,
and mainland China currently only recognises six classes of disability; visual,
hearing, intellectual, physical, psychiatric and multiple impairments (Kritzer,
2011), failing to cover all the categories common in other countries. Hu and
Szente (2010) highlight that this limited idea of disability and therefore inclusivity needed to be addressed, identifying specifically emotional disorders and
speech-language disorders such as dyslexia.
In the 1990s the Learning in the Regular Classroom (LRC) movement
took the notion of inclusivity further (Ellsworth & Zhang, 2007). As a result,
children with disabilities could be educated in Chinese general education
classrooms, though students needed to adjust to life in a typical Chinese
school, with inevitable inconsistencies in teaching practices (Deng & Zhu,
2016; Kritzer, 2011). Special schools also exist, but regardless of which a
student attends, they are likely to be faced with many challenges. As Kritzer
(2011) highlights, the focus within mainland China is on providing students
with special needs an education, rather than providing an equal education.
Dyslexia Within China
Dyslexia can be considered a common learning difficulty, which has global
spread. It is a characteristic that one is born with, and will not go away
(Pennington et al., 1990), though the effects of dyslexia may change through
250
S. Perrin
life. Dyslexia is characterised by difficulties in the development of literacy
and language related skills (Khalid & Anjum, 2019; Lyon et al., 2003) with
people suffering from dyslexia having difficulties understanding meaning
when reading. Chung and Ho (2010) highlight that many of the studies and
research on dyslexia have been with alphabet-based languages, and that it
was often thought that non-alphabet-based language speakers did not suffer
from dyslexia. However, since the 1980s it has become increasingly evident
that Chinese speakers (readers) may suffer from dyslexia (Chan et al., 2007;
Zhang et al., 2012), with much of the available research based on studies
in Hong Kong. For example, Chan et al. (2006, 2008) identified the most
common cognitive defects being weakness of visual-orthographic skills, rapid
naming and morphological awareness. Children in Hong Kong are tested
for dyslexia around the age of seven, with a number of behaviour checklists
covering multiple skills available for possible identification of specific learning
difficulties. For those identified at risk of reading failure, early intervention
often focuses on eight core literacy components (see Ho, 2010 for an explanation) to help build core skills. A study by Chung and Ho (2010) found
significant growth in oral language, visual-orthographic knowledge, morphological awareness and character recognition, showing the importance of these
early interventions.
Identification of dyslexia in mainland China is less advanced, with Chinese
classrooms and teachers facing a number of challenges. Mainland China still
follows the ‘whole class method of teaching’ (Deng & Harris, 2008, p. 23),
which focuses on repetition both in subject content and learning style (Hao
& Yin, 2015), often as a result of class size and the main focus being on
passing examinations. Therefore, there is little time for attention to be given
to those students who are struggling, with these students being allowed to
drift as the focus is on the majority of the class (Pang, 2010). In addition,
there is a lack of appropriate diagnostic testing and testing expertise (Worrell
& Taber, 2009; Zhang et al., 2012) to be able to identify students who have
learning difficulties.
Most universities in mainland China also still follow the rote learning styles
(Lei & Hu, 2014). However, norms are being challenged and opportunities
created as a result of greater recruitment of international students, as well as
the growth of a variety of EMI programmes (Lei & Hu, 2014). The increased
number of international students has meant an increase in the number of
students who have dyslexia recognised by their home educational cultures,
and an expectation that it will also be recognised within China. The UK
Quality Assurance Agency (QAA), for example, reported that they expected
Chinese institutions that partner with UK institutions to have UK standards
Dyslexia and Its Role in the Teaching …
251
of QA, including levels of support to students with learning difficulties (QAA,
2013).
For many EMI institutions within China, some form of learning and
teaching support is the norm for most if not all students, as students need
to acquire English language skills to be able to effectively complete their
studies. Much of this English language support is through dedicated language
centres, and through the increasing adoption of ESAP programmes (Han
et al., 2019). Hyland (2006) described ESAP as a way of teaching the
specific language and academic needs of learners, and is often seen as a textoriented approach which provides access to the academic and communicative
competencies that a learner needs to be able to engage in their academic
communities through disciplinary discourse.
This, however, highlights a problem faced by students who have dyslexia.
Kirby et al. (2008) indicate that understanding complex texts, taking notes,
understanding and synthesising course materials, and reproducing this information through written-based assignments, all causes difficulties and creates
anxiety and stress. As a result, Couzens et al. (2015) highlight that students
are more likely to use more surface approaches to learning, motivated by the
desire to avoid failing at their studies, rather than deep learning approaches,
where learners look for understanding and meaning. As the following case
study illustrates, the pedagogical strategies used within ESAP classes in the
EMI institution provide unique opportunities for students with dyslexia to
be able to study and perform on a more level playing field.
The Case
University X (pseudonym), established in 2006, is an EMI transnational
education (TNE) university located in mainland China. It is accredited to
deliver both a UK degree through its UK partner institution, and a Chinese
degree through its Chinese partner institution. Students therefore receive a
double degree at undergraduate level, though only the UK degree at postgraduate level, meeting the requirements of both UK and Chinese quality
assurance and regulatory systems.
Over 90% of students are Chinese native speakers, and over 50% of staff
are non-native speakers of English. The aspiration is to have 20% of the
student body international by 2025. ESAP classes are provided to both undergraduate and postgraduate students to ensure they have the language skills to
successfully complete studies. At undergraduate level, these classes are mainly
252
S. Perrin
credit-bearing modules in year one, with a reduced amount in year two. The
modules need to be passed to progress to the next year.
The university tries to create what is often termed a truly international
university working and teaching in English, without compromising quality
within its context. The UK Quality Assurance Agency in a review of
UK transnational education within China (2013) noted that the university
followed processes typical of the UK, and commended the English language
support that was offered to all students. It did not identify the need to support
students with dyslexia, but did suggest that as the university grows, its UK
founding partner would need to ensure that quality assurance processes are
embedded in UK practice.
Undergraduate students are enrolled in broad subject areas for Year 1,
following a broadly similar curriculum for their subject area. During the
first year, they ‘choose’ their degree programme, which then guides their
study for the duration of the programme. In 2016, Year 1 provision underwent a periodic review, followed one year later by a similar review of the
Language Centre. As a result, in 2018, a comprehensive review of Year 1
provision was carried out, largely though not exclusively because of some
concerns about students’ English language abilities. As a result of this review,
some changes were made and a study was set up to determine the affordances/effectiveness of such changes. Below I describe the changes made,
followed by the outcomes and their implications.
Changing Year 1
Four drivers for change were identified. Firstly, concerns had been expressed
by academic departments that students struggled to communicate orally in
English. Secondly a recognition that language classes needed to give students
more foundational skills in English before the transition to ESAP. Thirdly
more time was needed to help students transition from high school to UK
style higher education study. Fourthly, ensuring that the ESAP provision was
inclusive of all students, including the increasing numbers of international
students, and that it supported dyslexic students in particular.
As a result, the new Year 1 was simplified. Prior to the changes, students
started ESAP modules in their first week of study, continuing until their final
week at the end of the second semester. Students also had relatively detailed
academic content classes, though generic in nature, as well as compulsory
classes required by the Chinese government. International students studied
Chinese language instead of Chinese government compulsory classes. The
Dyslexia and Its Role in the Teaching …
253
changes have two main elements; an introduction of general English in
semester 1 to help build into more complex ESAP classes in Semester 2,
and academic taster modules for the last six weeks in Semester 1, to help
with degree programme choice. In Semester 2, students study semester long
ESAP modules, more detailed academic discovery modules, according to each
student’s programme choice, Chinese government required modules in mathematics, culture and physical education, or Chinese language modules for
international students.
Inclusive Education for All
In recognition of increased and differing needs of international students,
as well as a recognition of potential learning issues with local students, the
changes also included an attempt to address the needs of students with
learning difficulties, especially dyslexia (Indrarathne, 2019). Whilst going
through the processes of design and approval for the changes, and looking at
the accommodations that would be needed for ESAP teaching to all students,
the similarities between the requirements for developing students’ study skills
in Year 1 and for teaching dyslexic students became clearer, and those findings
informed the final decisions.
The most popular approach for teaching dyslexic students is the
multi-sensory approach (Kamala, 2014), also called the Orton-Gillingham
Approach (Reid, 2009). This approach promotes the use of all the senses in
learning, with Kamala (2014) calling it structured, sequential, and cumulative, and requiring a systematic approach by teachers. Multisensory learning
involves the use of visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic-tactile senses together to
enhance memory and learning of written language, making links between the
visual (language we see), auditory (language we hear) and kinaesthetic-tactile
(language symbols we feel) pathways in learning to read and spell (International Dyslexia Association, 2005). According to the International Multisensory Structured Language Education Council (2000) teaching dyslexic
students language should include:
• being simultaneous—using all the senses at the same time to enhance
learning and retention of information;
• being systematic and cumulative—being logical and beginning easy and
progressing (logically) to more difficult aspects and materials of language.
Scaffolding approaches (Wood & Wood, 1996), a common strategy in
254
S. Perrin
second language learning classrooms, allow teachers to revise, cue elicitation and make links to past (and future) learning (Hammond & Gibbons,
2005), as well as (academic) contexts (Heron & Webster, 2019);
• giving direct instructions—continuous student–teacher interaction;
• using diagnostic teaching—careful analysis and review of students’ needs,
clear content presented and little abstract thinking; and
• using synthetic and analytic instruction—synthetic instruction presents the
parts of the language and then teaches how they work together to create a
whole, whilst analytic instruction is the opposite, highlighting the whole
and then showing how it can be broken into its individual parts.
The broad principle for change was to bring together three strands into
a meaningful and inclusive syllabus (Indrarathne, 2019): (1) the cultural
context of studying at university, (2) collaborative learning and (3) cooperative learning, with corresponding skill sets, as highlighted in Table 1.
Adapted from Edwards (2012), the three-strand approach presented in
Table 1 highlights the nature of the linguistic challenge facing all students
studying in a second language, namely how to provide the students with the
skill sets they require to be collaborative and cooperative learners within the
context of university. It was felt that there were striking similarities between
the teaching styles and requirements needed to work with dyslexic students,
as highlighted in the multi-sensory approach, and for all students working
in a second language at university, adjusting to a new and different learning
culture. By working to tackle issues related to English language learning, the
university would also be working to address issues with regard to working
with dyslexic students. The following section goes on to explore the ESAP
teaching practices that were adopted in more detail.
Table 1 English communication skills in the academic context
Cultural context
Collaborative learning
Cooperative learning
Active learning
Critical thinking
Self-study
Independent learner
Objective setting
Time management
Student centred
Group work
Brainstorming
Pair work
Classwork
Feedback
Discussion groups
Problem solving groups
Research projects
Presentations
Group writing
Case study
Discussion
Dyslexia and Its Role in the Teaching …
255
Principles Guiding the ESAP Approach: Relevance
to Teaching Dyslexic Students
The international nature of the university means that it attracts both local
Chinese students who want an international education, as well as international students who wish to study in China but have not developed their
Chinese language skills for an academic environment. All students need to
attend ESAP classes to ensure they have the skills needed to be successful in
their studies. As an international university which wants high calibre international students, it needs to ensure appropriate support for students with
learning difficulties to meet international standards. Chinese students with
dyslexia have therefore benefited from this repositioning, both in terms of
recognition of dyslexia, and in the support and teaching techniques within
the (language) classroom.
The ESAP teaching strategies adopted through the inclusivity for all
approach (Indrarathne, 2019; Kormos & Nijakowska, 2017; Nijakowska,
2019) can be summarised as follows:
• The use of technology enhanced learning to provide students with a flipped
classroom experience, where materials are placed prior to lessons on the
virtual learning environment (VLE) platform, allowing students more time
to prepare at their own speed (Gordon, 2014). Class time is then spent
with the students on discussion, expanding the pre-posted information.
As well as being more student-centred (Long et al., 2016), the flipped
classroom has provided students with time to read and reread articles,
listen to podcasts, or watch recorded or pre-prepared lectures/PowerPoint
presentations, meeting the needs of a diverse range of learners (Lo & Hew,
2017). Since the changes to year one, and especially during the COVID-19
pandemic, student feedback suggests that the flipped classroom combined
with effective online technologies provides a full range of students with
comfort in choosing their own learning speeds (Rajaram, 2019).
• Extensive use of scaffolding techniques to build on prior knowledge, and
providing clear structured links. Carson and Leki (1993) highlight that
learning, especially with regard to writing, should be seen as a process
rather than a focus on the end product. Seviour (2015) shows the need
to closely guide and support students in the learning process, including
a process of draft and feedback, and building clearly on previous lessons,
which has significant impact on students learning processes.
• Personalising texts and situations. Wai-Cook (2019) highlights the need for
tasks and materials to be relevant to students’ learning, with some targeting
256
•
•
•
•
S. Perrin
on weaknesses to help students improve. The flipped classroom approach
now used means texts are given out in advance. This allows time for discussion to take place to establish the personal elements, through group or pair
work, rather than individual study time in class. Texts are also carefully
selected to avoid too much clutter. This also allows for a range of senses to
be used, to the benefit of dyslexic students.
Teaching students how to identify the important information in texts when
reading through, for example, identifying topic sentences, reducing anxiety.
Fostering the use of technology in the classroom, not just to provide preand post-class information. Edyburn et al. (2005) showed that the use of
technology for students with learning difficulties promotes independence
and self-worth and increases motivation and productivity. The lessons now
encourage the use of text to speech apps, so that all learners can see and
hear words and texts, which, as Moorman et al. (2010) suggest, results in
reading gains for students, as well as increased interest in reading.
Actively teaching students simple then more complex note-taking skills,
concentrating on small chunks to retain information, and also providing
them with the opportunity to review.
Allowing time for revise and review in the curriculum; in other words,
de-cluttering the modules and syllabus and not trying to move ahead too
quickly (which is often a problem with many EAP courses).
The strategies listed above are common practice for both ESAP professionals
and for professionals working with dyslexic students. What is new, however,
is the systematic linking together of the rationale for using these techniques
to meet a common goal in supporting the inclusivity needs of studying ESAP,
which are transferable to meeting the needs of dyslexic students studying
beyond ESAP within the university environment.
Implications and Outcomes of the Changes
Internal evidence from the university suggests that mainland Chinese
students’ are not fully prepared for study at university, especially where they
are expected to study in English. This may be because of prior learning styles,
lack of language knowledge or possibly because existing learning disabilities,
such as dyslexia, have not been diagnosed and accommodated in high school.
The need to study ESAP at an EMI institution provides many opportunities to address some of these issues. The recalibration that this particular
university is attempting in its Year 1 ESAP classes is designed to redress the
Dyslexia and Its Role in the Teaching …
257
high school imbalance and better provide students with the language and
communication skills needed for university success. In addition, following
an all-inclusive approach which used the strategies described above when
teaching ESAP benefitted students with dyslexia.
It should be noted that the changes to Year 1 have, at the time of writing,
only been in place for two semesters, and that there have also been changes
to teaching generally as a result of the coronavirus pandemic. However, it is
possible to highlight some initial observations and implications in relation
to the impact that the new programme has had on students with dyslexia.
Firstly, and perhaps most importantly, there has been a noticeable reduction
in students who have failed the semesters and have had progression issues.
Whilst learning difficulties have not been previously acknowledged as reasons
for failing, evidence from progression board hearings have suggested the
success of the all-inclusive initiative, with those students who had previously
struggled in their studies fully appreciating the flipped classroom techniques.
Students have cited they appreciate the time to study at their own pace, to
pre-prepare for class discussion, and to review PowerPoint presentations later
rather than struggle in class. Adding to this, ESAP teachers have expressed
that there have been more detailed interactions in class, with a greater
participation from all students.
One further outcome that has demonstrated the success of the all-inclusive
initiative has been the increased use of the additional student support dropin facilities beyond the classroom. Students have been accessing support
for additional help with understanding concepts and ideas that have been
pre-posted on the virtual learning environment (VLE) by class teachers. In
addition, students have been accessing additional support for follow-up work
after class time. Whilst it has not been possible to identify whether those
students seeking additional help have dyslexia or other learning difficulties,
the increased use of the facilities since the all-inclusive initiative has been
launched suggests a greater range of students are engaging with their studies
and wanting more.
Two additional outcomes that were not initially considered have also been
identified. As Nijakowska (2019) suggests, one outcome is a clear need for
training language teachers to work with students with dyslexia. The changes
to the delivery of Year 1, especially the ESAP classes, have been designed to
be all-inclusive, but teachers have reported that whilst they are comfortable
dealing with language issues, they do not feel qualified to deal with underlying learning difficulties. The second outcome is the requests from academic
lecturers working in Year 1 requesting for additional language support for
258
S. Perrin
their classes. As a result, and drawing on the genre/ESAP philosophy advocated by Hyland (2007, see also Flowerdew, 2020), an integrated learning
approach is being introduced for these modules. Through the transfer of
the same strategies identified earlier, the all-inclusive approach will be able
to influence the learning of students with dyslexia outside the language
classroom. This new initiative is at an early stage, but initial signs are
encouraging.
Conclusion
For many students, it is often when they are at university that they are first
diagnosed with dyslexia, with associated difficulties in literacy and languagerelated skills. It is likely that all students suffer to some extent from the
transition to university; for students with dyslexia the suffering can be magnified. For students studying at an EMI institution, there is the added pressure
of studying in a language that is not their first language, which can only
add to the pressures of those who have learning difficulties such as dyslexia.
However, EMI institutions offer opportunities to provide help to students
with learning difficulties such as dyslexia in ways that perhaps other (first
language) institutions cannot, through the almost universal student need for
some form of language support. The changes introduced in Year 1 at University X have started to show what is possible with an all-inclusive approach to
learning.
There is of course no reason why such inclusive initiatives should be
limited to EMI institutions. Carefully developed and tailored language
programmes, built around the needs of all learners can be very supportive of
inclusive education in any institution, providing insights on how techniques
used can be adapted in other areas of the learning experience. However, EMI
institutions have the advantage that the majority of students are in need of
language support as they are predominantly studying in a second language,
i.e. it is easier to engage all students and cater for the needs of all. The current
study has not yet been able to conclude firmly that supporting students with
dyslexia within the EMI context through its all-inclusive ESAP programmes
had a positive effect, but initial observations of changes in student activity
and behaviour, suggests that the changes have made learning less stressful for
all students.
However, initiatives such as the one at University X will only be successful
if there is adequate professional training of staff, if there is appropriate investment in appropriate technology, and if the whole academic community buys
Dyslexia and Its Role in the Teaching …
259
into the need for holistic support for students in all subject areas. A commitment to inclusive education is not a temporary thing, it is life-changing for
students and has the potential to be equally so for teaching staff too.
Within ESAP teaching, diversity can be described as fundamental to its
success. All students need to benefit from the methods and cultural spaces
created within the ESAP classroom so that they can negotiate meaning and
ensure that successful learning takes place. Within the ESAP classroom in
mainland China, there is often a silent minority; those students who have
a learning difficulty such as dyslexia, but who do not have this recognised
within the education system. This chapter links to the theme of diversity
within ELT by exploring how changes to ESAP teaching within an EMI institution within mainland China enabled inclusivity for all students, including
those with dyslexia, by focusing on shared teaching techniques designed to
meet the needs of all the learners in the language classroom, and within the
wider university.
Suggested Further Reading
Daloiso, M. (2017). Supporting learners with dyslexia in the ELT classroom.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
This is a practical teaching guide for those EAP/ELT professionals who
need to accommodate learners with dyslexia in their English language classrooms. It encourages reflection on inclusive teaching practices, and provides
a clear methodological framework for teachers.
Goodman, D.S. (2014). Class in contemporary China (China Today).
Cambridge: Polity.
To understand issues surrounding dyslexia in China it is important to
understand modern day China. This book does this as well as anyone, highlighting the tremendous change in China that is also driving the world
today.
Macaro, E. (2018). English medium instruction: Content and language in policy
and practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Prof. Macaro presents an overview of the research, policy, and practice of
English Medium Instruction around the globe. EMI cannot be ignored, and
this book provides a balanced in-depth explanation as to why.
260
S. Perrin
Engagement Priorities
• EMI institutions are to some extent a luxury within countries such as
China, catering to a privileged minority. To what extent to you think
that the practices of inclusivity highlighted can be transferred to more
traditional (Chinese) universities?
• Technology enhanced learning is at the forefront of changes to the role
of the modern university. With the advent of SMART technology, what
impact will this have on the traditional learning experience, and on institutions’ ability to provide individual tailored support for students with
learning difficulties?
• Providing learning support for students with dyslexia and other specific
learning difficulties can be costly. In what ways can less wealthy countries
still engage to promote more inclusive education opportunities?
• Teacher education programmes play a key role in ensuring that staff are
equipped with the latest techniques and knowledge before entering the
classroom. Is this true for the EAP teacher in your own contexts? If not,
how could it be enhanced?
References
Anon. (2000). Clinical studies of multisensory structured language education
for students with dyslexia and related disorders. International Multisensory
Structured Language Education Council.
Carson, J. G., & Leki, I. (1993). Reading in the composition classroom: Second
language perspectives. Modern Language Journal, 78(2), 239–240.
Chan, D. W., Ho, C. S. H., Tsang, S. M., Lee, S., & Chung, K. K. H. (2006).
Exploring the reading-writing connection with Chinese children with dyslexia in
Hong Kong. Reading and Writing, 19, 543–561.
Chan, D. W., Ho, C. S. H., Tsang, S. M., Lee, S. H., & Chung, K. K. H. (2007).
Prevalence, gender ratio and gender differences in reading-related cognitive abilities among Chinese children with dyslexia in Hong Kong. Education Studies, 33,
249–265.
Chan, D. W., Ho, C. S. H., Tsang, S. M., Lee, S. H., & Chung, K. K. H. (2008).
Estimating incidence of developmental dyslexia in Hong Kong: What differences
do different criteria make? Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 13(1), 1–16.
Chung, K. K. H., & Ho, C. S. H. (2010). Dyslexia in Chinese language: An
overview of research and practice. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties,
15 (2), 213–224.
Dyslexia and Its Role in the Teaching …
261
Couzens, D., Shiralee, P., Kataoka, M., Brandon, A., Hartley, J., & Keen, D.
(2015). Support for students with hidden disabilities in universities: A case study.
International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 62(1), 24–41.
Deng, M., & Harris, K. (2008). Meeting the needs of students with disabilities in
general education classrooms in China. Teacher Education and Special Education,
31(3), 195–207.
Deng, M., & Zhu, X. (2016). Special education reform towards inclusive education:
Blurring or expanding boundaries of special and regular education in China.
Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 16, 994–998.
Edwards, R. (2012). Teaching academic communication skills at university. Modern
English Teacher, 21(4), 1–14.
Edyburn, D. L., Higgins, K., & Boone, R. (2005). Preface. In D. Edyburn, K.
Higgins, & R. Boone (Eds.), Handbook of special education technology research
and practice (pp. 13–16). Whitefish Bay, WI: Knowledge by Design.
Ellsworth, N., & Zhang, C. (2007). Progress and challenges in China’s special
education development: Observations, reflections, and recommendations. Remedial and Special Education, 28(1), 58–64.
Flowerdew, L. (2020). The academic literacies approach to scholarly writing: A view
through the lens of the ESP/Genre approach. Studies in Higher Education, 45 (3),
579–591.
Galloway, N., & Rose, H. (2021). English medium instruction and the English
language practitioner. ELT Journal, 75 (1), 33–41.
Gordon, N. (2014). Flexible pedagogies: Technology-enhanced learning. York: Higher
Education Academy.
Hammond, J., & Gibbons, P. (2005). Putting scaffolding to work: The contribution
of scaffoldingf in articulating ESL education. Prospect, 20 (1), 6–30.
Han, Y., Gao, X., & Xia, J. (2019). Problematising recent developments in
non-English foreign language education in Chinese universities. Journal of
Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 40 (7), 562–575.
Hao, X. Y., & Yin, Z. P. (2015). College English teaching reform in China: An
orientation toward ESP. International Journal of English Language Teaching, 2(2),
77–86.
Heron, M., & Webster, J. (2019). Scaffolding talk in EAP lessons: An examination
of experienced teachers practices. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching,
13(4), 358–370.
Ho, C. S. H. (2010). Understanding reading disability in Chinese: From basic
research to intervention. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), Handbook of Chinese psychology
(2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Huang, F. T. (2007). Internationalisation of higher education in China: A focus
on foreign degree-conferring programs. RIKE International Publication Series, 10,
421–432.
Hu, B. Y., & Szente, J. (2010). Education of young Chinese migrant children:
Challenges and prospects. Early Child Education Journal, 37, 477–482.
262
S. Perrin
Hyland, K. (2006). Representing readers in writing: Student and expert practices.
Linguistics and Education, 16, 363–377.
Hyland, K. (2007). Genre pedagogy: Language, literacy and L2 writing instruction.
Journal of Second Language Writing, 16 (3), 148–164.
Indrarathne, B. (2019). Accommodating learners with dyslexia in English language
teaching in Sri Lanka: Teachers’ knowledge, attitudes, and challenges. TESOL
Quarterly, 53(3), 630–654.
International Dyslexia Association. (2005). Multisensory Structured Language
Teaching Fact Sheet. Retrieved from dyslexiaida.org: https://dyslexiaida.org/mul
tisensory-structured-language-teaching-fact-sheet/. Retrieved April 2020.
Jiang, L., Zhang, L. J., & May, S. (2019). Implementing English-medium instruction (EMI) in China: Teachers’ practices and perceptions, and students’ learning
motivation and needs. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 22(2), 107–119.
Kamala, R. (2014). Multisensory approach to reading skills of dyslexic students.
Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 19 (5), 32–34.
Khalid, M., & Anjum, G. (2019). Use of remedial teaching approaches for dyslexic
students: Experiences of remedial teachers working in urban Pakistan. Cogent
Psychology, 6, 1–18.
Kirby, A., Sugden, D., Beveridge, S., & Edwards, L. (2008). Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) in adolescents and adults in further and higher
education. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 8, 120–131.
Kormos, J., & Nijakowska, J. (2017). Inclusive practices in teaching students with
dyslexia: Second language teachers’ concerns, attitudes and self-efficacy beliefs
on a massive open online learning course. Teaching and Teacher Education, 68,
30–41.
Kritzer, J. B. (2011). Special education in China. Eastern Education Journal, 40 (1),
57–63.
Lei, J., & Hu, G. (2014). Is English-medium instruction effective in improving
Chinese undergraduate students’ English competence? International Review of
Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 52(2), 99–126.
Lo, C. K., & Hew, K. F. (2017). Using “first principles of instruction” to design
secondary school mathematics flipped classroom: The findings of two exploratory
studies. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 20 (1), 222–236.
Long, T., Logan, J., & Waugh, M. (2016). Students perceptions of the value of using
videos as a pre-class learning experience in the flipped classroom. TechTrends,
60 (3), 245–252.
Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia.
Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 1–14.
Macaro, E. (2018). English medium instruction: Content and language in policy and
practice. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Macaro, E., & Tian, L. (2020). Developing EMI teachers through a collaborative
research model. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–16.
Madhaven Brochier, D. (2016). Ten truths (and a lie) about EMI. IATEFL Webinar.
Dyslexia and Its Role in the Teaching …
263
Moorman, A., Boon, R. T., Keller-Bell, Y., Stagliano, C., & Jeffs, T. (2010). Effects
of text-to-speech on the reading rate and comprehension skills of high school
students with specific learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities, 16, 41–49.
Nijakowska, J. (2019). Foreign language teachers’ preparedness to cater for special
educational needs of learners with dyslexia: a conceptual framework. European
Journal of Special Needs Education, 34 (2), 189–203.
Pang, Y. (2010). How China’s special education law impacts the living status of
individuals with disabilities. Making Connections, 11, 59–70.
Pennington, B. F., Orden, G. C. V., Smith, S. D., Green, P. A., & Haith, M.
M. (1990). Phonological processing skills and deficits in adult dyslexics. Child
Development, 61, 1753–1758.
QAA. (2013). Review of UK transnational education in China 2012. Quality
assurance Agency.
Rajaram, K. (2019). Flipped classrooms: Providing a scaffolding support system
with real-time learning interventions. Asian Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching
and Learning, 9 (1), 30–58.
Redden, E. (2018). Closures of China-Foreign Programs [19 paragraphs]. Available
at
https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2018/07/11/chinas-ministry-educat
ion-approves-termination-more-200-chinese-foreign-cooperative. Last Accessed
27 Jan 2021.
Reid, G. (2009). Dyslexia: A practitioner’s handbook. Wiley-Blackwell.
Seviour, M. (2015). Assessing academic writing on a pre-sessional EAP course:
Designing assessment which supports learning. Journal of English for Academic
Purposes, 18, 84–89.
Vehmas, S. (2010). Special needs: A philosophical analysis. International Journal of
Inclusive Education, 14 (1), 87–96.
Wai-Cook, M. S. (2019). The success of an EAP programme in tertiary education:
Using a student-centric approach to scaffold materials in an EAP course. Studies
in Engish Language Teaching, 7 (2), 213–235.
Wood, D., & Wood, H. (1996). Vygotsky, tutoring and learning. Oxford Review of
Education, 22(1), 5–16.
Worrell, J., & Taber, M. (2009). Special education practices in China and the United
States: What is to come next? International Journal of Special Education, 24 (3),
132–142.
Zhang, Y., Zhang, L., Shu, H., Xi, J., Wu, H., Zhang, Y., & Li, P. (2012). Universality of categorical perception deficit in developmental dyslexia: An investigation
of Mandarin Chinese tones. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(8),
874–882.
A Challenge, a Must, an Adventure: English
as a Foreign Language for Deaf and Hard
of Hearing Students
Ewa Domagała-Zyśk and Anna Podlewska
Introduction
When we, the authors of this chapter, started teaching English as a foreign
language to deaf and hard of hearing students in the late 1990s at John Paul
II Catholic University of Lublin (Poland), henceforth KUL University, it
was a real challenge. This group of students with special educational needs
(SEN) was simply exempted from compulsory foreign language classes at
each stage of education. It was almost impossible to find information about
teaching strategies or materials, and it was difficult to find colleagues in this
field. The majority of English teachers and trainee teachers concentrated on
maximising academic performance, often leaving behind those with special
needs, especially when their pronunciation mistakes or lack of speech made it
challenging to evidence success in a conventional way. Fortunately, such challenges led European teachers of English to start networking and supporting
E. Domagała-Zyśk (B)
Department of Special Education, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin,
Lublin, Poland
e-mail: ewadom@kul.lublin.pl
A. Podlewska
Department of Foreign Languages, Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
e-mail: podla@autograf.pl
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_15
265
266
E. Domagała-Zyśk and A. Podlewska
each other through the International Research Group English for Deaf and
Hard-of-Hearing.1
Our aim was similar: to overcome those challenges and offer the best
quality English as a foreign language (EFL) education for our deaf and hard
of hearing students, according to their needs and communication modes.
Approaches to support such students have varied, from concentrating on sign
language communication (Kontra et al., 2015; Pritchard, 2013) and reading
skills (Sedláčková & Foniokova, 2013) to speaking and using extensive
technological support (Domagała-Zyśk, 2001, 2015b; Podlewska & Keller,
2014). Today we are ready to share our experience from this journey to spread
the message even further.
The aim of this chapter is to present principles, strategies and communication techniques which have been and might be effective in English classes
for deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) students within an inclusive education perspective (Kauffman, 2020; Rieser, 2008). These techniques have been
developed during an action research project (Domagała-Zyśk, 2013a, 2013b),
which makes them evidence-based ways of teaching (Knoors et al., 2019). In
this chapter we first describe what we call the deaf and hard of hearing generation @. We then describe a set of teaching and learning strategies for DHH
classes with EFL and ESP orientations. Finally, we make recommendations
to support DHH students beyond our context.
Deaf and Hard of Hearing Individuals
in generation @
In our experience, DHH members of generation @ (people born in the midnineties or later) are usually open and ready to enjoy social life—travel or
browse the internet and meet or chat with new people. They have never
experienced life without technology; therefore, they are often good at using
the internet for socialising and learning. From experience, we also know that
the aspirations of DHH students are inextricably linked with the need to
acquire skills in a foreign language, despite the difficulty they often experience. Exempting this group of students from foreign language classes means
offering them incomplete and poor quality education (Domagała-Zyśk &
Kontra, 2016). Nowadays, fluent use of foreign languages, especially English,
is a must for all those who want to pursue a professional career and feel
included as global citizens.
What often makes it difficult for DHH students to achieve this goal is their
hearing loss. When teachers try to describe the strengths and needs of the
A Challenge, a Must, an Adventure …
267
DHH learner, they usually gather as much information as possible about the
learner’s background (Crowe & Guiberson, 2021). There are many types and
levels of hearing loss, which may determine the person’s perceptual capabilities and sometimes their range of linguistic production. It is the DHH person
themselves who may provide the most accurate information concerning their
needs and expected forms of support. The conversation between the teacher
and prospective student may need to address two fundamental issues:
1. The student’s previous experience of learning a foreign language
(hearing/deaf family, mainstream/special class, oral/sign//mixed communication).
2. The scope of the impact of hearing loss on the student, especially in terms
of the functional skills relevant to language learning (in reading, listening,
writing and speaking English).
Our experience has taught us that it is particularly important to determine
whether and to what extent the student is able to use audio recordings; some
DHH people are able to listen to recordings using headphones, but sometimes it is necessary for them to read the transcript simultaneously for better
comprehension. Our DHH students have been regularly exposed to exercises focusing on pronunciation, word stress and intonation and profited from
that (Domagała-Zyśk, 2013b). Such exercises largely improve the quality of
perception of foreign language speech.2 Other important ways of supporting
our teaching are showing films with subtitles, and using British or American
cued speech3 (Podlewska, 2013).
The teacher may also ask about the student’s favourite techniques and
strategies for learning a foreign language, and treat the student as an expert on
his or her learning process. A question about their experiences of using textbooks might be profitable. DHH students often complain that their books are
visually difficult to access (e.g. because of glossy paper that creates glare) and
do not provide enough space for writing down answers. DHH students may
also have other conditions such as visual impairment or physical disability,
which requires further attention to the visual and physical accessibility of the
materials used.
Another key consideration is the student’s reason for learning the language.
Taking into account the student’s previous experience and current capabilities,
the teacher and student may need to discuss the extent to which the student
intends to learn to speak in the foreign language. Experience shows that those
individuals who communicate in speech in their first language also want to
268
E. Domagała-Zyśk and A. Podlewska
speak in their second or additional language (Domagała-Zyśk, 2013b). The
general principle is that for a student with hearing loss, it is possible to learn
to speak in a foreign language with a degree of success comparable to their
use of speech in their first l language (Domagała-Zyśk, 2013a, 2013b). This
means that a vast majority of DHH students are able to learn to speak a
foreign language and they have full right to do so.
The next questions may be about the student’s degree of hearing loss and
perception of speech sounds. DHH people are not a homogeneous group,
and their levels of hearing loss range from mild to profound. These categories
are defined as follows:
• Mild hearing loss means a threshold of hearing sensitivity in the range of
21–40 decibels (dB). (In other words, people can hear sounds at 21–40 dB
or louder.) Mild hearing loss may cause difficulty in correctly identifying
some elements of colloquial speech.
• People with moderate hearing loss means that a person cannot hear a significant part of everyday speech sounds, as their sensitivity to noise is in the
range of 41–70 dB.
• Severe hearing loss means a threshold between 71 and 90 dB, enabling a
person to hear only very loud speech sounds but not normal everyday talk.
While communicating, they tend to use lip-reading.
• Profound hearing loss means that a person cannot hear speech at all,
because their sensitivity threshold is 90 or more dB. People at this level
may use a hearing aid or cochlear implant, which usually improves their
ability to perceive sounds, but does not facilitate full hearing.
Not only audiological measures but also cultural and psychological factors
may influence the student’s performance (Kontra, 2013; Krakowiak, 2013;
Nabiałek, 2016). There are students with a slight hearing loss who use sign
language and do not generally communicate in speech, but there are also
those with a profound hearing loss who communicate in speech and lipreading, and do not sign. Educational success should be understood on
an individual basis, because a major achievement for one student may be
just an ordinary skill for another. Teachers may wish to avoid comparing
students with each other. The only comparison should be, if any, between
the individual student’s past and present level of ability.
At the beginning of the learning process, teachers and students may
agree on their preferred way of communication. In the case of students
with profound and severe hearing loss, especially those who attended special
schools for DHH students, teachers may need to use the services of a sign
A Challenge, a Must, an Adventure …
269
language interpreter or cued speech transliterator (Kontra, 2013). When such
services are not available or appropriate, a common method of communication is writing. Even if a teacher does not know sign language, our
experience shows it is advisable to learn at least some basic signs (DomagałaZyśk, 2013b; Kontra, 2013). Students who sign appreciate the fact that the
teacher is able to use sign language for everyday utterances such as “See you
next week”, “I’m sorry” or “Today is a cold day, isn’t it?”. Through building
their own sign language skills, teachers can demonstrate respect for and solidarity with their students, in addition to providing them with a role model
for language learning. This increases students’ confidence and willingness to
learn.
Students with mild to moderate hearing loss usually are able to use speech,
especially in one-to-one conversations. Our experience shows (DomagałaZyśk, 2015a) that it is very useful to communicate through the modern
technological devices and services that students like to use, such as text
messaging, social media and email. In the initial interview it is also advisable
to discuss how to optimise the physical environment for good communication. Sometimes a student has better hearing in one ear than the other,
and the teacher can position herself to take advantage of this. The distance
between the student and teacher also matters, as some students receive speech
better with a slightly greater distance. Finally, it may be necessary to determine whether there is a preference to voice pitch which could affect the
student’s learning, as some students perceive lower-pitched voices more accurately, while others prefer higher-pitched voices. Technology becomes even
more important during the time of online or e-learning: DHH students can
also benefit from videoconferencing tools as it gives them the possibility to
lip-read more easily than in crowded classrooms and they can also use live
subtitles techniques (Lewandowska, 2020).
Teaching English to DHH Students
Right from their very inception in 1998, classes at the KUL Centre for Deaf
and Hard of Hearing Education have been grounded in the premise that
students with hearing loss are capable of progress in EFL when they are
provided clear visual access to both the syllabus and the language of instruction. Also, one of the core principles governing the work of the Centre’s
teachers is that all methodological decisions are made for the benefit of
the students so that they can fully engage in the didactic process and take
270
E. Domagała-Zyśk and A. Podlewska
an active approach to learning. Hearing loss is not seen as an insurmountable barrier to developing articulate and coherent communication skills in a
foreign language. Rather, it is perceived as a challenge with plenty of opportunity to set the academic arena for DHH students to successfully compete
alongside their hearing peers. Teaching for quality EFL in DHH education
requires the combination of theory, methods and hands-on experience, but
also, and perhaps most importantly, willingness to collect student feedback
and to reflect on one’s pedagogical practices.
The validity of this didactic approach has been supported by research.
Domagała-Zyśk and Podlewska (2012) conducted a pilot study aimed at
examining English speech production competence in Polish DHH students.
The study included a mixed-gender group of eight students with hearing
loss ranging from moderate to profound. These participants made digital
recordings of approximately three minutes in length wherein they read short
passages from their English course books. These were then presented to
a panel of native hearing listeners, who provided independent ratings of
content comprehension and pronunciation correctness. These ratings were
analysed statistically, and the researchers found that on average, content
comprehension received a 6.2-point rating on a 10-point-scale (62%),
whereas pronunciation correctness got a slightly lower rating of 5.2 points
(52%). The researchers conclude that Polish DHH students, if appropriately
guided, can achieve a high level of speech intelligibility in the target language.
These results have important pedagogical implications. When integrating
pronunciation into foreign language programmes it is important to distinguish between segmental (individual sounds our DHH students are having
difficulty with) and suprasegmental features (word, phrase, and sentence
stress and intonation as well as connected speech), paying equal attention
to both and eliminating pronunciation errors that interfere with successful
communication.
Podlewska (2014) conducted a large-scale investigation into DHH
students’ mastery of the four main elements of language knowledge (pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary and grammar) and the four main skills (listening,
reading, speaking and writing). The study involved learners from several
countries, and
[…] demonstrated that mastery of the speaking skill (M 2,78) and pronunciation of the target language (M 2,61) are high priorities for the subjects. Indeed,
speaking received the highest rating overall whereas pronunciation took fourth
place, and these results held across groups with widely different first language
backgrounds. (Podlewska, 2014, p. 158)
A Challenge, a Must, an Adventure …
271
There is a body of evidence (e.g. Guiberson, 2014; Kontra et al., 2015)
showing that these results are consistent with those obtained for the hearing
cohorts. They rated speaking and pronunciation highly, probably because
of their desire to easily negotiate with the world they live in, obtain a
comprehensive education, participate in research and knowledge exchange
at conferences and increase their employability. Since the ability to orally
communicate with speakers of other languages is seen by DHH students
as being of prime importance, it would be pedagogically unsound not to
help them reach their potential. On the other hand, DHH students are
often at a disadvantage in developing intelligible pronunciation if they do
not hear clearly enough to perceive the nuances of the phonemic inventory
of a given language. The need, then, is for teachers working with DHH
students to have a thorough understanding of the nature of the problems they
are attempting to remediate. Just like acquiring intelligible pronunciation is
an essential component of communicative competence, developing a solid
conceptual framework for the task of imparting foreign spoken languages to
DHH students is a necessary step towards the creative crafting of teaching
and learning strategies.
Persistent demands from DHH students of English for further ways to
build their spoken language skills have led their teachers to develop a new
approach to teaching oral communication with a wide range of diversified
accommodations and strategies.
The most important accommodations employed by the Centre include:
• A liberating and empowering listening environment: The Centre’s classroom was chosen and refurbished in such a way that it has the acoustic
conditions and the insulation against background noise appropriate to
its intended use. Reverberation time was reduced by softening the hard
surfaces. The classroom is equipped with an induction loop, computers, an
electronic interactive whiteboard, variable lighting, desks and chairs that
can be easily rearranged and placed in a single arc for creating a DHHfriendly seating arrangement in which every student sees everyone. One of
the walls is lined with mirrors for pronunciation practice.
• Institutional support: The Centre assists DHH students in the mode of
communication best suited to them. If necessary, services such as sign
language interpreting, note-taking, speech-to-text reporting are provided
within and outside regular hours (such as a field trip or a workshop).
• A tailored foreign language instruction: At John Paul II Catholic University
of Lublin courses in foreign languages are non-elective and are offered to
students as part of three-year first-cycle or five-year long cycle programmes.
272
E. Domagała-Zyśk and A. Podlewska
They typically comprise 60 classes (120 contact hours over 4 semesters)
and are conducted in groups of twenty students. DHH course participants
may apply for a course extension. They may also request to attend a course
taught in a smaller group or on a one-to-one basis. DHH students with
voicing capability who wish to work on speaking may arrange to do so.
Instructional strategies developed by the Centre include the use of cued
speech. Even though cued speech was originally devised to provide an access
to the language foundation necessary for attaining literacy by deaf children, it has been beneficial to individuals of all ages with any type and
degree of hearing loss. Teachers at the Centre have found it a very useful
and supportive tool for focusing on developing specific language skills such
as speech production and intensive and extensive listening. Cued speech is
used with DHH adult students to help them clarify their articulation, to
minimise the frequency of phonetic errors occurrence and to ease the strain
of lip-reading in the target foreign language.4
English for Specific Purposes, ESP-Ecially for DHH
Students
The study of modern foreign languages is more and more often seen as an
essential skill accompanying other subjects such as business, law and science.
Foreign language competence coupled with a very specific orientation is often
essential for academic purposes and workplace success. The vocational argument is often effective in motivating Polish EFL learners, and DHH students
are no exception (Ochse, 2013). When given the choice between attending
a general English course or an ESP course related to their area of study, the
vast majority of both hearing and DHH students choose the latter.
ESP courses at the Centre for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Education (led
by both authors of this chapter) are offered to DHH students as part of
either the five-year Master’s degree programme or the three-year first-cycle
degree programme. They are designed for intermediate or upper-intermediate
learners of English and comprise 60 classes (120 contact hours) over a
two-year period. There is the possibility of extending the course to three
years to allow for more practice. The objective of ESP courses as taught
to DHH students majoring in different fields of study is to provide tools
such as selected grammar structures, terminology or collocations to enable
them to use the English common in their respective fields (Domagała-Zyśk
& Podlewska, 2019). From a cognitive perspective, ESP learners need to
A Challenge, a Must, an Adventure …
273
communicate conceptual knowledge, which requires them to become familiar
with the principles and relationships that underlie a domain and its subjectspecific terminology. Conceptual knowledge is acquired at a fast pace through
mindful engagement with materials in a range of contexts (from subjectspecific texts in the learners’ L1 to conversations in English with tutors in class
and practical settings). This increases both general and technolectal linguistic
competence in English.5
Obviously, not all information on terminology relating to a specific
domain can be taught via direct instruction, even less so when it is taught
simultaneously in two languages. That said, language learning should not be
separated from acquiring research skills that enable one to look for information about unfamiliar concepts. On the other hand, it is of vital importance
to provide additional explanations of key concepts, especially if their L1 and
L2 equivalents are not semantically identical. However, we have to remember
that for DHH students with a limited L1, direct translation may be of limited
use. To give an example, in legal English the terms lease and tenancy are
used interchangeably. Both can be translated into Polish as either najem or
dzierżawa. The problem is that under the Polish law, only dzierżawa covers
the right to collect fruits (the income or goods derived or produced from
property) whereas neither the USA nor the UK law draws such a distinction.
DHH students’ learning of ESP and modern foreign languages are heavily
written text-based. The reasons for that are twofold. First, novice ESP teachers
who are not yet familiar with the subject-specific fundamentals seek security in presenting written texts that they consider to be representative of
the specialism they have only just started to develop. Moreover, if a class is
primarily written text-based with no videos to watch, discussions to moderate
or audio materials to listen to, very few accessibility problems arise. However,
relying too much on specialist texts or, worse still, on collective deciphering
of such texts, may become counterproductive because of the lack of twoway interaction. In teaching reading to DHH students as part of an ESP
course, the focus should be on the development of student strategies to
exploit authentic materials (e.g. legal and medical documentation, podcasts,
vodcasts) as learning resources.
274
E. Domagała-Zyśk and A. Podlewska
Teaching and Learning Strategies Recommended
for English Classes with Deaf and Hard
of Hearing Students
Our teaching experience and action research projects (e.g. Domagała-Zyśk,
2013b) provide evidence that in the process of teaching foreign languages
such as English to DHH students, many general teaching and learning
strategies are regarded as effective. These strategies are varied and depend
on the teacher’s characteristics and preferences, the institution’s dominant
teaching approach and contemporary methodological trends. In the field
of surdo-glottodidactics—the methodology of teaching language to DHH
people—there is still a shortage of methodological materials for teachers of
the deaf (Knoors et al., 2019) and therefore there is an urgent need for
evidence-based publications presenting particular methodological and pedagogical solutions. Seven of the aspects of teaching that are most relevant to
DHH students are briefly discussed below.
Individualisation
DHH students usually experience challenges in language learning, e.g. in
developing an age-appropriate vocabulary size. Thus it is very important
to individualise within the scope of the general teaching programme, for
example with respect to the vocabulary words that we want them to know.
The more the goals are personalised and negotiated with the student, the
higher the motivation and aspirations (Domagała-Zyśk & Podlewska, 2012,
2019). This often increases the learner’s level of motivation and makes the
teaching more effective.
Emotionalisation
Students tend to be most interested in what is going on in their immediate
environment. This means that reading and grammar exercises that include
emotional and personal elements, e.g. relating to their classmates or family
members (“Alex, does your grandmother feel well?”) invigorate the learning
and make the language meaningful to the students. In order to remember
things, we need to get to know them in an emotional context, whether this
involves positive emotions (gratitude, happiness, joy) or negative ones (anger,
sadness, worry). When a word is accompanied by an emotion, it can be much
more readily understood and remembered. This means that a good emotional
A Challenge, a Must, an Adventure …
275
atmosphere, and emotion-based incentives and activities may support the
DHH students’ achievements. This was confirmed in numerous studies (e.g.
Doleżalova, 2013; Domagała-Zyśk, 2013b; Gulati, 2016).
Lexical Analysis
DHH students tend to be good linguists. Many are bilingual in a sign
language and their first language (e.g. Polish or Czech). If they use speech,
it is usually connected with many hours of speech therapy classes, where
they develop not only spoken language skills but also linguistic and metalinguistic knowledge. DHH students who get to know a new word often
want to know everything about it—its meaning, forms, grammatical rules
and exceptions, synonyms, antonyms and usage in context (Domagała-Zyśk,
2013b, 2016; Falkowska, 2013; Podlewska, 2013, 2016). This is because
many DHH students have acquired their first spoken language in the same
way that non-deaf people acquire a second spoken language.
Multi-Sensory Memorisation
Because they rely less on hearing, DHH students feed their brain with other
signals, so the input directed at them should be both visual and kinaesthetic.
Visual stimuli can be also beneficial and with CIT contemporary development—short films with subtitles, pictures of unknown places and concepts
are easy to find (Domagała-Zyśk, 2015a; Gulati, 2016; Nabiałek, 2013;
Podlewska, 2013). The teacher might associate new words with smells or
tastes so as to make the memorisation as multisensory as possible—learning
new vocabulary can be connected with tasting new fruit, or smelling cooking
oils of different kind.
Structuralisation
Although using a foreign language flexibly and fluently is a common aim, it
is advisable, especially at the beginning, to highlight the clear and predictable
structure of the foreign language to the DHH students. English is a language
with a specific and fixed word order, so it is necessary to learn the structure in
order to build correct sentences. The position of the sentence parts (subject,
verb, and object) differs in affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences,
and the teacher can demonstrate this in a visual way to help the students
276
E. Domagała-Zyśk and A. Podlewska
produce their own sentences. A simple example can look like this (see also
Doleżalova, 2013):
Question word
Auxiliary
Subject
Predicator
What time
How much
Where
How
do
do
does
does
you
you
she
she
start?
earn?
work?
feel?
Experiential Learning
This concept was introduced by Kolb (1984), who suggested that the most
effective way of learning is to experience a situation first-hand and then
try to describe and understand it. That is why he proposed a four-step
learning cycle, consisting of (1) experience of a concrete situation; (2) reflective observation of this situation; (3) abstract conceptualisation and (4) active
experimentation. This concept can be fruitfully used in English language
classes. For example, a student comes to the classroom and informs the
teacher that she has a right, by which she means that she has passed
her driving exam (1). Together with the teacher, the student analyses and
discusses the situation (2), e.g. My sister does not have a driving license and
I do. The next step is to describe the situation again, using correct English,
and write it down with the teacher’s support (3). After the text has been
written, it can be shared with other people, e.g. friends on social media (4).
The teaching experience shows this learning cycle might be very profitable for
DHH students (Domagała-Zyśk, 2013b, 2016) as they employ a wide range
of strategies to make meaning.
Conclusion
We believe that what matters nowadays is not only being but participating.
English is for many nations an essential tool to be able to participate in
culture, education and work. This chapter has aimed to lead the reader
through different stages of our experience of teaching English as a foreign
language to DHH students, starting from a multifaceted challenge, through
regular courses to our nowadays’ feeling of participation in an unexpected
adventure. Offering DHH students the best quality EFL teaching involves
developing a support system, extensive use of technology, creativity, fruitful
A Challenge, a Must, an Adventure …
277
meetings with other teachers, and most of all, participation in our students’
struggles and successes.
Although the strategies described above are rooted in our situated practice,
we believe that they can be adapted to suit the demands of DHH students in
other settings. What is important is that teachers adapt them and create new
strategies which are based on students’ experiences, needs, wants and personal
trajectories. By listening to students, EFL/ESP teachers will be able to create
learning moments which are student-centred. We do hope the readers of this
chapter will be able to actively participate in such moments.
Suggested Further Reading
Domagała-Zyśk E. (Ed.). (2013). English as a foreign language for the deaf and
hard of hearing persons in Europe. Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL.
The book provides evidence-based EFL DHH teachers’ reflections on
organisation, communication and methodological issues connected with
teaching English to deaf and hard of hearing.
Domagała-Zyśk, E., & Kontra, E. H. (Eds.). (2016). English as a foreign
language for deaf and hard -of -hearing persons: Challenges and strategies.
Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
The book includes chapters about best practices, challenges and innovative
teaching strategies for DHH students of English as a foreign language.
Knoors, H., Marschark, M., & Brons, M. (Eds.). (2019). Deaf education
beyond the western world: Context, challenges, and prospects. New York: Oxford
University Press.
The book is not only about English—it offers a picture of deaf education
beyond the Western world from the perspective of local scholars associated
with educating deaf and hard-of-hearing learners.
Engagement Priorities
• The model of universal learning design enables teachers to design their
classes in such a way so as to make it possible for every student, including
those with special educational needs, to participate fully in each activity.
Would you be able to implement this model in your teaching context?
• Technology helps a great deal when teaching DHH students. What
technology-supported activities would you be able to design and implement in your teaching context?
278
E. Domagała-Zyśk and A. Podlewska
• To what extent is what we know about effective EFL (and other modern
foreign languages) teaching transferable to DHH students?
Notes
1. An excellent selection of online ideas and materials for teaching EFL to deaf
learners is provided on Naomi Epstein’s website https://visualisingideas.edublogs.
org/.
2. In the case of people with profound and severe hearing loss, recorded texts might
be replaced by transcripts or specialised video recordings that clearly show the
face of the speaker.
3. Cued speech is a multisensory communication approach originally designed for
use with profoundly deaf children. It employs eight handshapes in four different
locations near or on the face to supplement the natural mouth movements of
speech. The eight handshapes represent groups of consonants that are visually
different on the mouth and the four locations represent vowels. Mouthshape–
handshape pairs and mouthshape–hand placement pairs combine to form a
visual representation of all the sounds of spoken language and thus remove all
ambiguities in lip-reading.
4. For more information on the use of cued speech at the Centre for Deaf and
Hard of Hearing Education see Podlewska (2013, 2016).
5. For a detailed discussion of competences important in teaching and learning
language for specific purposes see Górnicz (2013).
References
Crowe, K., & Guiberson, M. (2021). Professionals’ perspectives on supporting deaf
multilingual learners and their families. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf
Education, 26 (1), 70–84.
Doleżalova, M. (2013). An English quest: An art of teaching English to the
deaf and hard-of-hearing students. In E. Domagała-Zyśk (Ed.), English as a
foreign language for deaf and hard-of-hearing persons in Europe (pp. 153–162).
Wydawnictwo KUL.
Domagała-Zyśk, E. (2001). O uczeniu j˛ezyka angielskiego uczniów z uszkodzeniem
słuchu. J˛ezyki Obce w Szkole, 7, 106–110.
Domagała-Zyśk, E. (Ed.). (2013a). English as a foreign language for deaf and hardof-hearing persons in Europe. Wydawnictwo KUL.
A Challenge, a Must, an Adventure …
279
Domagała-Zyśk, E. (2013b). Wieloj˛ezyczni. Studenci niesłysz˛acy i słabosłysz˛acy w
procesie uczenia si˛e i nauczania j˛ezyków obcych [Multilingual. Deaf and hardof-hearing students in the process of teaching and learning foreign languages].
Wydawnictwo KUL.
Domagała-Zyśk, E. (2015a). Uso de las TIC en el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras
en estudiantes sordos universitarios: Una experiencia en la Universidad Católica
de Lublin. Escuela Abierta, 13, 137–153.
Domagała-Zyśk, E. (2015b). Projektowanie uniwersalne w edukacji osób z wad˛a
słuchu [Universal design in education of hearing-impaired persons]. In M.
Nowak, E. Stoch, & B. Borowska (Eds.), Z problematyki teatrologii i pedagogiki
[Issues in theatrology and pedagogy] (pp. 553–568). Wydawnictwo KUL.
Domagała-Zyśk, E. (2016). Vocabulary teaching strategies in EFL classes for deaf
and hard of hearing students. In E. Domagała-Zyśk & E. H. Kontra (Eds.),
English as a foreign language for deaf and hard-of-hearing persons: Challenges and
strategies (pp. 135–152). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Domagała-Zyśk, E., & Kontra, E. H. (Eds.). (2016). English as a foreign language
for deaf and hard-of-hearing persons: Challenges and strategies. Cambridge Scholars
Publishing.
Domagała-Zyśk, E., & Podlewska, A. (2012). Umiej˛etności polskich studentów
z uszkodzeniami słuchu w zakresie posługiwania si˛e mówion˛a form˛a j˛ezyka
angielskiego [Competences of Polish students with hearing impairments in
terms of speech production in English]. In K. Kutek-Sładek (Ed.), Student z
niepełnosprawności˛a w środowisku akademickim (pp. 134–157). Wydawnictwo Św.
Stanisława BM.
Domagała-Zyśk, E., & Podlewska, A. (2019). Strategies of oral communication of
deaf and hard-of-hearing (D/HH) non-native English users. European Journal of
Special Needs Education, 34 (2), 156–171.
Falkowska, J. (2013). Monolingual, bilingual, trilingual? Using different languages
in an EFL class for the d/deaf. In E. Domagała-Zyśk (Ed.), English as a
foreign language for deaf and hard-of-hearing persons in Europe (pp. 55–72).
Wydawnictwo KUL.
Górnicz, M. (2013). Teaching medical translation to non-medical students: A case
study with some theoretical insights. JAHR, European Journal of Bioethics, 7, 129–
144.
Guiberson, M. (2014). Bilingual skills of deaf/hard of hearing children from Spain.
Cochlear Implants International, 15 (2), 87–92.
Gulati, B. (2016). Visualizing: The most effective way to teach ESL to deaf and
hard-of-hearing students. In E. Domagała-Zyśk & E. H. Kontra (Eds.), English
as a foreign language for deaf and hard-of-hearing persons: Challenges and strategies
(pp. 153–168). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Kauffman, J. M. (Ed.). (2020). On educational inclusion: Meanings, history, issues
and international perspectives. Routledge.
Knoors, H., Marschark, M., & Brons, M. (Eds.). (2019). Deaf education beyond the
western world: Context, challenges, and prospects. Oxford University Press.
280
E. Domagała-Zyśk and A. Podlewska
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development. Prentice-Hall.
Kontra, E. (2013). Language learning against the odds: Retrospective accounts by
Deaf adults. In E. Domagała-Zyśk (Ed.), English as a foreign language for deaf and
hard-of-hearing persons in Europe (pp. 93–112). Wydawnictwo KUL.
Kontra, E., Csizer, K., & Piniel, K. (2015). The challenge for deaf and hard of
hearing students to learn foreign languages in special needs schools. European
Journal of Special Needs Education, 30 (2), 141–155.
Krakowiak, K. (2013). My deaf child—Who is she? Who is he? In E. DomagałaZyśk (Ed.), English as a foreign language for deaf and hard-of-hearing persons in
Europe (pp. 13–26). Wydawnictwo KUL.
Lewandowska P. (2020). Dost˛epność edukacji zdalnej dla uczniów z
niepełnosprawności˛a słuchow˛a w klasach IV–VIII [Accessibility of online
education for students with hearing impairment in grades 4–8]. In E.
Domagała-Zyśk (Ed.), Zdalne uczenie si˛e a specjalne potrzeby edukacyjne. Z
doświadczeń pandemii Covid-19 (pp. 11–40). Episteme.
Nabiałek, A. (2013). From a blackboard to an interactive whiteboard: Teaching
English as a foreign language to deaf and hard of hearing students at Adam
Mickiewicz University in Poznań. In E. Domagała-Zyśk (Ed.), English as a
foreign language for deaf and hard of hearing persons in Europe (pp. 197–206).
Wydawnictwo KUL.
Nabiałek, A. (2016). Immersion in the English language for deaf students. In E.
Domagała-Zyśk & E. H. Kontra (Eds.), English as a foreign language for deaf
and hard-of-hearing persons: Challenges and strategies (pp. 169–182). Cambridge
Scholars Publishing.
Ochse, E. (2013). English for specific purposes and the deaf professional: The SignMedia Project. In E. Domagała-Zyśk (Ed.), English as a foreign language for deaf
and hard-of-hearing persons in Europe (pp. 77–92). Wydawnictwo KUL.
Podlewska, A. (2013). The use of cued speech within an empirically-based approach
to teaching English as a foreign language to hard of hearing students. In E.
Domagała-Zyśk (Ed.), English as a foreign language for deaf and hard of hearing
persons in Europe (pp. 181–196). Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL.
Podlewska, A. (2014). Deaf and hard of hearing students’ perspectives on foreign
language proficiency. In E. Domagała-Zyśk (Ed.), Developing language competence
of people with hearing and speech disorders (pp. 153–162). Wydawnictwo KUL.
Podlewska, A. (2016). The use of cued speech to support the development of
verbal language skills in English language instruction for deaf and hard-ofhearing students. In: E. Domagała-Zyśk, E. H. Kontra (Eds.), English as a foreign
language for deaf and hard-of-hearing persons: Challenges and strategies (pp. 23–40).
Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Podlewska, A., & Keller, P. (2014). The use of cued speech and information technology in English language instruction for students with hearing impairments.
In J. Baran (Ed.), Chosen topics of supporting persons with a disability (Vol. 2,
pp. 185–203). Wydawnictwo Naukowe UP.
A Challenge, a Must, an Adventure …
281
Pritchard, P. (2013). Teaching of English to deaf and severely hard-of-hearing pupils
in Norway. In E. Domagała-Zyśk (Ed.), English as a foreign language for deaf and
hard-of-hearing persons in Europe (pp. 113–134). Wydawnictwo KUL.
Rieser, R. (2008). Implementing inclusive education. Commonwealth Secretariat.
Sedláčková, J., & Foniokova, Z. (2013). Reading strategy instruction for deaf
learners of English: Definitions, contexts and implications. In E. Domagała-Zyśk
(Ed.), English as a foreign language for deaf and hard-of-hearing persons in Europe
(pp. 135–152). Wydawnictwo KUL.
English Language Teacher Educators’
Knowledge and Classroom Practices of ADHD
Neşe Cabaroğlu and Merve Tohma
Introduction
Research on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) so far has
revealed that approximately one child in every classroom is estimated to have
ADHD (Anderson, 2020; Trout et al., 2007). The symptoms of ADHD are
present in children as young as 2–3 years of age, which may lead to the
misperception that the disorder is only observed in children. ADHD can be a
lifelong condition that changes and evolves as a person ages. Moreover, symptoms may not be as clear as in children. In adults, hyperactivity may decrease
but adults with ADHD have a higher risk of developing such symptoms
as impulsiveness, depression, anti-social behaviours, anxiety, increased anger
expression and difficulty paying attention (Daffner-Deming, 2021; Faraone
et al., 2000; Richards et al., 2006). Hence, it is essential that all educators are
equipped with the necessary information about students’ functional diversity,
in particular learners with ADHD. Furthermore, teacher education needs to
N. Cabaroğlu (B)
Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey
e-mail: ncabar@cu.edu.tr
M. Tohma
Çağ University, Mersin, Turkey
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_16
283
284
N. Cabaroğlu and M. Tohma
prepare future teachers to teach learners with learning difficulties in inclusive classrooms since they are likely to meet students with ADHD (Ewe &
Aspelin, 2021).
In this chapter, we report on Turkish English language teaching (ELT)
teacher educators’ perceived knowledge of ADHD. We explore to what extent
and how much they know about the symptoms, diagnosis and causes of
ADHD. Additionally, we share the educational interventions these teacher
educators use when teaching, along with the findings on whether these
educators teach about ADHD and teaching strategies for ELT.
We recognise that the framework and findings included exceed the scope
of ELT since the teacher educators did not exclusively address strategies for
supporting students’ linguistic development. Nevertheless, the nature of the
findings may indicate that ELT professionals may need to go beyond ELT
and develop understanding of other issues in (teacher) education. We hope
that our study raises awareness about un(der)explored interventions among
educators who work in different contexts in ELT.
What Is ADHD?
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is characterised by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (Anderson, 2020; Murphy, 2005). The
American Psychiatric Association (2013) defines ADHD as one of the most
common neurodevelopmental disorders with childhood onset, with a prevalence rate of 5.29% worldwide. The behavioural problems that emerge with
ADHD have considerably negative effect on the social, academic or occupational functioning of the individual. Studies have shown that individuals
diagnosed with ADHD in childhood meet the diagnostic criteria even 8–
10 years after diagnosis, and that symptoms of hyperactivity decrease with
age and symptoms of inattention persist (Barkley, 2006). The exact causes
of ADHD are still unknown, yet studies conducted so far indicate that
several factors could be put forth as etiological agents to the occurrence of
the disorder (Ewe & Aspelin, 2021; Weyandt, 2007a, 2007b) which include
the interaction of various genetic, biological, psychosocial and environmental
factors (Biederman & Faraone, 2005).
The symptoms of ADHD in children are well defined and are usually
noticeable before the age of six (Ewe & Aspelin, 2021). However, it is more
difficult to define ADHD in adults due to the scarcity of research and to the
fact that symptoms in adults tend to be subtler than childhood symptoms
(Anderson, 2020). A review of the literature reveals that adults diagnosed
English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge …
285
with ADHD have a lower quality of life when compared to the adults
without ADHD (Agarwal et al. 2012; Hong et al., 2021). University students
with ADHD are reported to be more depressed, more easily frustrated or
emotionally inhibited, and less academically advanced (Advokat et al., 2011).
Adults diagnosed with ADHD are highly prone to display disruptive
behaviours which may result in a difficulty in management of emotions
and lead to social problems followed by personality disorders in severe cases.
Studying at a university is a challenging period when the individuals’ orientation to a new environment is taken into consideration (Kim, 2013). Students
diagnosed with the disorder are reported to have poorer grades, lower standardised tests scores, greater need of special education services, higher rate
of absenteeism, increased risk of school dropout and less risk of pursuing
post-secondary education (DuPaul et al., 2011).
Treatment of ADHD is considered to be essential in reducing symptoms and psychological distress as well as enhancing the functioning of
the individual (Lichtenstein et al., 2012). ADHD treatment is based on a
multimodal approach combining medication and some other specific interventions (Kooij et al., 2010). Interventions within the school context are
considered particularly relevant. For that purpose, the US Department of
Education (2008) proposes a programme which integrates three components, namely academic instruction, behavioural interventions and classroom
accommodations. Among these, interventions related to academic instruction include strategies such as peer tutoring, computer-assisted instruction,
task and instructional modifications and strategy training (Daffner-Deming,
2021; Raggi & Chronis, 2006). Behavioural interventions, on the other
hand, require addressing three basic questions about causes, consequences
and functions of behaviours (Elik et al., 2015) and involve interventions
such as preparation of goal sheets and behaviour charts, managing challenging
behaviour of students with ADHD, and help with time management.
Classroom-based interventions can be either proactive or reactive and
include issues such as general classroom organisation and structure, reward
and frequent feedback, (Rajwan et al., 2012) as well as visual or auditory
prompts and classroom rules. To reduce the academic related difficulties,
studies (e.g. Brock et al., 2009; Daffner-Deming, 2021) suggest educational interventions such as: adjusting the task difficulty/duration, supporting
peer/class-wide tutoring, increasing novelty/interest level of tasks, providing
rule reminders and visual cues, allowing self-pacing of work and a choice
of activities, giving clear/direct instructions, increasing physical movement,
giving feedback and encouraging self-monitoring.
286
N. Cabaroğlu and M. Tohma
In the case of intervention strategies for students with ADHD in the ELT
classroom, teachers can use a variety of active learning strategies: (1) asking
learners to guess the meaning of a word from context, (2) promoting handson activities, raising phonological awareness (Villalobos, 2012), (3) teaching
study skills (e.g. using planning sheets or story mapping) (Davis & Florian,
2004), (4) focusing on small chunks of language at a time, (5) providing
explicit explanations of how language structures work, (6) getting students to
practise through repetition, (7) providing content variety in terms of the type
of input and action required (Smith, 2015) and (8) using personal vignettes
as support (Pentón-Herrera, 2020).
It has been reported (e.g. Anderson, 2020, Pentón-Herrera, 2020) that in
order to build a classroom environment where all students, and students with
special needs in particular, feel safe and included, a change in teacher attitude
and classroom practices are required. Such a change in attitudes, in turn,
necessitates having information and experience about learning difficulties
(Carroll et al., 2003). In this regard, knowledge comes both from experience
and through training. Studies show that teachers’ level of knowledge increases
with the amount of exposure to ADHD students in the classroom (Anderson
et al., 2012; Kos et al., 2004). The knowledge acquired by the teachers does
not only depend on the number of years they have been teaching but on
their experience with teaching ADHD students in particular (Anderson et al.,
2012). In-service training also plays an important role in increasing teachers’
knowledge of ADHD (Kos et al., 2006).
Although psychologists or clinicians perform a diagnosis of ADHD, they
point out the role teachers play in this process. Comprehensive knowledge
based on the observations of teachers is important in terms of evaluation
and differentiation of ADHD, (Atkins & Pelham, 2001) as they spend more
time with students and have more experience in judging typical or atypical
behaviour based on their experience with multiple students in a variety of
settings (Kovshoff et al., 2012). To put it differently, in order for the teachers
to lead the student through the treatment process about a disorder, they must
first make the initial observation of that disorder and have the required level
of knowledge about its symptoms for diagnosis. It should be noted that the
role of teachers is not to diagnose and treat, but to support the finalisation
of the diagnosis by sharing observations and assessments in the diagnosis and
treatment process (Almacioglu, 2007).
Due to the pervasiveness of ADHD across the educational system, teachers’
role in contributing to its diagnosis and in creating an inclusive learning environment for students with ADHD, we conducted a small-scale study in the
area of ELT which we elaborate upon in the next section.
English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge …
287
Our Study
Our study aimed to describe the level of knowledge of Turkish ELT teacher
educators about the symptoms, diagnosis, causes and treatment of ADHD, as
well as the intervention strategies they frequently use when teaching students
with ADHD. We held interviews with eight EFL teacher educators (seven
female and one male) working at two different universities in Turkey. One
of them held an MA degree and the rest held both master’s and doctorate
degrees. Their teaching experience ranged from 13 to more than 40 years.
One of the participants taught at BA level only, the other seven taught both
at undergraduate and postgraduate levels.
Interview findings are presented below regarding (1) teacher educators’
perceived knowledge of ADHD, their sources of knowledge about and exposure to ADHD, and (2) their intervention strategies and challenges in teacher
education.
Teacher Educators’ Perceived Knowledge
of ADHD
Seven out of eight participants explained that they had little information
about ADHD and that they did not feel confident to put their limited
knowledge into practice. Most of the knowledge they had acquired was not
through formal education, but rather from indirect information from observations and from their self-studies (e.g. through reading books and articles
on ADHD out of curiosity, or through watching documentaries). Only one
participant stated that she possessed sufficient knowledge about ADHD since
she had students with ADHD in the previous years and that she had carried
out research to deal with this situation in the classroom. Nevertheless, she
insisted on the importance of having more comprehensive special education
training. The interviewees’ answers reveal that ELT professionals need to be
aware of ADHD. This finding correlates with the literature, which reports
that it is likely that at least one student in an ELT class has attributes of
ADHD (Legato, 2011; Pentón-Herrera, 2020). Therefore, ADHD is an issue
which ELT education needs to address.
288
N. Cabaroğlu and M. Tohma
Sources of Knowledge of ADHD
Our participating teacher educators stated that they obtained information
about ADHD from a variety of sources. The most frequently mentioned
resource was self-studies (i.e. reading books, articles and magazines or
attending lectures). The second most important source of knowledge was
their social environment, which includes learning from their own family
members, friends, colleagues and students’ parents. As the third source,
the teacher educators mentioned learning from experts such as counsellors,
psychologists or psychiatrists as effective sources of information. Finally, two
participants explained that their knowledge of ADHD originated from exposure to a child with ADHD in their environment, and to students they taught
during their internship period.
Exposure to ADHD
Only one teacher educator explained that she had a student diagnosed with
ADHD, while the remaining seven had difficulty in answering this question.
One of the participants said “I had one or two students that I suspected of
ADHD […] by observing their behaviours in the classroom”. Another participant, explained “the question of whether the student has ADHD remains
only in the dimension of doubt” as the university students were adults and
they could control their behaviours.
Teaching Pre-service Teachers About ADHD and Related
Intervention Strategies
All the ELT teacher educators who participated in the interviews indicated
that, albeit limited, they did touch upon ADHD-related issues within the
frame of individual learner differences and learning difficulties in the courses
they taught. To exemplify, one educator said:
One of my relatives is a primary school teacher and I know that she encounters many students with ADHD problem. Chances are highly likely that
our student teachers will also meet such learners in the future throughout
their teaching career. For this reason, I try to raise an awareness through our
discussions.
The same participant further explained that during the discussions, she
emphasised the importance of avoiding labelling learners as “lazy” due to a
English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge …
289
bad grade or low performance. She advised them to refer such learners to
special education needs teachers. Other participants also explained that in
their courses, they required their students to do some background reading
on ADHD and other specific learning difficulties. Additionally, they often
held class discussions about how to address individual needs of students with
ADHD and how to deal with related disruptive behaviours.
Challenges
The teacher educators mentioned three types of challenges: ADHD students’
need for movement, lack of attention and the need for engaging in extra
tasks. In relation to this, some participants stated that students with ADHD
needed more assistance than other students during the lesson. For example,
one teacher educator said: “Even though they are adults, they have trouble
sitting calmly”. Additionally, another participant reported that students with
ADHD suffered “a rapid loss of attention during the lesson” and that they
had “problems with intrinsic motivation”. Furthermore, the same participant
mentioned the following:
This situation can also be exhausting for me. I’ve been experimenting with
several different ways of helping them focus their attention on the activities.
The teacher educators explained that they gave additional duties to the
students with ADHD to take into account their need for mobility or lack of
attention (for example, “asking the student with ADHD to clean the board
or to open a window to ventilate the classroom”).
Even if the teacher educators felt challenged sometimes, they explained
that they did not have major problems when compared with, for example,
teachers of young learners with ADHD:
University students are aware of the fact that they have ADHD as they are more
conscious students due to their age. This allows them to control themselves and
to avoid creating an environment that causes problems in the classroom.
Perceived Difficulties
According to our participants, students with ADHD had cognitive, speech
and language impairments, as well as social problems, which resulted in a
lack of willingness to learn English. To exemplify, one teacher educator said:
290
N. Cabaroğlu and M. Tohma
At university level, students have the biggest problem when it comes to
focusing their attention. In terms of learning English, the student may lose
track of the course subject at that moment and may not be able to fulfil the
tasks.
As explained earlier, individuals with ADHD are more prone to talk excessively and louder, blurt out answers and interrupt others’ conversation
(Westby & Watson, 2004). In line with this, one of the participants said:
These students do not wait for their turn because they have focusing problems.
They can blurt out answers [...] even though I do not give them the right to
speak.
Similarly, one teacher educator complained that the student with ADHD
would “express what he wanted to say whenever he wanted to” and that
“although I told him that he should ask for permission, he often forgot about
it. He had difficulties in overcoming this problem”. Two educators stated that
the students with ADHD at university did not have many problems because
“they are now in a college and are older”.
In education, each student has different and unique needs, and teachers
need to appeal to as many students as possible, including students with
special difficulties, using a wide range of strategies. When it comes to teaching
English to students with ADHD, teachers need to make informed decisions
and use different strategies because the needs of learners with ADHD can be
challenging to meet, considering both the students with ADHD themselves
and the whole class. In fact, the strategies used for students in different age
groups and the frequency of use of these strategies vary according to age and
to the degree of intensity of ADHD (Gioia & Isquith, 2002). For example,
the physical movement strategy may be the primary preferred strategy for
younger learners, while it may be a secondary strategy for adults who have
gained self-control.
In the light of the above discussion, we asked the ELT teacher educators to state the educational interventions they most frequently used in their
classrooms. Table 1 displays those interventions.
As seen in Table 1, the most commonly preferred methods are adopting an
appropriate attitude when teaching. To exemplify, one teacher said:
I keep teacher’s attitude above every strategy. The calmness, flexibility and
understanding of the teacher are very essential. These increase the intrinsic
motivation of the student. Learning does not occur if motivation is missing.
English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge …
291
Table 1 Educational interventions frequently used in the ELT teacher education
classroom
Educational interventions
Teacher attitude, varied presentation and
format of materials
Peer tutoring
Physical movement
Physical arrangement of the classroom, active
teaching, novelty, use of cues, prompts and
attention checks
Teacher attention, choice, self-management,
clear and direct instruction
Number of educators using the
interventions
5
4
3
2
1
This teacher educator also believed in the importance of using variety of
materials (“both visual and auditory”) for drawing the attention of students
with ADHD and to make smooth transitions between activities.
Out of the eight teacher educators, four expressed a preference for peer
tutoring. For example, one educator said:
I think peer tutoring has an important role in learning English. When forming
groups in the classroom, I put the students with ADHD with the students who
have better attention span and high motivation in the same group. Pair-work
works well with these students.
Moreover, three participants said that they preferred physical movement as a
strategy. One participant said:
I give tasks involving various physical movements to control the mobility of
my student with ADHD. When I place such responsibilities on him, he is
happy to do so and control is finally provided.
Another teacher educator supported this view and explained that she asked
those students, for example, to “clean the board” or “make photocopies of
some documents” to help them work off their energy.
Teacher Educators’ Perceptions of Their Ability to Teach
Students with ADHD
When the teacher educators were asked about their own ability to teach
ADHD students, four of them stated that they felt inadequate about teaching
students with ADHD. For example, one of the educators, who explained that
292
N. Cabaroğlu and M. Tohma
he did not have much experience with ADHD students and that he had some
information about this learning difficulty through reading books and articles,
said:
If I had been working with groups of young learners, I wouldn’t know what
to do because the symptoms manifest much more clearly and intensely with
those students. However, as the level of awareness of university students is
higher, I’m less likely to encounter negative situations brought about by this
disorder. I have not felt the need to improve myself so far. So, I feel insufficient
and not well equipped.
Similar concerns were mentioned by another teacher educator who stated
that she felt moderately sufficient as she was not “very knowledgeable about
ADHD in terms of theory”, but to some degree, she had “the necessary
patience, smile, understanding and empathy”. Out of eight, two educators expressed that they felt adequately equipped to teach to students with
ADHD.
Expert Support
In our study, we asked educators whether they received any expert support for
dealing with students with ADHD. Three of them reported to have received
support from a psychological counsellor, whereas the rest reported to have
never referred to an expert for support. In relation to this, one educator said:
When I suspected that a student of mine had ADHD, I consulted a close
friend who is also a psychological counsellor. Her support really helped me to
cope with the difficulties I experienced with this student.
In relation to expert support, the following educator said:
I did not receive any expert support because I had no student diagnosed with
ADHD in my class. If I had a student that I suspected of having ADHD, I
would absolutely get an expert’s support. But these students do not show their
symptoms as young learners do. Due to their age, they know how to cope with
this situation.
English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge …
293
Lessons Learnt
Our participating ELT teacher educators reported to have scarce knowledge
of ADHD, and that they are even less knowledgeable about symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. In a similar vein, the related literature shows that many
teachers around the world lack knowledge of and have little or no education
in ADHD and the required intervention strategies (e.g. Sciutto et al., 2000).
In education, in our case in the field of ELT, teaching practice is often shaped
by the teachers’ knowledge and perceptions. Therefore, adequate teacher
education is essential to correctly monitor students and implement the necessary intervention strategies in order to create an inclusive and supportive
learning environment.
In line with previous studies (e.g. Kos et al., 2004), the teacher educators in
our study referred to their teaching experiences with ADHD students as the
main source of knowledge about this specific learning difficulty and the intervention strategies used. Moreover, previous research shows that the amount of
exposure to students with ADHD leads to increased knowledge of the characteristics of this learning difficulty and the choice of intervention strategies
teachers implemented (e.g. Sciutto et al., 2000). These findings have several
implications:
Firstly, irrespective of which level they teach, educators play a pivotal role
in the education of learners with ADHD. Through conscientious observation
of students in the classroom, teachers are in a good position to refer students
for expert evaluations and diagnosis. Classrooms are the most likely places
where the core behaviour characteristics occur (Stampoltzis & Antonopoulou,
2013). Secondly, teachers’ knowledge of ADHD affects their own attitudes
towards learners with ADHD and their willingness to implement appropriate
interventions to meet learners’ needs to ensure they learn. Finally, teacher
educators are teaching future teachers who, in turn, will have one-to-one
contact with students in mainstream education, and play an important role
in the teaching and assessment of their own students.
One may argue against this idea based on the claim that it is the special
education teachers’ responsibility to inform parents and/or other teachers
about ADHD. However, not all schools have a special education service or
an adequate number of special education teachers. Thus, the finding that
teacher educators lack the necessary knowledge of ADHD points to a need
to address this topic both in pre- and in-service education programmes. Both
teacher educators and their students must be knowledgeable and learn to
accommodate their teaching to students with ADHD.
294
N. Cabaroğlu and M. Tohma
Both our findings and the literature show that educators’ perceptions of
their knowledge level and their own ability to teach and support students
with learning difficulties in the classroom affect their attitudes and beliefs
about inclusion (Fuchs, 2010). A knowledgeable teacher can empathise their
students with ADHD, dismantle hurtful behaviours in the classroom and
treat their learners equally. This means treating learners in equitable and
open-minded ways and being considerate of their unique and/or diverse
differences. Inclusion is a positive educational placement for students, especially for those with specific education needs, in classrooms where both
learners with and without impairments can benefit from learning together
any subject, including English as an additional language (Fuchs, 2010;
Kormos, 2020). To create such a learning environment, a knowledgeable
teacher about ADHD is essential to implement the necessary intervention
strategies.
We also learnt from our findings that teacher educators were interested in
and attempted to find ways to support the learning process of the students
who showed characteristics of ADHD. The majority of the strategies reported
by our participants were not specific to ELT, but were general teaching
strategies intended to help learners with engagement, attention, literacy,
organisation and study competencies beyond L2 proficiency. This observation
may be due to the fact that educators either did not know language specific
intervention strategies to teach students with ADHD or that they simply
did not mention them during the interviews. It could also respond to the
fact that teacher educators reckon that issues like attention, engagement and
literacy permeate all areas of education, ELT included. These teaching strategies are in line with the literature which mentions peer tutoring in the form of
pair- or group-work (Greene & Mitcham, 2012), small groups which enable
teachers to address ADHD students’ attention problems, time management
and organisational skills (Ivask, 2015). Findings are also consistent with the
multisensory structured learning approach (Nijakowska, 2013), which facilitates learning by presenting information in a highly structured way and
activating different sensory channels, e.g. visual, auditory and kinaesthetic.
This method is particularly effective in ELT in general, and with students
with learning difficulties in particular (Kormos, 2020).
One final lesson we learnt regarding the intervention strategies used by
the teacher educators is that their choices or preferences did not seem to
be informed decisions. Contrary to this, the literature shows a considerable difference in the teaching of educators who monitor and evaluate the
effectiveness of the strategies they implement (Weyandt, 2007b).
English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge …
295
Conclusion and Recommendations
Although limited by its relatively small number of participants, the study
revealed that the ELT teacher educators interviewed lacked the necessary
knowledge about ADHD in terms of its symptoms, diagnosis and intervention strategies. Thus, we suggest that teacher education programmes are
designed based on the inherent diversity of learners and their right to inclusive education, addressing content on ADHD and other specific learning
difficulties to equip future teachers with the necessary skills, knowledge and
resources. Only then, will teachers be empowered to make informed decisions
and create an inclusive learning environment.
Additionally, if ELT teacher education programmes are to prepare teachers
to teach in inclusive settings, they need to mirror practices in their teacher
education programmes. To accomplish this, higher education institutions
may include special education needs modules, practical content such as
examples of situated teaching strategies and inclusive lesson plans with differentiated instruction so as to equip future teachers with the necessary tools
to face the challenge. This will surely have positive consequences not only in
terms of addressing the specific needs of their own pre-service students but
also in terms of becoming role-models for future teachers.
Furthermore, to meet the needs of all educational practitioners, and of
ELT teachers who teach students with learning difficulties in particular, there
is an urgent need to provide regular in-service training programmes in all
schools. This will enable educators to share resources and strategies informed
by research. Needless to say, teachers who cannot participate in in-service
training due to reasons such as financial problems, time constraints or heavy
work load need institutional support to be able to do so. In-service training is
an imperative component of curriculum design, since it addresses authentic
classroom situations that, in turn, inform teacher education programmes for
the benefit of future teachers and their innumerable students.
Suggested Further Reading
Bray, M. A., & Kehle, T. J. (Eds.). (2011). The Oxford handbook of school
psychology. Oxford: OUP.
This book addresses a diversity of topics ranging from theoretical issues
like individual differences, theories of intelligence and learning disabilities
to practical implications such as how to academically assess the learners and
classroom environment. It may serve as a useful resource for teachers as it
296
N. Cabaroğlu and M. Tohma
provides a detailed account of how to intervene with a learner who has
ADHD.
Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2007). Learning
disabilities: From identification to intervention. New York: Guilford.
In this book, a coherent framework for fusing the present knowledge base
into practice is established. In addition to different types of learning disabilities, a detailed account of reading disabilities is also given which we think
might be useful for language teachers in particular.
Kormos, J., & Kontra, E. H. (2008). Language learners with special needs: An
international perspective. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
This book portrays the language learning processes of learners with special
needs (e.g. dyslexia or ADHD) as well as of learners with disabilities (e.g.
students who are deaf or hard-of-hearing). Language teachers’ views about
inclusive education and the specific techniques and strategies they can use are
also explained.
Rief, S. F. (2016). How to reach and teach children with ADD/ ADHD:
Practical techniques, strategies and interventions (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
This book provides comprehensive information about causes of ADHD,
types, criteria for diagnosis as well as treatment and coping strategies. As this
book includes some detailed information regarding the educational interventions that can be employed by the teachers it may serve as a great
resource.
Engagement Priorities
• Given the findings (from this study and others) regarding the link between
knowledge and intervention strategies, there is a strong need to investigate how teachers’ knowledge affect their behaviours and perceptions of
students with ADHD.
• We believe conducting a similar study with a larger sample size in different
contexts will be valuable in terms of gaining broader insights into the
strategies used for supporting students with ADHD to create a repository
of information.
• Given that the symptoms of ADHD are closely related to academic
achievement from an early age through adulthood and the scarcity of
research on language learning experiences of adults with ADHD, there
is a need to understand the difficulties those learners face and to design
appropriate intervention strategies.
English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge …
297
• Finally, it would be interesting to extend this study to portray the perspectives of students with ADHD in relation to the educators’ intervention
strategies.
References
Advokat, C., Lane, S. M., & Luo, C. (2011). College students with and without
ADHD: comparison of self-report of medication usage study habits and academic
achievement. Journal of Attention Disorders, 15, 656–666.
Agarwal, R., Goldenberg, M., Perry, R., & IsHak, W. W. (2012). The quality of
life of adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review.
Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience, 9 (5–6), 10–21.
Almacıoğlu, D. (2007). Yönetsel bir sorun olarak dikkat eksikliği ve hiperaktivite
bozukluğu olan öğrencilerin sınıf ve psikolojik danışma ve rehberlik öğretmenleri
tarafından tanınma yeterliliklerinin incelenmesi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gaziantep
Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Gaziantep, Türkiye.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.
Anderson, D. L., Watt, S. E., Noble, W., & Shanley, D. C. (2012). Knowledge of
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and attitudes towards teaching
children with ADHD: The role of teaching experience. Psychology in the Schools,
49 (6), 511–525.
Anderson, T. (2020). Evaluating the fluency tasks of mission possible: A program
designed for children with ADHD. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The
Chicago School of Professional Psychology.
Atkins, M., & Pelham, W. E. (2001). School based assessment of attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 197–203.
Barkley, R. A. (2006). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis
and treatment. Guilford Press.
Biederman, J., & Faraone, S. (2005). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.
Lancet, 366, 237–248.
Brock, S. E., Jimerson, S. R., & Hansen, R. L. (2009). The identification, assessment,
and treatment of ADHD at school . Springer.
Carroll, A., Forlin, C., & Jobling, A. (2003). The impact of teacher training in
special education on the attitudes of Australian preservice general educators
towards people with disabilities. Teacher Education Quarterly, 30 (3), 65–73.
Daffner-Deming, M. (2021). From orientation to graduation: Predictors of academic
success and retention for college freshmen with ADHD. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Lehigh University.
298
N. Cabaroğlu and M. Tohma
Davis, P., & Florian, L. (2004). Teaching strategies and approaches for pupils with
special educational needs: A scoping study (No. RR516). Queen’s Printer. https://
dera.ioe.ac.uk/6059/1/RR516.pdf.
DuPaul, G. J., Weyandt, L. L., & Janusis, G. M. (2011). ADHD in the classroom:
Effective intervention strategies. Theory into Practice, 50, 35–42.
Elik, N., Corkum, P., Blotnicky-Gallant, P., & McGonnell, M. (2015). Overcoming
the barriers to teachers’ utilization of evidence-based interventions for children
with ADHD: The Teacher help for ADHD program. Perspectives on Language
and Literacy, 41, 40–49.
Ewe, L. P., & Aspelin, J. (2021). Relational competence regarding students with
ADHD—An intervention study with in-service teachers. European Journal of
Special Needs Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/
08856257.2021.1872999.
Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Spencer, T., Wilens, T., Seidman, L. J., Mick, E.,
& Doyle, A. E. (2000). Attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in adults: An
overview. Biological Psychiatry, 48(1), 9–20.
Fuchs, W. W. (2010). Examining teachers’ perceived barriers associated with
inclusion. SRATE Journal, 19 (1), 30–35.
Gioia, G. A., & Isquith, P. K. (2002). New perspectives on education children with
ADHD: Contributions of the executive functions. Journal of Health Care Law
and Policy, 5 (1), 124–163.
Greene, K., & Mitcham, K. C. (2012). Community in the classroom. English
Journal, 101(4), 13–15.
Hong, J. S., Lee, Y. S., Hong, M., Kim, B., Joung, Y. S., Yoo, H. K., & Han, D.
H. (2021). Cognitive developmental trajectories in adult ADHD patients and
controls: A comparative study. Journal of Attention Disorders. https://doi.org/10.
1177.1087054720978548.
Ivask, M. (2015). Teaching English to students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD). Unpublished MA Thesis, Department of English Studies,
University of Tartu.
Kim, O. S. (2013). The effects of time management on self-efficacy and academic
achievement in college students. Journal of Korean Family Resource Management
Association, 17, 1–17.
Kooij, S., Bejerot, S., Blackwell, A., Caci, H., Casas- Brugué, M., & Carpentier,
P. (2010). European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult
ADHD: The European Network Adult ADHD. BMC Psychiatry, 10, 67.
Kormos, J. (2020). Specific learning difficulties in ELT . Cambridge University Press.
Kos, J. M., Richdale, A. L., & Jackson, M. S. (2004). Knowledge about attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder: A comparison of in-service and preservice teachers.
Psychology in the Schools, 41(5), 517–526.
Kos, J. M., Richdale, A. L., & Hay, D. A. (2006). Children with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder and their teachers: A review of the literature. International
Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 53(2), 147–160.
English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge …
299
Kovshoff, H., Williams, S., Vrijens, M., Danckaerts, M., Thompson, M., & Yardley,
L. (2012). The decisions regarding ADHD management (DRAMA) study:
Uncertainties and complexities in assessment, diagnosis and treatment, from the
clinician’s point of view. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 21, 87–99.
Legato, J. (2011). Effects of teacher factors on expectations of students with ADHD.
College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences Theses and Dissertations, Paper 66.
Available at: http://via.library.depaul.edu/etd/66. Accessed 25 Nov 2019.
Lichtenstein, P., Halldner, L., Zetterqvist, J., Sjölander, A., Serlachius, E., & Fazel,
S. (2012). Medication for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and criminality.
New England Journal of Medicine, 367, 2006–2014.
Murphy, K. (2005). Psychosocial treatments for ADHD in teens and adults: A
practice-friendly review. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61(5), 607–619.
Nijakowska, J. (2013). Multisensory structured learning approach in teaching
foreign languages to dyslexic learners. In D. Gabryś-Barker, E. PiechurskaKuciel, & J. Zybert (Eds.), Investigations in teaching and learning languages
(pp. 201–215). Springer.
Pentón Herrera, L. J. (2020). Social-emotional learning in TESOL: What, why, and
how. Journal of English Learner Education, 10 (1), 1.
Richards, T. L., Deffenbacher, J. L., Rosen, L. A., Barkley, R. A., & Rodricks, T.
(2006). Driving anger and driving behaviour in adults with ADHD. Journal of
Attention Disorders, 10 (1), 54–64.
Raggi, V. L., & Chronis, A. M. (2006). Interventions to address academic impairment of children and adolescents with ADHD. Clinical Child and Family
Psychology Review, 9 (2), 85–111.
Rajwan, E., Chacko, A., & Moeller, M. (2012). Nonpharmacological interventions for preschool ADHD: State of the evidence and implications for practice.
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(5), 520–526.
Sciutto, M. J., Terjesen, M. D., & Frank, A. S. B. (2000). Teachers’ knowledge
and misperceptions of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychology in the
Schools, 37, 115–122.
Smith, A. M. (2015). Teaching English to students with Attention Deficit (Hyperactivity) Disorder [15 paragraphs]. Available at: http://www.des.org.gr/en/tea
ching-english-to-students-with-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder/. Accessed
26/01/2021.
Stampoltzis, A., & Antonopoulou, K. (2013). Knowledge and misconceptions about
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A comparison of Greek general
and special education teachers. International Journal of School and Educational
Psychology, 1(2), 122–130.
Trout, A., Lienemann, L. T. O., Reid, R., & Epstein, M. H. (2007). A review of
nonmedication interventions to improve academic performance of children and
youth with ADHD. Remedial and Special Education, 28(4), 207–226.
300
N. Cabaroğlu and M. Tohma
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, Office of Special Education Programs. (2008). Teaching children
with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Instructional strategies and practices.
Washington, DC.
Villalobos, O. B. (2012). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in the EFL
classroom: A case study. Innovaciones Educativas, 13(18), 23–33.
Westby, C., & Watson, S. (2004). Perspectives on ADHD: Executive functions,
working memory, and language disabilities. Seminars in Speech and Language,
25 (3), 241–254.
Weyandt, L. L. (2007a). Review of the book “Attention-deficit hyperactivity
disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (Third Edition)”, by R. A.
Barkley. Journal of Attention Disorders, 11(2), 179–180.
Weyandt, L. L. (2007b). An ADHD primer (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Diversity in ELT: Present and Future
Griselda Beacon, Mercedes Pérez Berbain,
and Darío Luis Banegas
Introduction
In this volume, we sought to provide situated accounts around diversity in
three interconnected areas: (1) interculturality, (2) gender, and (3) special
education needs. Through such research-informed as well as pedagogicalbased experiences, we aimed at reflecting on the opportunities and challenges
around diversity in English Teaching Language (ELT) and raise awareness on
the need to dismantle those practices that obstruct diversity.
In this concluding chapter we address five questions which may help
capture some of the highlights and commonalities across the contributors’
chapters and extend the debate beyond the circumstances and contexts illustrated in the volume. The questions are: (1) Who are the direct beneficiaries
of teaching approaches that focus on diversity? (2) Who else may benefit from
a diverse learning context? (3) What actions have been carried out to bring
G. Beacon (B)
IES en Lenguas Vivas Juan Ramón Fernández, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
M. Pérez Berbain
Instituto Superior del Profesorado Joaquín V. González, Ciudad de Buenos Aires,
Argentina
D. L. Banegas
School of Education, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
e-mail: dario.banegas@strath.ac.uk
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1_17
301
302
G. Beacon et al.
diversity into teaching? (4) What else can practitioners do to contribute to
diversity in ELT? and (5) What are the future directions in the ELT agenda
concerning diversity?
Who are the Direct Beneficiaries of Teaching
Approaches that Focus on Diversity?
This volume highlights diversity in education and offers a collection of
chapters that delve into ways to deal with diversity in the world of ELT
and contribute to raising awareness and acting upon social injustice. The
three areas addressed—interculturality, gender, and special education needs—
dialogue with one another and share research-informed teaching practices
that focus on every person’s right to have access to education, to no discrimination, to gender equality, and to an identity of their own (UN, 1989).
The direct beneficiaries of teaching approaches that focus on diversity are the most vulnerable people in education, especially learners who
have been marginalised and made invisible by a number of intersectional
factors such as citizenship (Chapter “Beyond Intercultural Awareness in
ELT”), ethnicity (Chapter ““Let’s Play ‘Sok says’, not ‘Simon says’”: Evaluating the International and Intercultural Orientation of ELT Materials for
Cambodian Secondary Schools”), colonialism (Chapter “Promoting Understanding of Diversity by Taking a Critical Intercultural Stance”), physical
and mental disabilities (Chapters “Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and
Responses to Working with English Learners with Special Educational
Need”–“English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge and Classroom
Practices of ADHD”), gender (Chapters “Task Typologies for Engaging with
Cultural Diversity: The Queer Case of LGBTIQ* Issues in English Language
Teaching”–“Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities” and “Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular They: Inclusive
EFL Teacher Education”), and otherness (Chapter “Fostering Intercultural
Learning Experiences in the ESL/EFL Classroom”). However, we acknowledge that there are other intersectional factors such as race, social class,
migration, physical appearance, underprivileged social backgrounds, age, and
religion among others, which may lead to stigmatisation and discrimination
(Collins, 2015). In all the cases, these experiences damage the individual’s
physical, emotional, or mental health. Hence, ELT needs to recognise and
address intersectionality in the language curriculum.
Despite the breadth of the direct beneficiaries mentioned above, we
acknowledge that many of the chapters included in this volume are set in
Diversity in ELT: Present and Future
303
contexts with rather privileged socioeconomic and institutional conditions
which already support diversity in the ELT agenda. In this sense, there is
scope to explore diversity in settings where teaching and learning occur in less
privileged circumstances (e.g., lack of resources, large classes, lack of teacher
preparation or support). In addition, there is also room to examine how
constraints can be overcome to make diversity and inclusion part of signature language teaching pedagogies. Signature pedagogies refer to “the types
of teaching that organise the fundamental ways in which future practitioners
are educated for their new professions” (Shulman, 2005, p. 52).
In the chapters focusing on intercultural education (Chapters “Beyond
Intercultural Awareness in ELT”–“Task Typologies for Engaging with
Cultural Diversity: The Queer Case of LGBTIQ* Issues in English Language
Teaching”), cultural diversity stands out. These chapters bring to the foreground the fact that some cultural practices (e.g., queerness, own culture
appreciation) are still either absent or misrepresented in ELT materials,
theory, and practice. Queer pedagogies (Chapter “Deheteronormalising the
EFL Classroom: Teachers’ Beliefs, Doubts, and Insecurities in Exploring
Sexual Identities in Cyprus”; Gray, 2013; Nelson, 2009; Paiz, 2019) and
critical interculturality (Chapter “Promoting Understanding of Diversity by
Taking a Critical Intercultural Stance”; Mignolo, 2000; Walsh, 2010) merge
to challenge heteronormativity and colonisation in the ELT curriculum.
The claim for recognition includes several underrepresented groups. For
example, international students at Western universities learn to develop intercultural skills to make sense of the cultural world they are immersed in (see
Chapter “Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences in the ESL/EFL Classroom”). Members of the LGBTIQ+ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual,
Intersexual, Queer and others) community, who struggle for their right of
an identity of their own, gain visibility and develop agency (see Chapters
“Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity: The Queer Case of
LGBTIQ* Issues in English Language Teaching”, “Exploring the Role of
Teacher Talk in the Gender Identity Construction of Filipino Children”,
“Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing Comprehensive Sexuality
Education in the ELT Classroom”, and “Preparing Pre-service Teachers
for the Singular They: Inclusive EFL Teacher Education”). Former colonial voices, silenced by long-lasting effects of European imperialism, break
free from the stigma of the stereotype they were shaped into (see Chapter
“Promoting Understanding of Diversity by Taking a Critical Intercultural
Stance”). Finally, the analysis of textbooks and other teaching materials which
question Anglo-dominant cultural content benefit learners of English as a
304
G. Beacon et al.
foreign or second language (EFL/ESL) in the geographical (and metaphorical) margins of Western mainstream ideologies (see Chapter ““Let’s Play
‘Sok says’, not ‘Simon says’”: Evaluating the International and Intercultural
Orientation of ELT Materials for Cambodian Secondary Schools”).
When it comes to gender, the chapters on gender identity construction in
the EFL classroom give visibility to the struggles which girls, women, nonbinary, and transgendered people undergo in the process of attaining gender
equality. In situated contexts, these chapters explore the discursive patterns
and ideological content of teacher–student interactions and how this teacher
talk impacts on the learners’ gender identity (see Chapter “Exploring the
Role of Teacher Talk in the Gender Identity Construction of Filipino Children”). Also, these chapters deal with the insecurities and reticence teachers
express in deheteronormalising their EFL classrooms by means of exploring
sexual identities (see Chapter “Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom:
Teachers’ Beliefs, Doubts, and Insecurities in Exploring Sexual Identities in
Cyprus”) and the struggles of female university educators in Japan working
in a heavily male-dominated environment (see Chapter “Gender Barriers and
Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities”). The sharing of experiences of
inclusive language education in preparing future EFL teachers for gendersensitive instruction (see Chapter “Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the
Singular They: Inclusive EFL Teacher Education”), as well as the delivery of
in-service workshops on comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) offer clear
and practical examples on ways to deconstruct gender stereotypes, to fight
against heteronormativity and to work towards gender equality (see Chapter
“Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing Comprehensive Sexuality
Education in the ELT Classroom”). We acknowledge that these chapters are
set in contexts that somehow promote or do not obstruct gender diversity.
Notwithstanding, we must recognise that the accounts described in them
may be highly problematic in countries where, for example, homosexuality
is criminalised (e.g., Bangladesh, Jamaica, United Arab Emirates), or where
gender diversity intersects with religious groups that condemn non-binary
identities.
Finally, the chapters on special education needs (SEN) foreground the
uniqueness of every person and the heterogeneous nature of the ELT classroom. Approaches based on differentiation focus on offering a variety of
tasks to learners so as to respond to this heterogeneous nature (see Chapter
“The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach to Differentiation”). In
the same line, the underlying aims of teacher education on SEN in ELT
pursue to provide teachers with a theoretical and practical background on
the field to equip them with tools to face the challenge of inclusion in their
Diversity in ELT: Present and Future
305
educational contexts. The sharing of experiences and projects carried out
with learners with dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
or who are deaf or hard of Hearing (DHH) give these learners visibility
and inform teachers on these specific situations (see Chapters “Uncovering
Diverse Perspectives and Responses to Working with English Learners with
Special Educational Needs”,– and “English Language Teacher Educators’
Knowledge and Classroom Practices of ADHD”).
Who Else May Benefit from a Diverse Learning
Context?
The chapters in this volume show how attending to diversity benefits some
learners. However, when we look at inclusion with a broader lens, we see that
the benefits may extend to the whole class and educational community. By
being part and parcel of diversity itself, the whole class is an active participant
in the enactment of diversity.
This ripple effect may allow every participant to develop critical intercultural communicative competences due to experiencing diversity in “an
‘everybody’ approach”; one which responds to the differences of individual
learners through options that are made available to everybody (Spratt &
Florian, 2015, p. 94; see also Black-Hawkins, 2017; Connet, 2020). This
inclusive pedagogical approach takes diversity as an asset in the learning of all.
This is achieved mainly through teacher intervention which fosters reflection
to help students develop attitudes of empathy, understanding, and respect
towards diversity (e.g., Britton & Leonard, 2020; de Jong & Harper, 2011;
Lawrence & Nagashima, 2021). The examples mentioned below show the
impact that diversity may have on the whole class through teacher intervention; thus, consolidating the learning of all approaches and extending the
debate beyond the contexts described in the chapters.
Chapter “Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT” describes a power
struggle between two children who argue over the choice of a sport. It
results in a hurt boy, accused of suggesting a sport which is not “manly
enough”, and many silent crossed-armed bystanders. The conflict begs for
a group reflection on gender and ethics. In Chapter “English Language
Teacher Educators’ Knowledge and Classroom Practices of ADHD”,
a teacher interviewed says that some learners “blurt out answers” without
respecting classroom norms and that “[s]ymptoms of ADHD can be challenging for both the student himself and the other students around him”. We
see how the whole class learns precisely from those events and interactions.
306
G. Beacon et al.
Learning opportunities abound in queer-oriented task work in ELT with
pertinent questions and discussions. For example, learners develop critical
cultural awareness in their own intercultural learning processes (see Chapter
“Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences in the ESL/EFL Classroom”),
reflect on heteronormativity (as seen in Chapters “Promoting Understanding
of Diversity by Taking a Critical Intercultural Stance”, “Task Typologies for
Engaging with Cultural Diversity: The Queer Case of LGBTIQ* Issues in
English Language Teaching”, and “Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom:
Teachers’ Beliefs, Doubts, and Insecurities in Exploring Sexual Identities
in Cyprus”) and on diverse and dynamic cultures in the classroom (as is
the case described in Chapter “Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT”).
Both teachers and learners deconstruct and (re)construct gender identities via
engaging in experiential tasks (see Chapters “Supporting in-Service Teachers
for Embracing Comprehensive Sexuality Education in the ELT Classroom”
and “Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular They: Inclusive EFL
Teacher Education”). Gender issues may create havoc at the workplace in
the academic world (e.g., Chapter “Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in
Japanese Universities”), whereas children, at an age when language socialisation has a large effect on their identity, express their gender and aim
to understand others on the grounds of dignity (e.g., Chapter “Exploring
the Role of Teacher Talk in the Gender Identity Construction of Filipino
Children”).
We see the endeavour of a class who deal with difficulty collaboratively (e.g., Chapters “Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and Responses
to Working with English Learners with Special Educational Needs” and
“English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge and Classroom Practices
of ADHD”); they sit around peers who cannot move around that easily
(e.g., Chapter “Uncovering Diverse Perspectives and Responses to Working
with English Learners with Special Educational Needs”) or expect differentiated tasks (e.g., Chapter “The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach
to Differentiation”). Other classes learn what dyslexia is like, along with the
holistic support which teachers offer (e.g., Chapter “Dyslexia and its Role in
the Teaching Reform in China”). Still others see the use of giving feedback to
their teachers (e.g., Chapter “A challenge, a Must, an Adventure: English as
a Foreign Language for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students”) and the value
of discussing learning difficulties openly (e.g., Chapter “Uncovering Diverse
Perspectives and Responses to Working with English Learners with Special
Educational Needs”). Everyone learns from diversity, develops empathy, and
sees how interventions impact on their peers’ and their own learning. This
Diversity in ELT: Present and Future
307
may rarely happen in courses which are not inclusive (e.g., Chapter “A challenge, a Must, an Adventure: English as a Foreign Language for Deaf and
Hard of Hearing Students”) or when the learners’ tasks do not live up to
the pedagogical aims stated in their course books (e.g., Chapter ““Let’s Play
‘Sok says’, not ‘Simon says’”: Evaluating the International and Intercultural
Orientation of ELT Materials for Cambodian Secondary Schools”).
The above mentioned flashbacks evidence there is further need for critical,
counter-hegemonic, inclusive, and intersectional pedagogies which challenge
all teachers and learners to learn how to live in diversity (Brennan et al.,
2019; Connet, 2020; Giroux, 2020; Paiz, 2019; Stadler-Heer, 2019). Tension
is bound to arise and so is human interdependency. This is the role of an
ELT pedagogy which is anchored in diversity, intersectionality, and criticality,
against tendencies that pay lip-service to values such as justice, difference,
plurality, decentring, openness, and otherness.
What Actions Have Been Carried Out to Bring
Diversity Into Teaching?
Representation, the tapestry of diversity in our teaching practices, seeks
to offer everyone the right to have access to education, free of all sorts
of discrimination against them. Below, we mention the actions presented
in the different chapters to act upon and embrace diversity in education.
These actions seek to transform the learners’ realities towards deconstructing
teachers’ homogenising behaviour in the ELT classroom.
There is a common thread running through all the chapters which brings
this diverse tapestry together. Every chapter focuses on one aspect of diversity, expands on the main characteristics of their object of study, and points
out difficulties and challenges. They offer visibility to the issue, act upon
it and inform teachers so that they can develop awareness to transform
their own teaching practices. The actions carried out are also varied and
include textbook evaluation, in-service workshops, interviews, task typologies, research-informed courses, teachers’ reflective writing, classroom observations, presentation of conceptual approaches, and results of action research
projects and case studies.
As part of the actions taken, several authors favour interviews as a
method to collect data which, in turn, informs research studies on diversity. Direct quotations allow readers to have access to the voices of inservice teaching professionals in different educational contexts. In Turkey,
teachers express their worries about the lack of in-service training to learn
308
G. Beacon et al.
more about ADHD and share their own class interventions (see Chapter
“English Language Teacher Educators’ Knowledge and Classroom Practices
of ADHD”). In Cyprus, the interviews reveal the teachers’ anxiety and
reticence to explore topics related to non-heteronormative sexual identities
(see Chapter “Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom: Teachers’ Beliefs,
Doubts, and Insecurities in Exploring Sexual Identities in Cyprus”), whereas
in Japan, the female academics interviewed voice their struggles to gain some
rights for promotion in a male-dominated university system (see Chapter
“Gender Barriers and Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities”). In the
Philippines, the selected method is class observation. In the recorded interactions between teachers and students, the teachers show rather essentialist
views on gender identity construction, which in turn affect the students’ own
perception of themselves (see Chapter “Exploring the Role of Teacher Talk in
the Gender Identity Construction of Filipino Children”). In Japan, teachers’
cognitions are analysed through teachers’ retrospective accounts gathered
from their Reflective Writing (see Chapter “Uncovering Diverse Perspectives
and Responses to Working with English Learners with Special Educational
Needs”). In Cambodia, interviews to textbook editing committee members
focused on the role which culturally embedded content plays in the development of a sense of local identity in a lower secondary school (see Chapter
““Let’s Play ‘Sok says’, not ‘Simon says’”: Evaluating the International
and Intercultural Orientation of ELT Materials for Cambodian Secondary
Schools”).
Some chapters display course design, delivery, and their theoretical underpinnings to include diversity as part of their academic offer. All the
educational levels are included—university, primary, secondary, and continuing professional development, and can be used as examples to follow in
different school contexts. In Argentina, for example, an interdisciplinary
project based on a pedagogy for understanding combines English, Spanish,
and Physical Education to create bonds between primary and secondary
learners. As a result, students develop language and intercultural skills as
well as autonomy (see Chapter “Beyond Intercultural Awareness in ELT”).
In teacher education, several courses are introduced and discussed in detail.
In Colombia, a course on language, culture and identity was designed and
carried out from the perspective of critical interculturality and intends to
decolonise the curriculum of foreign language learning in a BA Programme
in Bilingualism (see Chapter “Promoting Understanding of Diversity by
Taking a Critical Intercultural Stance”). International students at a university in the USA take part in a contextualised ESL/EFL course designed
to offer resources for cultural awareness and intercultural communication
Diversity in ELT: Present and Future
309
(see Chapter “Fostering Intercultural Learning Experiences in the ESL/EFL
Classroom”). In Germany, student-teachers take part in a course based on
a conceptual and practical approach to gender sensitive instruction, which
contributes to developing empathy and respect towards non-binary individuals (see Chapter “Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular They:
Inclusive EFL Teacher Education”). Similarly, a workshop on comprehensive
sexuality education for in-service teachers in Patagonia presents the objectives, approaches, teaching materials, tasks, and results of the experience
(see Chapter “Supporting in-Service Teachers for Embracing Comprehensive
Sexuality Education in the ELT Classroom”).
Other actions towards diversity involve the sharing of the results of a
case study on dyslexia in China (see Chapter “Dyslexia and its Role in the
Teaching Reform in China”) and the findings of an action research project
with DHH students in Poland (see Chapter “A challenge, a Must, an Adventure: English as a Foreign Language for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students”).
Chapter “The 5-Dimensional Model: A Finnish Approach to Differentiation” discusses the theoretical underpinnings of a 5-dimensional model of
differentiation created to cater for diversity in Finnish classrooms. Finally, in
Germany, task typologies are designed to engage student-teachers at university with queer cultural diversity. These typologies intend to equip (future)
teachers with an inventory of queer-informed and interculturally minded task
design (see Chapter “Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity:
The Queer Case of LGBTIQ* Issues in English Language Teaching”).
All of these actions add to the tapestry of diversity and contribute to
creating a bank of resources teachers may use to start their own process of
transformation. More importantly, these actions contribute to our understanding of how diversity can be brought into ELT. Nevertheless, it should
be recognised that these actions necessitate institutional support (e.g., material resources, professional development opportunities, interdisciplinarity).
Asking teachers to create language teaching materials that attend to diversity
has a direct impact on their workload. Hence, the complexity of diversity may
be experienced as a burden, particularly among teachers in less favourable
working environments. Despite this realistic shortcoming, the literature offers
inspiring examples of teachers who have worked for diversity and inclusion
in challenging circumstances (e.g., Accardo, 2020; de la Barra & Carbone,
2020).
310
G. Beacon et al.
What Else Can Practitioners do to Contribute
to Diversity in ELT?
We approach this question with the conviction that diversity needs to be
acknowledged, promoted, and extended through an inclusive agenda. Below,
we return to the engagement priorities posited by the chapter contributors
and include our views as editors and ELT educators.
Concerning ELT pedagogy and research, the contributors’ engagement
priorities can be grouped into four broad categories. The first category is
connected to resources and it highlights how teachers can elaborate their
own paper and digital-based materials (e.g., Chapters ““Let’s Play ‘Sok says’,
not ‘Simon says’”: Evaluating the International and Intercultural Orientation
of ELT Materials for Cambodian Secondary Schools” and “Dyslexia and its
Role in the Teaching Reform in China”) that aim at differentiated and inclusive learning for creating culturally sustaining pedagogies from and for the
contexts which teachers and learners inhabit.
The second category is associated to teachers’ perceptions and cognitions.
For example, future projects may wish to explore further how teachers’ own
views of language, culture (e.g., Chapter “Beyond Intercultural Awareness
in ELT”), gender (e.g., Chapter “Deheteronormalising the EFL Classroom:
Teachers’ Beliefs, Doubts, and Insecurities in Exploring Sexual Identities
in Cyprus”), and special education needs (e.g., Chapter “English Language
Teacher Educators’ Knowledge and Classroom Practices of ADHD”) influence their pedagogical decisions and regular practices regardless of their
professional preparation and continuing development. Hence, the third category involves the necessity of including a systemic diversity orientation in
both initial teacher education (e.g., Chapter “Preparing Pre-service Teachers
for the Singular They: Inclusive EFL Teacher Education”) as well as continuing professional development (e.g., Chapter “Supporting in-Service Teachers
for Embracing Comprehensive Sexuality Education in the ELT Classroom”)
so as to provide rigorous frameworks that support teachers’ practices. This
support may be particularly important in situations where teachers, who have
already been prepared to and agree with diversity, work in institutions with a
vision or hidden curriculum which does not support them.
The last category amalgamates curricular, ethical, and political considerations. For example, future studies may investigate in what ways the formal
and the enacted curriculum are transformed to make diversity and inclusion a
permanent feature in ELT. While curriculum changes respond to ethical and
political decisions, institutions, individual teachers, or other stakeholders may
Diversity in ELT: Present and Future
311
refuse to adopt, for example, a queer pedagogy (e.g., Chapter “Task Typologies for Engaging with Cultural Diversity: The Queer Case of LGBTIQ*
Issues in English Language Teaching”). In such cases, an issue worth examining is how diversity can be included in a manner that values respect,
multiple opinions, and personal beliefs which are constitutive of people’s
identity. It goes without saying that adopting a diversity and inclusion lens in
ELT as reflected in this volume aligns with a critical view of education, a view
that seeks to decolonise the curriculum and imbue it with local pedagogies.
This move may create tensions since diversity may need to acknowledge the
unequal distribution of power among those represented. Albeit being necessarily political, initiatives towards diversity need to be concerted, free from
proselytism, and steering away from morphing into a cancel culture.
In terms of research methodologies, the volume has included document
analysis (e.g., Chapter “Let’s Play ‘Sok says’, not ‘Simon says’”: Evaluating the
International and Intercultural Orientation of ELT Materials for Cambodian
Secondary Schools), narrative inquiry (e.g., Chapter “Beyond Intercultural
Awareness in ELT”), conversation analysis (e.g., Chapter “Exploring the Role
of Teacher Talk in the Gender Identity Construction of Filipino Children”),
and interview-based qualitative analysis (e.g., Chapter “Gender Barriers and
Conflict in ELT in Japanese Universities”) as discussed above. In addition,
the volume shows contributors’ tendency towards a reflective attitude on
their own teaching practice (e.g., Chapters “Promoting Understanding of
Diversity by Taking a Critical Intercultural Stance”, “Fostering Intercultural
Learning Experiences in the ESL/EFL Classroom”, “Dyslexia and its Role in
the Teaching Reform in China”, and “A challenge, a Must, an Adventure:
English as a Foreign Language for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students”).
Hence, the volume is rich in examples of good practice as assessed through the
protagonists’ eyes, i.e., teachers and learners. In this regard, reflective practice,
in some cases coupled with teacher research (e.g., Chapter “Preparing Pre-service Teachers for the Singular They: Inclusive EFL Teacher Education”), may
be identified as a potent conduit that allows educators to disseminate their
informed practices, explorations, and concerns with a wider community of
practice.
By allowing learners, colleagues, and the authors themselves to have a
voice in the pedagogical contours of English language education, the chapters contribute to diversity of voices, which is a mechanism that ensures fair
representation of the plurality on which societies are built. In search of diversity, inclusion, and plurality, diversity for ELT can profit from pedagogical
accounts and research projects that examine context through a micro-lens
312
G. Beacon et al.
handled by teachers. In other words, teacher research seems to be a transparent and encouraging road to cement diversity in ELT, for it is teachers
who are in close contact with diversity day after day.
Together with the research methods featured in the volume, future description and analysis of diversity in action, i.e., inclusion, could also benefit from
surveys and arts-based research (Leavy, 2019). In particular, the use of roleplay (e.g., Schmid & Rolvsjord, 2020), drawings such as significant circles or
photovoices (e.g., Villacañas de Castro, 2019), or creative writing (Akdal &
Şahin, 2014) may offer further insights into issues of perceptions, beliefs, and
reflections on past and present experiences of educational actors.
In addition, future endeavours may incorporate other stakeholders such
as parents, very young learners, policy makers, curriculum developers, and
school administrators, and even authors of coursebooks with a less restrictive
agenda such as Taylor and Coimbra (2019). In so doing, the field will benefit
from listening to other powerful voices which shape and influence formal
education at both micro and macro levels.
What are the Future Directions in the ELT Agenda
Concerning Diversity?
For diversity and inclusion to thrive and become an inherent element of
ELT, social justice needs to be incorporated as a philosophy of education,
a paradigm that allows ELT to respond to wider educational imperatives and
systems. ELT needs to be part of the broad educational sphere. According to
Ortaçtepe Hart and Martel (2020):
English for social progress and social justice has already transformed the way
we perceive language instruction both as a means for communication and as a
political act through which we can cultivate in our students a sense of critical
inquiry, responsibility, advocacy and ownership, and a desire to interact with
different communities in order to address the numerous problems we face in
our world. (p. 2)
In the quotation, centrality is given to responsibility and engagement with
diversity within a framework of critical citizenship. Diversity permeates
these layers; in this ecosystem, language education can become a channel
through which socially just modes of thinking and doing become mainstream rather than alternative. While in the section above we discussed
possible courses of action at individual and micro levels of socio-educational
activity, we recognise that these need to be imbricated in meso and macro
Diversity in ELT: Present and Future
313
levels as conceptualised in the Douglas Fir Group’s (2016) framework of the
multifaceted nature of language learning and teaching.
At a meso level, institutions need to deconstruct concepts such as investment, identity, agency, and equity to orient themselves towards sustaining
diversity and making decisions on how to enact educational equity policies (Chan & Coney, 2020; David & Brown, 2020). In the case of ELT,
this implies that schools, universities, and ministries of education develop
curricula, policy, and concomitant resources that attend to diversity at the
levels of design, implementation, and evaluation. The future needs teachers
who are systemically prepared and exposed to experiential modes of enacting
diversity. Hence, curriculum and teacher education should strive for adopting
a diversity perspective. Such a diversity-driven meso level can only be possible
if the macro level of ideological structures is comprised of belief systems and
values that recognise and promote diversity.
Conclusion
The five questions discussed above have sought to bring together the
commonalities and highlights across the chapters in this volume to underscore the actors, benefits, and actions involved in diversity in ELT. They
encompass a variety of courses of action that might extend the issue of diversity beyond this volume at the levels of contextually sustaining pedagogies and
research. In addition, the questions recognise potential hindrances as well as
implications and future directions at macro levels of (language) education.
When we embarked on this volume, we were interested in raising awareness of (the lack of ) diversity in ELT and concomitant issues in society by
including accounts in the areas of interculturality, gender, and special education needs. The chapters have confirmed that diversity is, as discussed in
Chapter “Introduction: Diversity in ELT”, an inherent trait of human beings
and society at large. While it seems crass to point out the intrinsic nature
of diversity, the chapters have demonstrated that learning environments do
not necessarily acknowledge diversity for their own benefit. On the contrary,
all the chapters have departed from experiencing diversity as a problem and
have arrived at diversity as a right by dismantling deep-seated discourses of
hegemony, heteronormativity, patriarchy, and homogeneity not only in ELT,
but also beyond the borders of ELT. It is worrying to recognise that in this
regard, ELT reflects the general socio-political cartography of our times in
which discrimination is entrenched. Nonetheless, the chapters bear witness
314
G. Beacon et al.
to initiatives which seek to critically contest those unjust, limited, and above
all, unreal representations of human life.
This volume shows that we may need micro-actions that are systematically
and collectively constructed, maintained, and extended from within ELT to
have a wider and sustainable impact on all areas of social practice. If you
have reached this far into the volume, here is our invitation: let’s celebrate
diversity by making it possible in contexts where diversity is hidden, silenced,
and/or criminalised. These contexts are not far away territories; the need for
embracing diversity can be literally found round the corner from our homes.
References
Accardo, S. P. (2020). Comprehensive sexuality education activities in the EFL
lesson through emergency remote teaching (ERT). Argentinian Journal of Applied
Linguistics, 8(2), 8–19.
Akdal, D., & Şahin, A. (2014). The effects of intertextual reading approach on the
development of creative writing skills. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research,
54, 171–186.
Black-Hawkins, K. (2017). Understanding inclusive pedagogy: Learning with and
from teachers. In V. Plows & B. Whitburn (Eds.), Inclusive education: Innovations
and controversies interrogating educational change (pp. 13–30). Sense Publishers.
Brennan, A., King, F., & Travers, J. (2019). Supporting the enactment of inclusive
pedagogy in a primary school. International Journal of Inclusive Education (pp. 1–
18). https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2019.1625452.
Britton, E. R., & Leonard, R. L. (2020). The social justice potential of critical
reflection and critical language awareness pedagogies for L2 writers. Journal of
Second Language Writing, 50, 100776.
Chan, E. L., & Coney, L. (2020). Moving TESOL forward: Increasing educators’
critical consciousness through a racial lens. TESOL Journal, 11(4), e550.
Collins, P. H. (2015). Intersectionality’s definitional dilemmas. Annual Review of
Sociology, 41(1), 1–20.
Connet, H. (2020). Action research to improve confidence in meeting diverse need
and the quality of inclusive practice through lesson observations. Support for
Learning, 35 (2), 178–191.
David, R. D., & Brown, K. (2020). Diversity, equity, and language teacher
education. In S. Conrad, A. Hartig & L. Santelmann (Eds.), The Cambridge
introduction to applied linguistics (pp. 295–307). Cambridge University Press.
de la Barra, E., & Carbone, S. (2020). Bridging inequality: Cooperative learning
through literature in two vulnerable schools in Santiago. Profile: Issues in Teachers’
Professional Development, 22(2), 49–63.
Diversity in ELT: Present and Future
315
De Jong, E., & Harper, C. (2011). Accommodating diversity: Pre-service teachers’
views on effective practices for English language learners. In T. Lucas (Ed.),
Teacher preparation for linguistically diverse classrooms: A resource for teacher
educators (pp. 73–90). Routledge.
Douglas Fir Group. (2016). A transdisciplinary framework for SLA in a multilingual
world. Modern Language Journal, 100 (S1), 19–47.
Giroux, H. A. (2020). On critical pedagogy (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury.
Gray, J. (2013). LGBT invisibility and heteronormativity in ELT materials. In
J. Gray (Ed.), Critical perspectives on language teaching materials (pp. 40–63).
Palgrave.
Lawrence, L., & Nagashima, Y. (2021). Exploring LGBTQ+ pedagogy in Japanese
university classrooms. ELT Journal, 75 (2), 152–161.
Leavy, P. (Ed.). (2019). Handbook of arts-based research. Guilford Press.
Mignolo, W. (2000). Local histories/global designs: Coloniality, subaltern knowledges,
and border thinking. Princeton University Press.
Nelson, C. D. (2009). Sexual identities in English language education: Classroom
conversations. Routledge.
Ortaçtepe Hart, D., & Martel, J. (2020). Exploring the transformative potential of
English language teaching for social justice: Introducing the special issue. TESOL
Journal, 11(4), e568.
Paiz, J. M. (2019). Queering practice: LGBTQ+ diversity and inclusion in English
language teaching. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 18(4), 266–275.
Schmid, W., & Rolvsjord, R. (2020). Becoming a reflexive practitioner: Exploring
music therapy students’ learning experiences with participatory role-play in a
Norwegian context. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 1–13.
Shulman, L. (2005). Signature pedagogies in the professions. Daedalus, 134 (3),
52–59.
Spratt, J., & Florian, L. (2015). Inclusive pedagogy: From learning to action:
Supporting each individual in the context of “everybody”. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 49 (1), 89–96.
Stadler-Heer, S. (2019). Inclusion. ELT Journal, 73(2), 219–222.
Taylor, J., & Coimbra, I. (2019). Raise up! Taylor Made English.
UN. (1989, 20 November). United Nations convention on the rights of the child
(p. 3). Treaty Series, 1577.
Villacañas de Castro, L. S. (2019). Translating teacher funds of identity into curricular proposals for the EFL classroom: A model for student-teacher innovation
and professional development. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 19 (1),
25–41.
Walsh, C. (2010). Interculturalidad crítica y educación intercultural. In J. Viaña,
L. Tapia & C. Walsh (Eds.), Construyendo interculturalidad crítica (pp. 75–96).
Instituto Internacional de Integración del Convenio Andrés Bello III-CAB.
Index
A
C
Academia 154, 156, 160, 168
Academic culture 57, 58, 64–66
Accommodate/accommodation
4, 13, 24, 123, 211, 230,
232–239, 241, 242, 253, 256,
271, 285, 293
Agency 30, 31, 59, 86, 193, 199,
252, 303, 313
Argentina 11, 12, 21, 173, 175–177,
180, 182, 308
Artefacts 60, 63, 199
Assessment 23, 33, 75, 103, 132,
176, 213, 214, 222, 223, 232,
240, 286, 293
Attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) 13,
283–296, 308
Authenticity 25, 28, 176
Cambodia 11, 12, 76, 77, 84–86,
308
Case study 156, 232, 243, 248, 251,
309
China 12, 13, 62, 247–252, 255,
259, 260, 309
Classroom discourse 8, 97, 105, 133,
134, 136, 139, 192
Classroom practice 8, 11, 73, 91,
118, 231, 237, 238, 243, 286
Cognition 13, 60, 176, 179, 180,
185, 230–232, 241, 242, 308,
310
Collaborative task 23, 31
Colombia 11, 37, 38, 41, 44, 45,
48, 49, 51, 308
Coloniality 39–41
Comprehensive sexuality education
(CSE) 173, 175, 177, 304,
309
Content and language integrated
learning (CLIL) 25, 28, 31,
173–177, 182, 184, 188
B
Blended learning 193, 205
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2021
D. L. Banegas et al. (eds.), International Perspectives on Diversity in ELT,
International Perspectives on English Language Teaching,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74981-1
317
318
Index
Continuing professional development (CPD) 8, 13, 125, 173,
308, 310
Controversies approach 200
Counselling approach 200
Counterhegemonic teaching 43
Creativity 22, 26, 276
Critical inquiry approach 201
Critical interculturality 6, 11, 37–40,
42, 44, 48–50, 303, 308
Critical thinking 42, 43, 48, 139,
174, 179, 181, 182
Cued speech 267, 269, 272, 278
Cultural adjustment 55, 56, 60, 63,
65
Cultural difference 56, 58, 62–64,
67, 93, 95, 99, 105
Cultural diversity 3, 33, 48, 73, 74,
77, 78, 83, 85, 86, 88, 91–95,
97, 99, 104–106, 303, 309
Cultural identity 63, 65, 66
Culture(s) 5–7, 27, 31, 33, 38, 39,
42, 44, 45, 48, 57–59, 62–65,
67, 73, 76, 83, 85, 88, 92–95,
105, 107, 115, 125, 176, 177,
179, 217, 223, 224, 250, 253,
254, 276, 303, 306, 308, 310,
311
Culture teaching 4
Curriculum 2, 4, 10, 25, 30, 32, 38,
55–62, 66, 68, 88, 132, 147,
169, 174–176, 185, 188, 222,
223, 232, 241, 252, 256, 295,
302, 303, 308, 310–313
Cyprus 12, 114, 116, 117, 119, 120,
122, 123, 125, 308
D
Deaf 13, 265–267, 269, 272, 274,
278
Decolonial pedagogies 38, 42
Decolonial turn 38, 39
Differentiated learning 244
Differentiation 10, 12, 193,
211–225, 286, 304, 309
Disability 9, 94, 230, 235, 238, 240,
241, 247, 249, 267
Discrimination 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 29,
37–39, 42, 43, 48, 49, 51, 96,
153–156, 160, 164, 166–168,
230, 239, 302, 307, 313
Diversity 1–13, 24, 25, 28, 30, 38,
39, 48, 61, 73–76, 79–81,
86, 88, 92–99, 102–105,
113, 115, 124, 125, 147,
156, 173–180, 185, 187, 188,
191–193, 195, 198, 203–205,
211, 212, 215, 218, 224, 233,
243, 259, 283, 295, 301–314
Dyslexia 217, 247–253, 255–260,
296, 305, 306, 309
E
English as a foreign language (EFL)
6, 10, 12, 55, 56, 58, 67, 99,
113–119, 121–127, 154, 173,
175, 180, 191–195, 199–205,
231, 236, 266, 269, 270, 272,
276, 278, 287, 304
Englishes 74, 75, 81, 86
English language teaching (ELT)
1, 2, 4–13, 38, 40, 41, 51,
55, 57, 58, 61, 66, 73–83,
85–87, 89, 91, 92, 94–99,
103, 105–107, 113–115, 118,
121, 125, 126, 132, 133,
146–149, 153–156, 158, 160,
161, 163–168, 173, 178, 179,
181, 187, 193, 229, 230, 242,
244, 259, 284, 286–288, 290,
293–295, 301–304, 306, 307,
309–314
Equity 4, 11, 135, 153, 154, 165,
203, 313
Ethical relations 31
Index
F
Family 96, 131, 134–136, 138, 141,
145, 146, 158, 160, 178–180,
193, 267, 274, 288
Finland 12, 215–217, 222
5-dimensional model of differentiation 12, 212,
309
Flipped classrooms 257
319
Heteronormativity 7, 12, 97–99,
101, 103, 105, 107, 114, 116,
121–123, 125–127, 194, 198,
303, 304, 306, 313
Higher education 4, 12, 56, 58, 146,
154, 165, 176, 177, 230, 247,
248, 252, 295
Hiring 155, 157, 158, 166–168
I
G
Gender 2–4, 6–9, 12, 23, 29, 37–40,
43, 45–47, 51, 73, 91, 93–98,
102, 105, 114–116, 120,
121, 123–125, 127, 131–136,
139–142, 146–149, 153–155,
158, 162, 165–168, 174, 175,
178–182, 184, 187, 192–195,
199–205, 301, 302, 304, 305,
309, 313
Gender diversity 8, 91, 94–96, 98,
99, 102, 104–106, 176, 177,
187, 188, 195, 205, 304
Gender expression 120, 121, 123,
124, 132
Gendering of Children 140, 146
Gender stereotypes 131–133, 139,
147, 148, 182, 183, 185, 186,
200, 304
Germany 11, 12, 76, 99, 192, 194,
309
Global 56, 62, 64–66, 73–76, 83,
85, 91, 92, 94, 95, 99, 176,
248, 249, 266
Globalisation 56
H
Harassment 117, 154–157, 164–166
Hard of hearing 13, 265, 266, 269,
272, 274, 305
Hearing loss 266–270, 272, 278
Heterogeneous classroom 224
Identity 4, 6–9, 12, 27, 33, 38, 42,
44–46, 48, 49, 94, 96, 97,
102, 113–115, 118, 121–123,
125, 126, 131, 133–135, 137,
139, 141, 145, 147–149, 175,
178, 187, 192–194, 199, 200,
204, 243, 302, 303, 306, 308,
311, 313
Inclusion 2–4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 31,
45, 47, 80, 83, 96, 104, 105,
107, 114, 116, 122, 125,
126, 173, 177, 178, 180, 187,
192, 194, 195, 199, 200, 204,
229, 243, 249, 294, 303–305,
309–312
Inclusive education 4, 10, 11, 104,
193, 211, 230, 231, 249, 253,
258–260, 266, 295, 296
Inclusivity 95, 195, 203, 205, 236,
239, 241, 249, 255, 256, 259,
260
In-service teachers 12, 103, 125,
213, 309
Intercultural 3, 5, 6, 11, 12, 26–33,
38, 39, 50, 51, 55–63, 65–68,
74–76, 79, 81, 83, 85–87,
89, 91–94, 99, 105–107, 176,
181, 223, 303, 305, 306, 308
Intercultural communication 65, 67,
74–77, 79, 83, 85–87, 308
Intercultural communicative competence (ICC) 27, 32, 92,
305
320
Index
Intercultural competence 27, 55, 56,
58, 66
Intercultural curriculum 58
Intercultural friendships 65, 66
Intercultural learning 56–58, 66, 68,
83, 85, 91–94, 97, 99, 102,
105–107, 306
Intercultural skills 57–59, 61, 66,
303, 308
Interdisciplinary project 24, 308
Internalisation 60
International 12, 13, 22, 40, 42,
56–62, 64–66, 74, 75, 77,
79–83, 119, 122, 126, 154,
176, 247, 248, 250–253, 255,
266, 303, 308
Internationalising the curriculum 56,
61
International students 65, 68, 252,
253, 255
Intersectionality 11, 40, 48, 155,
165, 168, 302, 307
Intervention strategies 286, 287,
293–296
J
Japan 12, 13, 153–157, 160, 164,
165, 167, 232, 304, 308
K
Knowledge of ADHD 284,
286–288, 293
Learning difficulties 216, 222, 225,
250, 251, 253, 255–258, 260,
284, 286, 288, 289, 294, 295,
306
Learning disability 256, 295
Learning environment 4, 5, 12, 60,
62–64, 115, 203, 212–214,
217, 218, 231, 255, 257, 286,
293–295, 313
Lesson planning 176, 177, 184
LGBTIQ 6–8, 91, 95–100,
102–105, 107, 168, 303
Linguistics diversity 3
Literacy 3, 25, 26, 44, 47, 127, 132,
250, 258, 272, 294
M
Materials 6, 8, 45, 47, 58–60,
62, 74–79, 81–83, 85–87,
98–101, 103, 105, 132–134,
149, 181, 187, 194, 195,
199–201, 203, 212, 242, 251,
253, 255, 265, 267, 273, 274,
278, 291, 303, 309, 310
Mentorship 167
Motherhood 143, 155, 157, 167,
181
Motivation 1, 166, 176, 212, 214,
256, 274, 289–291
N
Networking 154, 157, 158, 160, 265
O
L
Language education 32, 73, 91, 92,
113, 117, 118, 124, 125, 191,
240, 253, 304, 311, 312
Language socialisation 131, 133, 306
Learner’s background 267
Learner identity 118
Otherness 5, 26, 302, 307
P
Pedagogy of the question 38, 43
Performative 25, 30
Performativity 199
Index
The Philippines 12, 132, 134, 142,
149, 308
Poland 12, 265, 309
Pre-service teachers 12, 42, 192
Professional development 1, 2, 8,
13, 32, 61, 78, 125, 126, 166,
173, 229, 231, 308–310
Promotion 3, 6, 41, 43, 154, 157,
159, 160, 166–168, 308
Provisions 10, 11, 252
Q
Quality 2, 4, 6, 9–11, 40, 103, 135,
136, 168, 176, 250–252, 266,
267, 270, 276, 285
Queer linguistics 205
Queer Theory 96, 97, 113–115,
117, 125–127, 148
R
Race 2, 3, 6, 9, 11, 39–41, 43–47,
51, 73, 94, 155, 166, 175, 302
Reflection 23, 24, 26, 28, 42, 43, 56,
63, 76, 87, 97–99, 101–103,
107, 154, 156, 173, 174,
185–188, 193, 195, 199, 202,
204, 241, 305, 312
Reflective writing 232, 236, 307,
308
S
Scaffolding 10, 23, 105, 176, 197,
202, 253, 255
School trip 22, 28, 30
Sexual diversity 106
Sexual identities 6, 7, 12, 99,
113–116, 118–126, 308
Singular they 199
Sociocultural theory 2, 60
Special educational needs (SEN) 2,
4, 9, 12, 13, 177, 229, 247,
321
265, 289, 295, 301, 302, 304,
310, 313
Student-centred learning 218
Support materials 12, 213, 214, 221,
223, 224
T
Task design 99, 309
Task typology 91, 98, 99, 103,
105–107
Teacher cognition 231, 241
Teacher collaboration 24
Teacher education 8–11, 13, 32, 38,
42, 43, 51, 98, 99, 103, 177,
182, 191–194, 231, 232, 260,
283, 287, 293, 295, 304, 308,
310, 313
Teacher educators 8, 13, 78, 103,
205, 284, 287–289, 291,
293–295
Teacher reflection 23, 28, 42
Teachers’ concerns 12, 114, 118, 121
Teacher training 78, 184, 239, 241
Teaching arrangements 12, 213, 214,
223
Teaching English as an international
language (TEIL) 74–79, 81,
83, 86, 87, 89
Teaching methods 10, 12, 41, 49,
213, 214, 218, 223
Teaching strategies 10, 11, 42, 125,
255, 265, 284, 294, 295
Teaching techniques 255, 259
Technology 28, 180, 217, 219, 255,
256, 258, 260, 266, 269, 276,
277
Textbook 12, 33, 58, 59, 62, 66, 74,
76–83, 86, 89, 126, 132, 194,
200, 215, 217, 218, 234, 267,
303, 307, 308
Tools 2, 59–61, 76, 179, 187, 221,
224, 269, 272, 295, 304
322
Index
195,
251,
265,
304,
Training 10, 45, 49, 61, 78, 104,
184, 230–232, 237, 239, 241,
242, 244, 257, 258, 285–287,
295, 307
Transformative view of learning 59
Turkey 12, 287, 307
230, 232, 233, 236, 248,
252, 254–256, 258, 260,
271, 285, 288–290, 292,
308, 309
W
U
United Nations’ Convention on
the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities (UN CRPD) 192
University 13, 44, 45, 48, 50, 57, 67,
99, 103, 118, 121, 154–156,
159–161, 163, 164, 166, 192,
Women 7, 8, 37, 43, 120, 132, 134,
136, 137, 142, 143, 147, 149,
153–162, 164–168, 180–182,
187, 200, 304
Z
Zone of proximal development 212