Body Fluid Analysis for Cellular Composition; Proposed Guideline PLEASE H56-P Vol. 25 No. 20 TTT TT T This proposed document is published for wide and thorough review in the new, accelerated Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) consensus-review process. The document will undergo concurrent consensus review, Board review, and delegate voting (i.e., candidate for advancement) for 90 days. Please send your comments on scope, approach, and technical and editorial content to CLSI. Comment period ends 17 November 2005 The subcommittee responsible for this document will assess all comments received by the end of the comment period. Based on this assessment, a new version of the document will be issued. Readers are encouraged to send their comments to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, 940 West Valley Road, Suite 1400, Wayne, PA 19087-1898 USA; Fax: +610.688.0700, or to the following e-mail address: customerservice@clsi.org S SS SSS COMMENT This guideline provides users with recommendations for collection and transport of body fluids, numeration and identification of cellular components, and guidance for qualitative and quantitative assessment of body fluid. A guideline for global application developed through the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute consensus process. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute Providing NCCLS standards and guidelines, ISO/TC 212 standards, and ISO/TC 76 standards Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI, formerly NCCLS) is an international, interdisciplinary, nonprofit, standards-developing, and educational organization that promotes the development and use of voluntary consensus standards and guidelines within the healthcare community. It is recognized worldwide for the application of its unique consensus process in the development of standards and guidelines for patient testing and related healthcare issues. Our process is based on the principle that consensus is an effective and cost-effective way to improve patient testing and healthcare services. In addition to developing and promoting the use of voluntary consensus standards and guidelines, we provide an open and unbiased forum to address critical issues affecting the quality of patient testing and health care. PUBLICATIONS A document is published as a standard, guideline, or committee report. Standard A document developed through the consensus process that clearly identifies specific, essential requirements for materials, methods, or practices for use in an unmodified form. A standard may, in addition, contain discretionary elements, which are clearly identified. Guideline A document developed through the consensus process describing criteria for a general operating practice, procedure, or material for voluntary use. A guideline may be used as written or modified by the user to fit specific needs. Most documents are subject to two levels of consensus— “proposed” and “approved.” Depending on the need for field evaluation or data collection, documents may also be made available for review at an intermediate consensus level. Proposed A consensus document undergoes the first stage of review by the healthcare community as a proposed standard or guideline. The document should receive a wide and thorough technical review, including an overall review of its scope, approach, and utility, and a line-by-line review of its technical and editorial content. Approved An approved standard or guideline has achieved consensus within the healthcare community. It should be reviewed to assess the utility of the final document, to ensure attainment of consensus (i.e., that comments on earlier versions have been satisfactorily addressed), and to identify the need for additional consensus documents. Our standards and guidelines represent a consensus opinion on good practices and reflect the substantial agreement by materially affected, competent, and interested parties obtained by following CLSI’s established consensus procedures. Provisions in CLSI standards and guidelines may be more or less stringent than applicable regulations. Consequently, conformance to this voluntary consensus document does not relieve the user of responsibility for compliance with applicable regulations. COMMENTS The CLSI voluntary consensus process is a protocol establishing formal criteria for: The comments of users are essential to the consensus process. Anyone may submit a comment, and all comments are addressed, according to the consensus process, by the committee that wrote the document. All comments, including those that result in a change to the document when published at the next consensus level and those that do not result in a change, are responded to by the committee in an appendix to the document. Readers are strongly encouraged to comment in any form and at any time on any document. Address comments to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, 940 West Valley Road, Suite 1400, Wayne, PA 19087, USA. • the authorization of a project VOLUNTEER PARTICIPATION • the development and open review of documents • the revision of documents in response to comments by users • the acceptance of a document as a consensus standard or guideline. Report A document that has not been subjected to consensus review and is released by the Board of Directors. CONSENSUS PROCESS Healthcare professionals in all specialties are urged to volunteer for participation in CLSI projects. Please contact us at customerservice@clsi.org or +610.688.0100 for additional information on committee participation. Volume 25 Number 20 H56-P ISBN 1-56238-575-5 ISSN 0273-3099 Body Fluid Analysis for Cellular Composition; Proposed Guideline Diane I. Szamosi, MA, MT(ASCP)SH Josephine M. Bautista, MS, MT(ASCP) Joanne Cornbleet, MD, PhD Lewis Glasser, MD Gregor Rothe, DrMed Linda Sandhaus, MD Marc Key, PhD Aurelia Meloni-Ehrig, PhD, DSc Naomi B. Culp, DA, MT(ASCP)SH William Dougherty Abstract Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute document H56-P—Body Fluid Analysis for Cellular Composition; Proposed Guideline provides recommendations for standardization of the collection and transport of body fluids, numeration and identification of cellular components, and guidance for qualitative and quantitative assessment of body fluid. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Body Fluid Analysis for Cellular Composition; Proposed Guideline. CLSI document H56-P (ISBN 1-56238-575-5). Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, 940 West Valley Road, Suite 1400, Wayne, Pennsylvania 19087-1898 USA, 2005. The Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute consensus process, which is the mechanism for moving a document through two or more levels of review by the healthcare community, is an ongoing process. Users should expect revised editions of any given document. Because rapid changes in technology may affect the procedures, methods, and protocols in a standard or guideline, users should replace outdated editions with the current editions of CLSI/NCCLS documents. Current editions are listed in the CLSI catalog, which is distributed to member organizations, and to nonmembers on request. If your organization is not a member and would like to become one, and to request a copy of the catalog, contact us at: Telephone: 610.688.0100; Fax: 610.688.0700; E-Mail: customerservice@clsi.org; Website: www.clsi.org Number 20 H56-P This publication is protected by copyright. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or made available in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise) without prior written permission from Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, except as stated below. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute hereby grants permission to reproduce limited portions of this publication for use in laboratory procedure manuals at a single site, for interlibrary loan, or for use in educational programs provided that multiple copies of such reproduction shall include the following notice, be distributed without charge, and, in no event, contain more than 20% of the document’s text. Reproduced with permission, from CLSI publication H56-P—Body Fluid Analysis for Cellular Composition; Proposed Guideline (ISBN 1-56238-575-5). Copies of the current edition may be obtained from Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, 940 West Valley Road, Suite 1400, Wayne, Pennsylvania 19087-1898, USA. Permission to reproduce or otherwise use the text of this document to an extent that exceeds the exemptions granted here or under the Copyright Law must be obtained from Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute by written request. To request such permission, address inquiries to the Executive Vice President, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, 940 West Valley Road, Suite 1400, Wayne, Pennsylvania 19087-1898, USA. Copyright ©2005. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Suggested Citation (Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Body Fluid Analysis for Cellular Composition; Proposed Guideline. CLSI document H56-P [ISBN 1-56238-575-5]. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, 940 West Valley Road, Suite 1400, Wayne, Pennsylvania 19087-1898 USA, 2005.) Proposed Guideline August 2005 ISBN 1-56238-575-5 ISSN 0273-3099 ii Volume 25 H56-P Committee Membership Area Committee on Hematology Bruce H. Davis, MD Chairholder Maine Medical Center Research Institute Scarborough, Maine Maryalice Stetler-Stevenson, MD, PhD National Institutes of Health Bethesda, Maryland Advisors Samuel J. Machin, MB, ChB, FRCPath Vice-Chairholder The University College London Hospitals London, United Kingdom Dorothy M. Adcock, MD Esoterix Coagulation Aurora, Colorado Frank M. LaDuca, PhD International Technidyne Corporation Edison, New Jersey Ginette Y. Michaud, MD FDA Center for Devices and Radiological Health Rockville, Maryland Albert Rabinovitch, MD, PhD Abbott Laboratories, Hematology Business Unit Santa Clara, California Charles F. Arkin, MD Lahey Clinic Burlington, Massachusetts J. David Bessman, MD University of Texas Medical Branch Galveston, Texas Douglas J. Christie, PhD, FAHA Dade Behring, Inc. Newark, Delaware Ian Giles Sysmex America, Inc. Mundelein, Illinois Jan W. Gratama, MD Erasmus University Medical Center-Daniel Den Hoed Rotterdam, Netherlands Francis Lacombe, MD, PhD Laboratoire d’Hematologie Pessac, France Kandice Kottke-Marchant, MD, PhD The Cleveland Clinic Foundation Cleveland, Ohio Richard A. Marlar, PhD Oklahoma City VA Medical Center Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Powers Peterson, MD Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar Doha, Qatar Diane I. Szamosi, MA, MT(ASCP)SH Greiner Bio-One North America, Preanalytics Monroe, North Carolina Luc Van Hove, MD, PhD Abbott Laboratories Abbott Park, Illinois John A. Koepke, MD Durham, North Carolina Subcommittee on Body Fluid Analysis for Cellular Composition Diane I. Szamosi, MA, MT(ASCP)SH Chairholder Greiner Bio-One North America, Preanalytics Monroe, North Carolina Josephine M. Bautista, MS, MT(ASCP) FDA Center for Devices and Radiological Health Rockville, Maryland Joanne Cornbleet, MD, PhD Stanford University Medical Center Stanford, California Lewis Glasser, MD Rhode Island Hospital Brown Medical School Providence, Rhode Island Gregor Rothe, DrMed Bremer Zentrum für Laboratoriumsmedizin Bremen, Germany Linda Sandhaus, MD University Hospitals of Cleveland Cleveland, Ohio Staff Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute Wayne, Pennsylvania John J. Zlockie, MBA Vice President, Standards David E. Sterry, MT(ASCP) Staff Liaison Donna M. Wilhelm Editor Melissa A. Lewis Assistant Editor iii Number 20 H56-P Acknowledgement This guideline was prepared by Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI), as part of a cooperative effort with IFCC to work toward the advancement and dissemination of laboratory standards on a worldwide basis. CLSI gratefully acknowledges the participation of IFCC in this project. The IFCC expert for this project is Gregor Rothe, DrMed, Bremer Zentrum für Laboratoriumsmedizin. iv Volume 25 H56-P Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................i Committee Membership........................................................................................................................ iii Foreword .............................................................................................................................................. vii 1 Scope..........................................................................................................................................1 2 Standard Precautions..................................................................................................................1 3 Definitions .................................................................................................................................1 4 Preanalytical Variables ..............................................................................................................3 5 Specimen Collection ..................................................................................................................4 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6 Specimen Handling and Transport.............................................................................................7 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 7 Cerebrospinal Fluid.....................................................................................................26 Serous (Pleural, Peritoneal, Pericardial) .....................................................................30 Synovial Fluid.............................................................................................................36 Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid....................................................................................43 Additional Studies....................................................................................................................46 10.1 10.2 10.3 11 Slide Preparation.........................................................................................................14 Identification of Morphologic Constituents................................................................15 Evaluation of Nucleated Cell Subtypes ......................................................................25 Physician Review........................................................................................................25 Result Reporting .........................................................................................................26 Fluid Types ..............................................................................................................................26 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 10 Manual Counting ..........................................................................................................8 Automated Methods....................................................................................................10 Morphology Assessment..........................................................................................................14 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 9 CSF ...............................................................................................................................7 Serous Fluids.................................................................................................................7 Synovial Fluids .............................................................................................................8 BAL ..............................................................................................................................8 Quantitative Assessment............................................................................................................8 7.1 7.2 8 Cerebrospinal Fluid.......................................................................................................4 Serous Fluid ..................................................................................................................5 Synovial Fluid...............................................................................................................6 Bronchoalveolar Lavage (BAL) ...................................................................................7 Immunologic Studies ..................................................................................................46 Flow Cytometric Studies ............................................................................................54 Cytogenetic Analysis ..................................................................................................58 Sample Storage After Completion of Testing..........................................................................59 v Number 20 H56-P Contents (Continued) 12 Quality Control and Quality Assurance ...................................................................................59 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Quality Control ...........................................................................................................59 Quality Assurance.......................................................................................................60 Proficiency Testing (External Quality Assessment) ...................................................60 Continuous Education and Training ...........................................................................61 References.............................................................................................................................................62 Appendix A. Reagent Formulations .....................................................................................................67 Appendix B. Interpretation of Cell Types.............................................................................................68 The Quality System Approach..............................................................................................................72 Related CLSI/NCCLS Publications ......................................................................................................73 vi Volume 25 H56-P Foreword Clinical data derived from proper body fluid procedures and accurate test results are essential to make the appropriate diagnosis and administer the proper therapy to patients. Some variables may influence the test results reported. Because these variables are loosely defined, inconsistency from one institution to another may exist. This guideline will provide users with recommendations for the collection and transport of body fluids, procedures for the numeration and identification of cellular components, and guidelines for the qualitative and quantitative assessment of body fluids. Invitation for Participation in the Consensus Process An important aspect of the development of this and all Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) documents should be emphasized, and that is the consensus process. Within the context and operation of CLSI, the term “consensus” means more than agreement. In the context of document development, “consensus” is a process by which CLSI, its members, and interested parties (1) have the opportunity to review and to comment on any CLSI publication; and (2) are assured that their comments will be given serious, competent consideration. Any CLSI document will evolve as will technology affecting laboratory or healthcare procedures, methods, and protocols; and therefore, is expected to undergo cycles of evaluation and modification. The Area Committee on Hematology has attempted to engage the broadest possible worldwide representation in committee deliberations. Consequently, it is reasonable to expect that issues remain unresolved at the time of publication at the proposed level. The review and comment process is the mechanism for resolving such issues. The CLSI voluntary consensus process is dependent upon the expertise of worldwide reviewers whose comments add value to the effort. At the end of a 90-day comment period, each subcommittee is obligated to review all comments and to respond in writing to all which are substantive. Where appropriate, modifications will be made to the document, and all comments along with the subcommittee’s responses will be included as an appendix to the document when it is published at the next consensus level. A Note on Terminology CLSI, as a global leader in standardization, is firmly committed to achieving global harmonization wherever possible. Harmonization is a process of recognizing, understanding, and explaining differences while taking steps to achieve worldwide uniformity. CLSI recognizes that medical conventions in the global metrological community have evolved differently in the United States, Europe, and elsewhere; that these differences are reflected in CLSI, ISO, and CEN documents; and that legally required use of terms, regional usage, and different consensus timelines are all obstacles to harmonization. Despite these obstacles, CLSI recognizes that harmonization of terms facilitates the global application of standards and is an area that needs immediate attention. Implementation of this policy must be an evolutionary and educational process that begins with new projects and revisions of existing documents. Key Words Body fluids, bronchoalveolar lavage, cerebrospinal fluid, pericardial fluid, peritoneal fluid, pleural fluid, serous fluid, synovial fluid vii Number 20 viii H56-P Volume 25 H56-P Body Fluid Analysis for Cellular Composition; Proposed Guideline 1 Scope The intended purpose of this guideline is to explain how to collect, process, examine, store, and report results for body fluid specimens for the characterization of inflammatory, infectious, neoplastic, and immune alterations. It will also discuss preanalytical, analytical, and postanalytical variables related to body fluid cellular analyses. For the purpose of this document, the following body fluids will be discussed: cerebrospinal, serous (pleural, peritoneal, pericardial), and related fluids (i.e., peritoneal dialysate, peritoneal lavage, and bronchoalveolar), and synovial fluids. This guideline describes manual and automated methods to enumerate cellular components and to identify normal and abnormal elements. It also addresses additional studies that may be used for body fluid testing in the routine clinical laboratory. This document is intended for medical technologists, pathologists, microbiologists, cytologists, nurses, and other healthcare professionals responsible for the collection and transport of body fluid specimens to the clinical laboratory, as well as the processing, testing, and reporting of results. It is also intended for manufacturers of products or instruments used for body fluid testing. 2 Standard Precautions Because it is often impossible to know what isolates or specimens might be infectious, all patient and laboratory specimens are treated as infectious and handled according to “standard precautions.” Standard precautions are guidelines that combine the major features of “universal precautions and body substance isolation” practices. Standard precautions cover the transmission of all infectious agents and thus are more comprehensive than universal precautions which are intended to apply only to transmission of blood-borne pathogens. Standard and universal precaution guidelines are available from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Garner JS, Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1996;17(1):53-80). For specific precautions for preventing the laboratory transmission of all infectious agents from laboratory instruments and materials and for recommendations for the management of exposure to all infectious disease, refer to the most current edition of Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute document M29— Protection of Laboratory Workers From Occupationally Acquired Infections. 3 Definitions accuracy (of measurement) – closeness of the agreement between the result of a measurement and a true value of the measurand (VIM93).1 analytical sensitivity – in quantitative testing, the change in response of a measuring system or instrument divided by the corresponding change in the stimulus (modified from VIM93)1; NOTE 1: The sensitivity may depend on the value of the stimulus; NOTE 2: The sensitivity depends on the imprecision of the measurements of the sample; NOTE 3: In qualitative testing, the test method’s ability to obtain positive results in concordance with positive results obtained by the reference method; NOTE 4: If the true sensitivity of a device is better than the reference method, its apparent specificity will be less and the level of apparent false-positive results will be greater; NOTE 5: For FISH, the percentage of scorable nuclei or metaphase cells with the expected signal pattern (number of signals, size of signals, and color of signals). © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 1 Number 20 H56-P analytical specificity – ability of a measurement procedure to measure solely the measurand (ISO 17511).2 antibody – specific immunoglobulin formed by B lymphocytes and plasma cells in response to exposure to an immunogenic substance and able to bind to the antigen. anticoagulant (additive) – an agent that prevents coagulation of blood or blood products arthrocentesis – aspiration of a joint. arthrocentesis fluid – joint fluid obtained from aspiration of a joint. carry-over – the discrete amount of analyte carried by the measuring system from one specimen reaction into subsequent specimen reactions, thereby erroneously affecting the apparent amounts in subsequent specimens. cerebrospinal fluid – fluid within the ventricles of the brain and the subarachnoid space. collection vessel – any tube or container, preferably plastic, which serves to contain the body fluid specimen. empyema fluid – the presence of pus in a body cavity; usually refers to pus in the pleural cavity. epitope – any site on an antigen molecule at which an antibody can bind; the chemical structure of the site determining the specific combining antibody. exudate – a fluid with a high concentration of protein or cells that accumulates in a body cavity as a result of increased capillary permeability. iatrogenic fluids – fluids introduced into a body cavity by the physician. immunocytochemical assay//immunohistochemical assay – an immunoassay that detects an antigen present in a specimen that is contained within intact or histologically sectioned cells or tissues. immunocytology//immunocytochemistry – localization of immunoreactive substances within cells of a cytological specimen that have been specifically labeled with an antibody. immunohistology//immunohistochemistry – localization of immunoreactive substances within cells or tissues of a histological specimen that have been specifically labeled with an antibody. measuring range – a set of values of measurands for which the error of a measuring instrument is intended to lie within specified limits (VIM93).1 peritoneal dialysate fluid – a physiologic synthetic fluid introduced into the peritoneal cavity for the purpose of normalizing fluid, electrolyte, and solute balance in the body using the principles of ultrafiltration and diffusion. peritoneal fluid – a body fluid within the peritoneal cavity. peritoneal lavage fluid – a physiologic synthetic fluid introduced into the peritoneal cavity for the purpose of irrigating the cavity and removing the fluid for the purpose of examining its contents. 2 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P peroxidase – an enzyme commonly used in immunohistochemistry to label immunoreactive substances in cells and tissues; NOTE: In immunohistochemistry, the reaction of peroxidase with an appropriate substrate-chromogen produces a colored reaction product that can be viewed microscopically. pleural fluid – the serous fluid within the pleural cavity. precision (of measurement) – closeness of agreement between independent test results obtained under stipulated conditions (ISO 3534-1).3 Romanowsky type stains – any stain containing methylene blue and/or its products of oxidation (azure B), and a halogenated fluorescein dye, usually eosin B or Y. sample – one or more parts taken from a system, and intended to provide information on the system, often to serve as a basis for decision on the system or its production (ISO 15189)4; NOTE: For example, a volume of serum taken from a larger volume of serum (ISO 15189).4 specimen – biological material that is obtained in order to detect or to measure one or more quantities, such as amount or concentration (ISO/CD 18112-1).5 substrate-chromogen – a reagent commonly used in immunohistochemistry that contains both a substrate and a chromogen; NOTE: When reacted with an appropriate enzyme, the substrate-chromogen produces a colored reaction product that specifically labels immunoreactive substances in cells and tissues. thoracentesis fluid – fluid obtained from removal of pleural fluid from the thoracic cavity. transudates – fluid with a low concentration of protein that has accumulated in a body cavity. traumatic tap – contamination of body fluids by extraneous cells or fluid derived from blood or tissue during the procedure of withdrawal of fluid from a body cavity. ventricular shunt fluid – ventricular shunts are placed for the treatment of hydrocephalus to remove fluid from the ventricles and provide drainage to another site (e.g., the peritoneal cavity); NOTE: The fluid that fills the shunt is designated ventricular shunt fluid. 4 Preanalytical Variables A path of workflow is the description of the necessary steps needed to deliver a particular product or service to the organization or entity it defines. This workflow path can be influenced by preanalytical, analytical, and postanalytical variables. Preanalytical variables can be further exemplified by erroneous test requests, specimen handling, collection procedures, collection vessels, anticoagulants, specimen transport, and receipt of specimens.6 The test request procedure is important to address in the quality system model for laboratory testing.1 This procedure may be affected by preanalytical variables that include an error in the order entry procedure or in a test request being incorrectly ordered, either as tests added to or deleted from the original test request. Specimen collection procedures can also be subjected to preanalytical variables. For example, the techniques used in the collection of body fluids can affect the reportable test results. It is therefore recommended that procedures be standardized in facilities, so that these collection errors can be minimized or eliminated. These procedures should also be established as part of an institution’s Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 3 Number 20 H56-P The type of collection vessels that are used to collect and transfer body fluids could possibly affect test results. The material used may possibly absorb or leach constituents, making cellular enumeration and morphologic identification inaccurate. Cellular adherence, especially in glass tubes, may artificially change differential cell counts in low protein solutions, such as in BAL. In contrast to glass tubes or polystyrene tubes, polypropylene tubes are suitable for the collection and mixing of aspirated broncholavage fluid. It is therefore the responsibility of the facility to select the appropriate collection vessels by conducting internal studies to evaluate the material selected, and/or obtain such information from the appropriate manufacturer or published studies. The type of anticoagulant (additive) used for the collection of specific body fluids may also affect test results. For example, using an additive when it is not required (cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF) may possibly affect the enumeration of white and red blood cells. Using the wrong additive (synovial) could possibly introduce artifacts and therefore interfere with the identification of cellular elements present on a slide. In some body fluids, the proper order of draw is important so that the incidence of cellular contamination from tube to tube is reduced. It is also necessary so that a microbiology specimen is not contaminated. In addition, hemolyzed and clotted specimens are not recommended as specimens of choice for analysis because these types of specimens will produce inaccurate test results. However, circumstances may arise when it is not possible to acquire another specimen from a patient. These exceptions to standard practice must be clearly defined in the site’s Standard Operating Procedures. Specimen transport is also a procedure that may be affected by preanalytical variables. For example, the temperature at which a specimen is transported could affect the integrity, degradation, or deterioration of the constituents of the fluid. The transport time must also be acceptable to maintain specimen integrity. The method of transport may also affect the integrity of the specimen. For example, the use of a pneumatic tube system must be approached with caution because excessive shaking of body fluids may result in a breakdown of the cellular constituents. It is therefore recommended that each facility acquire information from the manufacturer (e.g., sample transportation time, sample transportation method). In addition, the facility must also establish Standard Operating Procedures regarding the use of the pneumatic tube system for the transport of body fluids. The receipt of specimens into a laboratory accessioning department may also be affected by preanalytical variables. These specimens should be received with proper identification. A bar-code label should include the name of the patient, the medical record number, the accession number, the location (unit), the date and time of specimen collection, and the list of the tests ordered. The date and time on the specimens should be verified against the actual collection time of the specimen. If a significant discrepancy between the times exists, the unit should be notified to rectify the discrepancy before test analyses. In some situations (LIS downtime, emergencies), handwritten labels accompanied with requisition slips should be an acceptable means of specimen identification, providing that the required information is properly documented. If these specimen identification guidelines are not met either electronically or manually, the unit will be notified that a new specimen will be required. If specimen identification guidelines are not met, the laboratory personnel must follow the administrative guidelines of the laboratory for analysis or rejection of the specimen. In addition, a Laboratory Incident Report should be filed.7,8 5 5.1 Specimen Collection Cerebrospinal Fluid Cerebrospinal fluid is usually collected by lumbar puncture, but may also be obtained by lateral cervical or cisternal puncture.9 Sterile technique is mandatory to avoid introducing bacteria. Manometric measurements may be done and are the responsibility of the clinical service rather than the laboratory. Usually, fluid is collected into three or four tubes for chemical, microbiologic, and cellular analysis. The tubes should be labeled according to the sequence of collection. It is preferable to have the first tube 4 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P analyzed for chemical and serologic studies. Subsequent tubes should be used for microbial and cellular analysis to obtain accurate cell counts and decrease the chance of bacterial contamination. A sterile tube must be used for microbial studies. No anticoagulant is necessary, since spinal fluid does not clot except occasionally if the puncture is traumatic. Since the volume of CSF is relatively small, the total amount collected is limited and usually varies from 10 to 20 mL in adults. Up to 8 mL may be safely removed from the smallest infant. Complications of lumbar puncture include headache, infection, and brain herniation. Rarer complications may also occur.9 Refer to Section 10.1.1 for collection of samples for cytological examination. Table 1. Specimen Requirements for Cerebrospinal Fluid Anticoagulant Volume (mL) Test Comments (e.g., protein, glucose, other special tests) None 3-5 Tube #1 If traumatic tap is suspected, cell count should also be performed on Tube 1. Gram stain and culture None 3-5 Tube #2 Cell count and differential None 3-5 Tube #3 or 4 Other tests as required (e.g., cytology) None 3-5 Tube #4 5.2 Serous Fluid Serous fluids (e.g., pleural, peritoneal) from large volume collections may be aliquoted into smaller volumes before transport to the laboratory or in the laboratory. Specimens should be gently agitated during collection, before aliquoting, and before testing for cell counts and differentials. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is the recommended anticoagulant for cell counts and differentials. Refrigerated storage is adequate for cell counts and differentials for up to 24 hours.10 Although testing can be done on small volumes of fluid, 5 to 8 mL is recommended in the event followup studies are needed (e.g., flow cytometry). A sterile collection tube must be used for microbial studies. For cytology specimens, a wide range of volumes may be sent to the laboratory. As little as 15 to greater than 100 mL may be sent for analysis. A 50-mL specimen is recommended. Sterility is not required and no anticoagulant is necessary.11 However, heparin and EDTA are also used.12 If clumps of material are present, they can be processed as a cell block. Refer to Section 10.1.1 for collection of samples for cytological examination. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 5 Number 20 H56-P Table 2. Specimen Requirements for Serous Fluids Anticoagulant Tests * Volume (mL) RBC, WBC, differential EDTA 5-8 Total protein, LD, glucose amylase Heparin, none 8-10 Gram stain, bacterial culture SPS*, none, or anticoagulant without bactericidal or bacteriostatic effect 8-10 AFB culture SPS, none, or anticoagulant without bactericidal or bacteriostatic effect 15-50 PAP stain, cell block None, heparin, EDTA 5-50 SPS = Sodium polyanetholsulfonate 5.3 Synovial Fluid The amount of fluid removed depends on the size of the joint and effusion. A 3- to 5-mL sample is ideal for laboratory analysis. However, since this may not be possible in smaller joints, the physician should prioritize the requested tests and clearly communicate with the laboratory. Specimens should not be rejected because of small volumes, since even a drop may provide definitive diagnosis in crystalline joint disease and only small volumes are needed for cell count and differential. Infected fluids may also grow organisms even if the volume is compromised. Specimen requirements are listed in Table 3. The following precautions should be noted. The physician must be careful not to express synovial fluid into tubes using a needle on the collection tray, previously used to remove fluid from a medicinal vial. Fluid should be thoroughly mixed after collection and before analysis in the laboratory to obtain accurate cell counts. Some texts indicate that lithium heparin and EDTA should not be used as anticoagulants because they produce crystalline material that can be confused with pathologic crystals.13,14 However, others have used lithium heparin and EDTA without difficulty.15 Oxalate should not be used because of extensive formation of calcium oxalate crystals. Refer to Section 10.1.1 for collection of samples for cytological examination. 6 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P Table 3. Specimen Requirements for Synovial Fluid* Test Anticoagulant Volume (mL) Comments Cell count, differential, crystals, inclusions Heparin, EDTA 3-5 Can be done on a few drops of fluid. Mix thoroughly. Glucose Protein CH50 Fluoride or none None None 3-5 8-hr. fast preferred C3, C4 None or EDTA Culture SPS, none, or anticoagulant without bactericidal or bacteriostatic effect * Freeze if not tested immediately. Requires 1 mL 3-5 Sterile tube required Requirements may change with advances in technology. 5.4 Bronchoalveolar Lavage (BAL) A fiber-optic bronchoscope is wedged into a midsize segmental bronchus, and aliquots of sterile saline are instilled and aspirated into the alveolar spaces. In this manner, cells and organisms in the alveoli distant to the bronchoscope can be sampled. The instillation volume typically is approximately 100- to 300-mL sterile saline in 20- to 50-mL aliquots. The first aliquot should be discarded. The other aliquots are pooled for further analysis. In diffuse lung disease, the middle or lingular lobe is used as a standard site for BAL. If a definite segment has been lavaged, this should be recorded on the request form. Aspiration of the instilled solution should be carried out with as little trauma as possible. A typical recovery is in the range of 50 to 70%. A very low recovery of less than 25% of the applied volume may appear in cases of chronic obstructive lung diseases. Low-volume recovery should be recorded on the request form. Refer to Section 10.1.1 for collection of samples for cytological examination. 6 Specimen Handling and Transport Specimens should be transported to the laboratory promptly. Cellular degeneration of CSF can begin within one hour of collection, so cell counts should be completed as soon as possible. 6.1 CSF Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) specimens should be transported at ambient temperature to the testing site as soon as possible following completion of the collection procedures. CSF for microbiology testing should never be refrigerated before or after transport; since some organisms are fastidious and temperature sensitive, they have the capability of becoming nonviable. 6.2 Serous Fluids It is also recommended that pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal fluids be transported to the testing site at ambient temperature. To preserve the integrity of these specimens, however, the testing site should be in receipt of these specimens as soon as possible after the completion of the collection procedures. Otherwise, cell lysis, cellular degradation, and bacterial growth could occur and possibly affect the test results. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 7 Number 20 H56-P Serous fluids for the cytology laboratory should be sent as soon as possible. If storage is necessary, the specimen should be refrigerated at 4 °C without a fixative. Serous fluids have a high protein content, cellular detail with Papanicolaou (PAP), H & E, or other stains will be adequately preserved with refrigeration for several days.11 6.3 Synovial Fluids Synovial fluid specimens may be transported and analyzed at room temperature. 6.4 BAL Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) samples should be kept at room temperature and transported to the laboratory immediately after collection. Analysis of cell number, viability, and differential count should be performed within three hours. Preliminary tests demonstrate a deterioration of cellular characteristics after approximately six hours. Specimens that cannot be processed within 36 hours should be discarded. Samples are often filtered using 50- to 70-µ nylon filters before staining to remove phlegm and dust. 7 Quantitative Assessment 7.1 Manual Counting Manual cell counting is a basic procedure in the evaluation of body fluids. There are variations of the manual procedure (e.g., cells may be counted by light microscopy using stains to enhance the recognition of cells or using phase microscopy). Each laboratory should establish its own procedure. 7.1.1 • • • • • • • • • Hemacytometer (e.g., Neubauer or equivalent counting chamber) Hemacytometer coverslip 3% acetic acid Acidified crystal violet stain Saline Test tubes (for manual dilutions) White cell and red cell diluting pipettes Manufactured dilution ampule systems Calibrated pipettes with tips 7.1.2 • Reagents and Supplies Instrumentation Microscope 7.1.3 Procedure Mix the specimen well by rotation on an automated mixer for a maximum of two to five minutes (excessive rocking may damage cells) or hand mix by inverting the tube ten to 15 times. The exception is synovial fluid, which must be mixed for five to ten minutes due to the viscosity of the fluid. If the fluid is in a conical tube, flick the bottom of the conical tube several times to dislodge cells before mixing the specimen. The more turbid the sample, the greater the mixing process impacts cell count accuracy. 8 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 7.1.3.1 H56-P Specimen Dilutions The sample should be well mixed before analysis.16,17 Both erythrocytes and nucleated cells are enumerated in the same chamber. Specimens are usually counted undiluted, unless they are bloody or cloudy. Typical dilutions for any fluid can range from 1:10 to 1:200 or higher, depending on the turbidity of the specimen. Different diluents can be used to dilute the fluids. Isotonic saline can be used for both white and red cell dilutions while acetic acid or hypotonic saline may be used to lyse red cells for white cell dilutions. Acetic acid should not be used as a diluent for synovial fluid manual nucleated cell counts, since mucin will coagulate. If manual nucleated cell counts are performed on synovial fluid samples, erythrocytes can be lysed, with preservation of nucleated cells, by using a hypotonic saline solution (0.3%). Several quality assurance stipulations have been promulgated by regulatory agencies. These include the use of certified pipettes or commercial dilution systems, periodically checking diluting fluids for extraneous particles and counting samples in duplicate.18 7.1.3.2 Hemacytometer Preparation and Charging Before charging the hemacytometer chamber, make sure it is clean and dry. Place a coverslip on the hemacytometer. Place the hemacytometer in a petri dish lined with moist paper. Elevate the hemacytometer on two sticks so it does not come in direct contact with the moist paper. Fill both sides of the hemacytometer, being careful not to overfill. After the hemacytometer is loaded, allow the cells to settle for five to ten minutes (the amount of time required for the cells to settle depends on the cellularity of the specimen). Label the petri dish using a crayon or by attaching a computer label. The label must include the patient’s name or specimen number and the set-up time. Cells must be counted as soon as possible. If the fluid has drawn back from the sides of the hemacytometer, the sample has begun to dry out and the counts are invalid. Re-mix the sample and set the hemacytometer counts up again. The following guidelines are recommended for counting areas16: a) If less than an estimated 200 cells are present in all nine squares, count all nine squares. This area counted is 9 mm2. b) If more than an estimated 200 cells are present in all nine squares, then count the four corner squares. This area counted is 4 mm2. c) If more than an estimated 200 cells are present in one square, then count five of the squares within the center square for an area of 0.2 mm2. 7.1.3.3 Cell Counting Procedures Place the hemacytometer under the microscope, using low power only (10X), and adjust to see the cells. Scan the large squares. For accuracy, there should be even distribution of cells (approximately no more than ten cells variation in the large squares). Cells should not overlap. For diluted samples, a minimum of 200 cells should be counted. Then, switch to high power magnification (40X). The count is performed under high power. Depending on the number of cells present, an appropriate number of squares should be counted. The more cells present, the smaller and fewer the numbers of squares that need to be counted. 7.1.3.3.1 Hemacytometer The hemacytometer is 0.1 mm deep and the etched surface is a total surface area of 9 mm2. The counting area is divided into nine large squares. The center large square is subdivided into 25 small squares. The 25 small squares are subdivided into 16 smaller squares (see Figure 1 below). © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 9 Number 20 H56-P Figure 1. Hemacytometer Counting Area. Reprinted with permission from Medical Center Laboratory (www.MedicalCenterLab.org) and Judy Stranak, MAEd, MT(ASCP)SH. 7.1.3.3.2 White and Red Blood Cell Counts Nucleated cells may be counted in the same chamber as erythrocytes. Count and average the result. Count the appropriate areas on both sides of the hemacytometer for the dilution and number of cells present as follows: • • • • • All nine squares if no dilution All nine squares for 1:10 dilution Four corner squares for 1:20 dilution Center square for 1:100 dilution Red cell area for 1:200 dilution 7.1.4 Calculations Cells/mm3 = # of cells counted x 104 x dilution factor # of squares counted Total cells = cells/mL x volume of original cell suspension 7.2 Automated Methods Additional information on automated cell counts, for each fluid, can be found under the microscopic examination headings in Section 9. Automated methods for body fluid analysis offer the laboratory an alternative to improve the precision of the results by counting more cells than manual methods. While the coefficient of variation at low cell counts is high on automated instruments, it is not nearly as high as manual cell counts.19 There are a number of instruments available to perform body fluid cell counting. Depending on the instrument, the technologies incorporated can include impedance, digital imaging flow cytometry, flow cytometry, light scatter, dyes, and fluorescence, or a combination of these technologies. The manufacturer of each automated device should have a statement of intended use that clearly defines which body fluids have been approved by a regulatory agency for testing. 10 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 7.2.1 H56-P Processing Body Fluids on Automated Devices Follow the manufacturer’s guidelines for the proper selection of appropriate body fluids that may be analyzed on the instrument. Only analyze those body fluids, on any particular instrument, for which clearance has been obtained and which are identified in the Intended Use statement for the device. Furthermore, follow the manufacturer’s recommended procedures for any special treatment required for the specific body fluid specimen to be analyzed. The key issue in using automated counters is to ensure that the instrument can provide reliable counts at the low levels of cells encountered in body fluids. Thus, each laboratory must define the lower limits for counting nucleated cells and erythrocytes, below which the use of automated or semiautomated counters is not reliable.18 The lower limit for counting should not exceed the limits recommended by manufacturers. Once a laboratory establishes specific guidelines for acceptable cell count limits performed by automated methods, they must identify reflexive methods for specimens with cell count(s) below such limits. When automated counts are flagged, the laboratory should indicate an alternative method to verify the count(s). Guidelines should also indicate the need for manual differential cell counting as appropriate for the automated method. Care should be taken to identify samples with noncellular particulate material that can falsely elevate automated counts or clog the orifice of the counter. 7.2.2 Defined Analytical Measurement Range (AMR) Each manufacturer must state the AMR for which body fluid analysis is acceptable for each particle type. The laboratory must establish a protocol detailing the steps to be taken when a sample exceeds the AMR for a given particle type (e.g., dilution for concentrations exceeding the upper limit of the AMR and alternative analytical methods for particles falling below the lower limit of the AMR). 7.2.3 Defined Sensitivity Limit In addition to the defined analytical measurement range, the manufacturer must also state the sensitivity limit—the minimum detectable concentration for each particle type enumerated. The laboratory must establish a protocol detailing the steps to be taken when a sample is near or below the sensitivity limit for each particle type (e.g., alternative analytical methods for particles near or below the sensitivity limit). 7.2.4 Performance Testing Performance testing of automated instruments for body fluid analysis should, at a minimum, assess imprecision, inaccuracy, correlation to reference methods, and reportable range.20 Local regulatory requirements may also include carry-over, sensitivity, and specificity as part of the testing for implementation of new instruments/test methods. Alternatively, consult the manufacturer regarding recommendations for performance testing. Formulas for performance testing are listed below. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 11 Number 20 H56-P Imprecision Short-Term Imprecision: The formula for short-term standard deviation is: where: n = number of samples di = difference between duplicates for sample i Convert the above standard deviation to coefficient of variation (CV) as follows: where: Xa is the mean of all values of x. Long-Term Imprecision: The formula for long-term standard deviation is: where: n = number of samples xi = mean of results for day I x = mean of days or grand mean of all results Convert the above standard deviation to coefficient of variation (CV) as follows: Inaccuracy The formula for inaccuracy is: where: 12 T = estimated variance of the test method nt R = estimated variance of the reference method nr © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P T = p t x qt pt = mean of yi 100 pr = mean of xi 100 7.2.5 Carry-Over The effect of one sample on the next sample immediately following it should obviously be minimized. This is especially true for clear and colorless cerebrospinal fluids (CSF) that may follow a bloody CSF. Any carry-over that may be present should be of no clinical significance whatsoever. There are two types of carry-over: 1) positive carry-over; and 2) negative carry-over. Positive carry-over is the effect of an elevated sample on a subsequent sample of lower concentration. Negative carry-over is the effect of a low concentration sample on a subsequent sample of higher concentration. This condition can be possibly observed in instruments where a dilution effect can occur by the diluent/rinsing agent during the rinse cycle that occurs between sample analyses. Several protocols for determining carry-over are available.21,22 7.2.6 Sensitivity and Specificity Sensitivity – Sensitivity is the ability of the automated method to accurately and reliably detect and quantify low levels of red blood cells and nucleated cells. Such sensitivity is dependent upon the instrument’s carry-over, precision, and accuracy (see above). Testing sensitivity must be done at the limit of clinical performance that is specified by the manufacturer. For detailed information on determination of limits of detection, refer to the most current edition of CLSI/NCCLS document EP17—Protocols for Determination of Limits of Detection and Limits of Quantitation. Specificity – Specificity of the automated method is its ability to accurately identify formed elements in the body fluid and may be subject to interferences. The instrument manufacturer should clearly identify any potential interfering substances when performing body fluid analyses. For detailed information on evaluation of precision performance, refer to the most current edition of CLSI/NCCLS documents EP5— Evaluation of Precision Performance of Quantitative Measurement Methods and EP15—User Verification of Performance for Precision and Trueness. 7.2.7 Correlation to Reference Methods Correlative studies of the automated device to reference methods are best determined through regression analysis, in which the r2, slope, and y-intercept are established. For detailed information on method comparison, refer to the most current edition of CLSI/NCCLS document EP9—Method Comparison and Bias Estimation Using Patient Samples. 7.2.8 Quality Control Quality control of the automated device provides the operator with reasonable confidence that the instrument is functioning properly and within the manufacturer’s specifications. It is important that quality control measurements are performed in the same manner in which the body fluids will be © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 13 Number 20 H56-P processed and analyzed (i.e., quality control materials must be processed through the same fluidic paths as will the body fluid specimens be processed). Appropriate quality control measurements will include the performance of a background count of the fluidic system and any additional fluids required for body fluid analysis, such as any diluents and lysing reagents that are not routinely used for the primary use of the instrument. Unless analysis of controls is specified by the manufacturer, verify with your local accrediting agency if any additional control materials need to be analyzed on a routine basis. The College of American Pathologists (CAP) states that if the same instrument is used for cell counting of blood specimens, there is no need to have separate control runs for body fluid cell counting.18 8 Morphology Assessment 8.1 8.1.1 Slide Preparation Cytocentrifugation Wedge smears (push smears) should not be used with fluids because of their inferior ability in preserving intact cells. The cytocentrifuge preparation is recommended for air-dried body fluid slides because this technique concentrates the cells, minimizes cell distortion, and produces a monolayer of cells. Romanowsky-type stained slides of cytocentrifuged CSF and other body fluids show excellent morphologic detail, and cells appear similar to their counterparts in blood or bone marrow. Cells typically are randomly dispersed in a small circular area, and a microscopic differential can be performed to subclassify the nucleated cells. When malignancy is suspected, the whole cellular area should be evaluated microscopically on each prepared slide, since malignant cells may be present in low frequency. The cytocentrifuge instrument generally contains a centrifugation bowl with multiple slide assembly units. The assembly consists of a filter card placed upon a slide and a chamber to hold the sample, secured together by a clip. The outlet arm of the chamber is opposed to a hole in the filter card, exposing a round area on the glass slide. In the resting position, the fluid specimen in the chamber does not contact the glass slide. During centrifugation, the fluid and cells are forced out of chamber outlet onto the slide. The filter absorbs the fluid, while the cells are deposited on the slide. Cells are concentrated approximately 20-fold by cytocentrifugation.23 Even hypocellular samples with a chamber cell count of zero can have a yield of approximately 35 cells per slide.23 The quantitative yield, however, varies from 30 to 75%,24 and smaller cells, such as lymphocytes, may be underrepresented.25 The speed and time of centrifugation, the amount of sample in the chamber, and the filter paper absorbance are factors that can influence both the cell yield and morphology. Although the cytocentrifuge is not a complex instrument, some sample processing and instrument techniques can enhance slide quality:23 1. Fresh, unfixed specimens should be used for slide preparation. Cells may begin deteriorating in a few hours, particularly in body fluid samples with low protein content, such as cerebrospinal fluid.26 If there is a prolonged delay in preparing cytocentrifuge slides (i.e., more than eight hours), the report should include a statement that the differential count may be inaccurate, due to cellular degeneration. 2. Pleural, pericardial, peritoneal, and synovial fluid samples may contain fibrin and other proteins that can clog the filter card, reducing cell yield and affecting cell distribution on the slide. Washing the cells before cytocentrifugation, by centrifuging an aliquot of the sample and resuspending in saline, can improve both the cell yield and morphology. 14 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P 3. If clots are present, both the cell count and differential may be inaccurate. However, slides can be prepared and examined for malignant cells. The clots should be agitated gently to free trapped cells before aliquoting a portion of the sample for washing and cytocentrifugation. 4. Viscous synovial fluids can be liquefied by adding 400 units of the enzyme hyaluronidase (solution or powder form) to approximately 1 mL of fluid, and incubating at 37 °C for ten minutes. Washing the cells after liquefaction also is helpful. 5. Cellular samples or bloody samples need to be diluted with saline before cytocentrifugation to avoid overcrowded slides. Overcrowded slides are difficult to interpret due to clumping of cells and distortion of morphology. By using a standardized scheme for sample dilution based on cell counts, a slide with a uniform monolayer of cells can be obtained on every sample. The appropriate dilution will depend upon the amount of sample in the chamber and the cytocentrifuge speed and time. Alternately, for bloody samples, some laboratories prefer to gently lyse the erythrocytes before cytocentrifugation. 6. Adding a drop of sterile, 22% albumin to the sample chamber before adding the sample enhances adherence of cells to the glass slide and reduces cell smudging or disintegration, particularly for low protein specimens, such as cerebrospinal fluid. 7. Proper alignment of the sample chamber outlet port to the hole in the filter card is essential to optimize cell yield. 8. Residual fluid remaining in the cell chamber after cytocentrifugation must not be allowed to flow back onto the slide. Air-dried cytocentrifuge slides for Romanowsky-type stain must be kept free of moisture until fixing and staining. If unfixed slides become wet, artifactual change occurs, resulting in a “shrunken” or “rounded-up” appearance to the cells. 8.1.2 Other Alternative methods of cell concentration for morphologic evaluation include sedimentation methods,27-31 and centrifugation with smears made from the resuspended sediment.29 These methods are difficult to standardize and produce smears of variable quality. These alternatives are inferior to cytocentrifugation, and are not recommended. Filtration methods27,31-34 that are widely used in cytopathology laboratories are less practical for the hematology laboratory because they involve prefixation in ethanol, which precludes Romanowsky-type staining of air-dried smears. 8.2 Identification of Morphologic Constituents The following descriptions apply to properly prepared cytocentrifuge slides optimally stained with Romanowsky stains.35-37 Differences from typical blood or bone marrow aspirate morphology are emphasized. Because cytocentrifugation produces a thin cell monolayer, cells may be slightly larger than their counterparts in blood or bone marrow aspirate smears. More intense staining of basophilic cytoplasm and azurophilic cytoplasmic granules also may occur. 8.2.1 Myeloid Series Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, Mast Cells: All maturation stages appear similar to those in blood or bone marrow. The segmented neutrophil and eosinophil show more distinctive lobe separation, and the nuclear lobes often are peripherally located close to the cell membrane. Toxic granulation and toxic vacuolization, when present in blood neutrophils, also will be seen in body fluid neutrophils. However, small vacuoles may occur in many body fluid cells, either due to degenerative change in the fluid or to cytocentrifugation. Both neutrophils and eosinophils can phagocytose microorganisms in body fluids. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 15 Number 20 H56-P Degenerated Neutrophils: Neutrophil degeneration frequently is seen in body fluids, particularly accompanying fluid neutrophilia. The nucleus becomes pyknotic, and appears as a small, dense, round mass. If toxic granulation is present, the granules can coalesce into azurophilic clusters. These cells may resemble nucleated red blood cells, but typically have some residual azurophilic granules in the cytoplasm to identify them as neutrophils. 8.2.2 Erythroid Series Erythrocytes, Nucleated Red Cells: These cells appear similar to their counterparts in blood and bone marrow, except that crenation and even lysis of erythrocytes may occur in body fluids. 8.2.3 Lymphoid Series Lymphocytes: The typical small lymphocyte appears slightly larger than in blood smears, often with more abundant cytoplasm. A small nucleolus also may be visible. Small numbers of azurophilic granules sometimes are present in the cytoplasm. Reactive Lymphocytes: Reactive lymphocytes occur commonly in body fluids and have many different morphologic variants. They typically have a round to slightly indented (“bean-shaped”) nuclear contour and abundant cytoplasm, which varies in color from slate to deeply basophilic. Reactive lymphocytes of T or NK lineage often contain small numbers of azurophilic granules, while B-lymphocytes occasionally contain multiple small cytoplasmic vacuoles. Immunoblastic forms have less condensed chromatin, multiple small nucleoli, and a small amount of deeply basophilic cytoplasm, sometimes with scant azurophilic granules. Plasmacytoid forms show ropey nuclear chromatin, multiple small nucleoli, and abundant amounts of deeply basophilic cytoplasm; they frequently have a clear Golgi region next to the nucleus. In contrast to malignant lymphoma cells, reactive lymphocytes have a distinct, smooth nuclear membrane and regular nuclear contour. Typically, a spectrum of reactive lymphocyte morphology is present, in contrast to a more homogeneous appearance for lymphomatous infiltrates. Plasma Cells: These cells appear similar to their counterparts in bone marrow, and frequently occur with other reactive lymphocyte forms. Plasma cell variants, such as “Mott” cells (plasma cells with abundant immunoglobulin-laden small vacuoles) also occur in body fluids. 8.2.4 Mononuclear Phagocytic Series Monocyte: Monocyte morphology varies from the typical appearance in blood to an activated, enlarged form with copious cytoplasm and a few small vacuoles. At some arbitrary point in this activation process, the monocyte is called a histiocyte. Macrophage: When the monocyte/histiocyte shows evidence of phagocytosis (such as ingested material, remnants of digested products, or large postingestion vacuoles), it is called a macrophage. Macrophages are large, have dense nuclear chromatin, and can have a round nucleus or a nucleus flattened against one side of the cell. The cytoplasm is abundant and frequently vacuolated. Occasionally, the vacuoles in the cytoplasm may coalesce to form a “signet ring” cell. The phagocytic activity of macrophages can be extraordinary, including ingestion of erythrocytes (erythrophage), neutrophils (neutrophage, “Reiter” cell in synovial fluid), lipids (lipophage), microorganisms, and crystals. Macrophages also may contain blueblack hemosiderin granules arising from the iron of a digested red cell (siderophage). Hematin crystals (yellow-brown, rhomboid-shaped) rarely are seen in macrophages, and represent an iron-free pigment of hemoglobin breakdown from ingested erythrocytes. 16 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 8.2.5 H56-P Lining Cells Ventricular Lining Cells: Cells lining the ventricles (ependymal cells) or choroid plexus (choroidal epithelial cells) may be shed into the CSF, particular in neonates, in patients with a ventricular shunt or Ommaya reservoir, or after brain surgery. These cells may occur singly, or in clusters. Often these cells have degenerated to such an extent that only naked nuclei remain. The cells have a round nuclear contour, eccentrically placed nuclei, condensed to finely granular chromatin, and lack nucleoli. The abundant cytoplasm typically is amphophilic, or blue-pink, and grainy. Choroid cells may have microvilli. Leptomeningeal Cells: Rarely, cells from the subarachnoid or pia membranes lining the CSF cavity exfoliate into the CSF. These cells may appear in clusters, with spindle-shaped nuclei and a moderate amount of gray-blue cytoplasm. Black pigment granules may be present in the cytoplasm. Mesothelial Lining Cells: Mesothelial cells line the pleural, peritoneal, and pericardial cavities and have a variety of morphologic appearances. They can proliferate and desquamate into effusions in any disease process, and may be shed individually or in clusters. However, clusters of mesothelial cells generally have “windows” between the cells, in contrast to the tight clusters formed by nonhematopoietic malignant cells. Unstimulated mesothelial cells are smaller than reactive mesothelial cells, with an eccentrically placed nucleus, round to oval nuclear contour, dense chromatin, no nucleolus, and a moderate amount of light to moderately basophilic cytoplasm, without cytoplasmic granules. In contrast to the plasma cells, a Golgi zone is not visible. In chronic effusions, stimulated mesothelial cells proliferate and enlarge, showing less condensed nuclear chromatin and small nucleoli. Multiple nuclei may occur; in contrast to malignant cells, these nuclei are approximately equal in size. Degenerative changes in mesothelial cells include cytoplasmic blebbing and cytoplasmic vacuolization, particularly at the cell periphery. Mesothelial cells may be phagocytic and transform into macrophages; since intermediate stages occur, it can be difficult to differentiate mesothelial cells from macrophages. Synoviocyte (Synovial Lining Cells): Synovial lining cells arise from the synovial membrane lining the joint capsule and have a similar appearance to mesothelial cells. 8.2.6 Malignant Cells Blast Cells: Blasts found in body fluids resemble their counterparts in blood and bone marrow. Myeloid lineage blasts may have more prominently staining cytoplasmic granules. Careful correlation with blood smear findings is necessary to determine whether the finding of blasts in the body fluid represents true leukemic involvement, or reflects blood contamination of the body fluid or from inadvertent marrow puncture. Lymphoma Cells: Large cell lymphoma resembles immunoblastic reactive lymphocytes, with immature nuclear chromatin, multiple nucleoli, and moderate amounts of basophilic cytoplasm. However, cytologic features suggesting lymphoma include: irregular nuclear contour, lack of a prominent nuclear membrane, large nucleoli, small clear vacuoles covering the nucleus, lack of a clear Golgi region, and a homogeneous appearance to the infiltrate. Small cell lymphomas are difficult to distinguish from normal lymphocytes and may require flow cytometry or immunohistochemical studies for definitive identification. Nonhematopoietic Malignant Cells: A variety of malignant neoplasms can invade the body cavities, including adenocarcinoma, sarcoma, and primary brain tumors. Cytologic features of nonhematopoetic malignant cells may include: large size, high nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio, irregular nuclear contour, large nucleoli, multinuclearity with variable nuclear size and shape, formation of tight clusters with indistinct cell separation, signet-ring cells in clusters, well-demarcated vacuoles with a clear interior, and nuclear molding (indentation of the nucleus of one cell by that of an adjacent cell). © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 17 Number 20 8.2.7 H56-P Miscellaneous Cells Squamous Epithelial Cells: Squamous cells from skin may contaminate body fluids. They have a low nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio, a small round nucleus with dense chromatin, and abundant cytoplasm with an angulated cell contour. Endothelial Cells: Endothelial cells that line tissue blood vessels rarely are seen in body fluids, but occasionally occur in CSF after brain surgery. They have an elongated shape and contain a spindle or elliptical nucleus with reticular chromatin and with one or more nucleoli. The frayed cytoplasm may contain a few azurophilic granules. Chondrocyte (Cartilage Cells): Cartilage cells may inadvertently be obtained during lumbar puncture or joint aspiration. They have round to oval nuclear contour with condensed chromatin, and a very distinctive burgundy-colored cytoplasm. Neural Tissue/Neurons: Neural tissue (fragments of cells, and stroma, sometimes with capillaries), as well as isolated neurons, sometimes occur in the CSF. The tissue fragments appear as a pink or blue fibrillar matrix sometimes containing degenerated nuclear material. Intact neurons or ganglion cells have a pyramidal shape, often with extended processes. Germinal Matrix Cells: Germinal matrix cells are found beneath the ependymal lining cells in ventricles of premature neonates; they are primitive pluripotential cells that can give rise to neuronal cells, and are blast-like in morphology. They frequently form loose clusters within a tissue-like matrix. 8.2.8 Microorganisms Bacteria: Rod-shaped bacilli, round cocci, branching filamentous bacteria, and acid-fast bacilli all may be seen in body fluids, occurring both extracellularly and intracellularly. Most bacteria have a basophilic hue with Romanowsky stain. They can be distinguished from stain precipitate by their relatively uniform size and shape. Yeast, Fungi: Most yeast and fungi typically are regular in contour, round to oval shaped with dense basophilic staining. They also may be seen both extracellularly and intracellularly. In CSF, Cryptococcus is a large, round to oval yeast-like fungus with a thick capsule. Cytocentrifugation can produce capsule disintegration, resulting in a “sun-burst” appearance. Parasites: Toxoplasma, amoebae, and other large parasites rarely are found in body fluids, with typical characteristic appearances. NOTE: The following images represent examples of the types of cells that are commonly seen in body fluids. This document is not intended for use as an atlas of morphology for instructional or diagnostic purposes. 18 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Eosinophils Mast cell (left center) Autolytic neutrophils Autolytic neutrophils Lymphocytes Reactive lymphocytes Macrophage Macrophages H56-P 19 Plasma cells Number 20 20 Macrophage with ingested erythrocyte (erythrophage) Macrophage with ingested neutrophil (neutrophage) Macrophage with ingested lipid (lipophage) Macrophage with hemosiderin (siderophage) Macrophage with hemosiderin and hematin crystal Macrophage with ingested erythrocytes and hemosiderin granules Macrophage with sodium urate crystals Ventricular lining cells H56-P Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. © Macrophages (signet ring cells) Volume 25 Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. © Ventricular lining cells Mesothelial cells (stimulated) Mesothelial cells Mesothelial cells Mesothelial cells Mesothelial cells (mitotic) Mesothelial cells (peripheral vacuoles) 21 H56-P Mesothelial cells (binucleate) Ventricular lining cells Number 20 22 Blast cells (acute lymphocytic leukemia) Lymphoma cells (diffuse large cell lymphoma) Nonhematopoietic malignancy (ovarian adenocarcinoma) Nonhematopoietic malignancy (ovarian adenocarcinoma) Nonhematopoietic malignancy (breast adenocarcinoma) Nonhematopoietic malignancy (oat cell carcinoma) Nonhematopoietic malignancy (ovarian adenocarcinoma) Nonhematopoietic malignancy (gastric adenocarcinoma) H56-P Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. © Nonhematopoietic malignancy (breast adenocarcinoma) Volume 25 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) Germinal matrix cells Yeast (Candida albicans) Neural tissue Yeast, fungi (Cryptococcus neoformans) H56-P 23 Parasites (Toxoplasma trophozoites) Cartilage Number 20 24 Cryptococcus in CSF. Note the deeply staining basophilia of yeasts. A capsule can be discerned around some organisms. Wright’s stain. Monosodium urate crystals in synovial fluid. Note the elongated needle-like shape and bright birefringence of the crystals. The crystals are intracellular. Polarized light. Monosodium urate crystals in synovial fluid. Note the red background, the blue color of the vertical crystals, and yellow color of the horizontal crystals. First order red compensator. H56-P Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. © Calcium pyrophosphate crystals in synovial fluid. NOTE: The crystals may be rectangular or rhomboid. Some crystals may be needle-like and confused with MSU crystals. Brightfield. Volume 25 8.3 H56-P Evaluation of Nucleated Cell Subtypes Morphologic assessment typically includes a quantitative or semiquantitative evaluation of the nucleated cell composition. A differential count typically includes: • hematopoietic cells: segmented/band neutrophils, immature granulocytes (metamyelocytes, myelocytes, promyelocytes), lymphocytes, reactive lymphocytes, monocytes/macrophages, eosinophils, basophils, mast cells, plasma cells, nucleated red blood cells; • lining cells: ventricular lining cells (CSF), leptomeningeal cells (CSF), germinal matrix cells (CSF), mesothelial lining cells (pleural, peritoneal, pericardial fluids), synovial lining cells; • blasts, lymphoma cells, and nonhematopoietic tumor cells; and • atypical cells (with description in a comment). The report must clearly indicate all cell types included with each numeric percentage. Individual laboratories may choose to group or separate some of these categories. For example, it is difficult to distinguish reactive-appearing mesothelial cells from monocytes/macrophages, and these cells may be combined into one category without compromising clinical interpretation. Nonhematopoietic cells, such as CSF lining cells and metastatic tumor cells, may be included in a category designated “other cells” and described in a comments section of the report. Other significant morphologic findings should also be reported in a comments section, such as the presence of intracellular or extracellular microorganisms, erythrophages or siderophages (CSF), lipophages (CSF), and crystals. Contaminating cells should not be included in the differential, and, if identified on the counting chamber, also should be excluded from the cell count. These include squamous epithelial cells, endothelial cells, neuroectodermal cells (CSF), cartilage cells (CSF, synovial fluid), and ciliated epithelial cells (bronchoalveolar lavage). Degenerating cells also should be excluded from the differential unless their identity is apparent. Clumps of lining cells, germinal matrix cells, or tumor cells should be reported in a comments section rather than as part of the differential. Likewise, cell clumps in the counting chamber should be excluded from the cell count. If cells cannot be identified, they may be reported as “atypical” and described in a comment, pending physician review (see Section 8.4). Some laboratories may prefer to report a semiquantitative description of cell composition, particularly when the cell count is low with a scant cell yield on the slides. Malignant cells may occur in low frequency, even when the cell count is low. Therefore, it is important to scan all slides carefully in cases of known or suspected malignancy. 8.4 Physician Review A qualified physician should review all slides with atypical unidentified cells or suspected malignant cells. Each laboratory should determine additional morphologic findings and/or clinical situations in which physician slide review is required. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 25 Number 20 H56-P Separate aliquots of body fluids are frequently analyzed simultaneously in the hematology or core laboratory and the cytopathology laboratory. Laboratories should have a policy to correlate these results, particularly when atypical or malignant cells are identified. When nonhematopoietic tumor cells are first suspected on Romanowsky-stained cytocentrifuge slides, verification by PAP-stained cytopathology may be appropriate. 8.5 Result Reporting Nucleated cell differentials are reported in conventional units (%) or SI units (proportion, or %/100). The number of cells counted should be included in the report only if less than 100 are counted. If absolute counts are needed, the nucleated cell count is multiplied by the percentage and divided by 100; absolute counts are reported in conventional units (/µL) or SI units (X106/L). A comments section may be added to include additional clinically significant morphologic findings. If the laboratory is aware that malignancy is suspected (e.g., on samples from known oncology patients), it also is useful to comment specifically on the presence or absence of malignant cells. However, it is important to understand that body fluid differential counts are not an appropriate screening or diagnostic test for malignancy in previously undiagnosed patients. If a differential count has not been performed, the comments section may include a descriptive statement about the cell composition (for example, whether the fluid is lymphocyte, monocyte/macrophage, or neutrophil predominant, or contains mixed inflammatory cells). Physician review of slides should be indicated in the report. 9 Fluid Types 9.1 Cerebrospinal Fluid 9.1.1 Macroscopic Examination Macroscopic examination of CSF includes observations of clarity, color of the neat specimen, color of the supernatant, and clot formation. Normal CSF is clear and colorless. Increased cell counts cause turbidity that is noted when nucleated cell counts approach 200/µL. This number is not sacrosanct and varies with the cell type.9 Since erythrocytes have less volume than nucleated cells, more cells are required to produce equivalent turbidity. Grading turbidity seems an unnecessary exercise, since cell counts are routinely reported. Color should be reported as colorless, yellow, orange, pink, or brown corresponding to bilirubin, oxyhemoglobin (orange/pink), and methemoglobin respectively. Although the various pigments can be identified based on their unique spectral absorption “fingerprints” and quantified by spectrophotometry, this is not necessary in routine clinical laboratory practice. Viscosity is not routinely reported. CSF does not clot, but clots may be associated with a traumatic tap. 9.1.2 9.1.2.1 Microscopic Examination Enumeration The sample should be well mixed before analysis. Both nucleated cell and erythrocyte counts are manually enumerated using a hemocytometer chamber. Both erythrocytes and nucleated cells are enumerated in the same chamber. If the specimen is excessively bloody or the nucleated cell count is markedly increased, the sample should be diluted. Automated cell counts are limited by their poor sensitivity in pathologic specimens with low cell counts. In one study using impedance technology, the accuracy of counts below 0.2 x 109/L for nucleated cells 26 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P and 0.01 x 1012/L for erythrocytes was poor.38 A similar limitation was noted using light scatter and absorption.39 Any flagging of automated counts also requires a manual count. Imaging technology does not appear to have the same limitations with low counts and enumerates cells with sufficient accuracy to be clinically acceptable. As expected, the coefficient of variation at low cell counts is high. With automated imaging technology, the differential cell count and other cytologic analyses must be done using conventional techniques. A problem with imaging technology is the lack of studies in the scientific literature. 9.1.2.2 Morphology Cellular constituents of normal CSF include lymphocytes, monocytes, and occasional neuroectodermal cells. Lymphocytes are primarily T-cells (~97%). In pathologic conditions, the list of cell types becomes extensive. In normal adults, more than two-thirds of the cells are lymphocytes. Morphologically, they are similar to cells in blood. When challenged by antigenic stimulation, they transform into activated lymphocytes, developing more abundant cytoplasm and changes in the nuclear chromatin pattern. Some cells may transform into immunoblasts. Stimulation of B-cells recapitulates differentiation to plasma cells.40 Monocytes constitute approximately 14% of nucleated cells in normal adult CSF. The percentage increases to a mean value of approximately 70% in neonates.41 Monocytes are morphologically similar to PB-monocytes. They may transform to macrophages. Erythrophages, siderophages, and lipophages are monocytoid cells or macrophages that have ingested erythrocytes, contain iron, or are filled with lipid. Neutrophils are not present in normal CSF. The occasional neutrophil in “normal” CSF has been attributed to the sensitivity of cytocentrifugation capable of detecting the rare cell introduced by microscopic contamination during lumbar puncture. Thus, when the total nucleated cell count is normal, the rare neutrophil may not be pathologic. CSF specimens may contain malignant cells derived from three general sources: primary brain tumors, metastatic solid tumors, and hematopoietic neoplasms. The morphology is varied depending upon the cell of origin and stage of differentiation. Examples are illustrated in the accompanying photomicrographs. Mitoses may be seen, but are also present in nonmalignant and even normal fluids, since the CSF is a nutrient medium. Neuroectodermal cells also shed into the CSF of both normal and pathologic fluids. They are derived from two sources, the meninges and cells lining or in contact with ventricular fluid. Choroidal epithelial cells are the most frequent neuroectodermal cells observed in CSF. They occur most frequently in specimens from infants. Extraneous cell types include hematopoietic cells from bone marrow, chondrocytes from intervertebral discs, capillaries from the choroid plexus or arachnoid membrane, germinal matrix cells in neonates, and fragments of neural tissue. 9.1.3 Specimens From Shunts and Reservoirs Ventricular-systemic shunts are used to reduce intraventricular pressure by facilitating the removal of cerebrospinal fluid in patients with hydrocephalus. The most frequent drainage site is the peritoneal cavity. One complication is shunt failure secondary to a foreign body reaction with occlusion of the tube at either end. Samples of CSF removed from the shunt reflect this reaction and may show increased mononuclear cells, foreign body multinucleated giant cells, eosinophils, or clusters of ependymal cells.42,43 Mast cells may be seen rarely, probably from the peritoneal end of the shunt. The Ommaya reservoir is a subcutaneous reservoir attached to a catheter that empties into the lateral ventricle. It is used for the delivery of drugs to the CNS. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 27 Number 20 H56-P Specimens from ventricular-systemic shunts and Ommaya reservoirs are sent for evaluation of infection. Thus, cell counts, differentials, and microbiologic cultures are the tests of interest. Approximately 90% of the infections are secondary to coagulase-negative staphylococci. 9.1.4 9.1.4.1 Result Reporting Reporting Terminology Laboratory reports should note the specimen type, the sequence of the tube in the collection process, color, clarity, red cell count, nucleated cell count, differential cell count, and unusual cells, including cells from primary and secondary malignancies. The latter are best mentioned in a comments section. A description of the supernatant should be included in all colored and cloudy fluids. Colors should be reported as colorless, yellow, orange, pink, or brown. Rarely will other colors be seen. When other colors are seen, they should be reported (e.g., black). It is best to limit the reporting of colors to the previous categories to provide some intralaboratory consistency. Xanthochromia literally means yellow fluid, but has been expanded to include pink, orange, or yellow. Indicating the actual color has more interpretive value. Regrettably, xanthochromia is interpreted as synonymous with a pathologic bleed; however, it may also occur in other conditions. Thus, avoiding the term and reporting the actual color is recommended. Turbidity should be routinely reported. It does not need to be graded, since cell counts are routinely done. Nucleated and red cell counts are reported in conventional units (µL) or SI units (106/L). Differentials are reported as a percentage in conventional units or the percentage multiplied by 0.01 to express the number as a fraction in SI units. In the nucleated differential, all cells derived from the hematopoietic system should be included. The term mononuclear cell should be avoided, since the term does not adequately distinguish monocytes from lymphocytes, a distinction that has diagnostic significance. Siderophages, erythrophages, histiocytes from lysosomal storage diseases, lipophages, neuroectodermal cells, microorganisms, neoplastic cells, chondrocytes, LE-cells, as well as others should be reported in a comments section. All cerebrospinal fluids should be treated as stats, not only because of medical necessity but also because of the instability of cellular constituents. Immediate reporting to the clinician is mandatory. 9.1.4.2 Normal Values Normal values are age-dependent. Accurate values are problematic in neonates because of difficulty obtaining normal specimens. Differential counts from the literature obtained from chamber counts or push smears of centrifuged pellets lack the cytologic detail and preservation of cells for accurate identification and differential counts. Cytologically, one age-related difference is a predominance of monocytes in the neonate that is gradually replaced by lymphocytes. Values in Table B1 represent combined data collated from various reports.9,41,44-47 9.1.5 Analytic Significance Color. The usual alteration of color in the cerebrospinal fluid is secondary to a pathologic bleed in the central nervous system or a traumatic lumbar puncture. Initially, pathologic bleeds result in extravasation of erythrocytes that are lysed, with eventual catabolism of hemoglobin to bilirubin. The latter occurs approximately 12 hours after a bleed and persists for two weeks. The various hues depend on the admixture of hemoglobin and bilirubin pigments. Examination of the supernatant is helpful in differentiating between a traumatic tap and pathologic bleed. A colorless supernatant is associated with a 28 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P traumatic tap and a pink or yellow color with a pathologic bleed. Although the term xanthochromia literally means yellow color, it has become synonymous with a pathologic bleed in common medical usage. However, a pink supernatant occurs initially in pathologic bleeds and a yellow color may be seen in the absence of a pathologic bleed. Other causes of “xanthochromia” include an elevated total protein above 150 mg/dL and elevated serum bilirubin usually above 7 mg/dL. Rarer causes include hypercarotenemia and drugs. Turbidity. Normal CSF is clear. Various degrees of turbidity occur as either the red cell count or white cell count increases. In a traumatic tap, the supernatant fluid will be clear. Erythrocyte Counts. Red cells reflect either central nervous system bleeding or a traumatic puncture. Comparison of cell counts between the first tube collected and the third or fourth tube is an excellent way to distinguish the two, the last tube showing a marked decrease in the count if the puncture is traumatic. In addition, if the tap is traumatic, the number of blood leukocytes added to the sample can be calculated from the CSF red cell count and the relative numbers of leukocytes and erythrocytes in the blood: WBC added = WBCB RBCCSF RBCB WBC added = WBCB x RBCCSF RBCB The number of WBC added is subtracted from the leukocyte count of the CSF sample, to determine what the true WBC count should have been if there was no contamination of the CSF from the traumatic bleeding: true CSFWBC = CSFWBC hemocytometer count – WBC added. Nucleated Cell Counts. Elevated nucleated cell counts are present in numerous conditions and their value assumes special significance in the diagnosis of meningitis. Nucleated cell counts are elevated in both viral and bacterial meningitis. Lymphocytes predominate in the former and neutrophils in the latter. In meningitis, there is a correlation between increasing cell counts and positive bacterial cultures.48 Other infectious causes of increased CSF nucleated cells include fungi, mycobacteria, and parasites. Cytology. Pathologic fluids have a variety of cell types. Their interpretation is summarized in Table B1. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 29 Number 20 H56-P Table 4. Cerebrospinal Fluid Reference Intervals* Volume 10-60 mL Babies 60-100 mL Children 57-286 mL Adults16 Color Colorless Cells Erythrocytes46,47 Newborn preterm Newborn term Neonate > 3 months Adults Leukocytes47,49,50 0-1 month 2 months to 16 years Adults 0-27/µL (0-27 x 106/L) 0-7/µL (0-7 x 106/L) 0-5/µL (0-5 x 106/L) Leukocyte Differential44,50,51 Neonates Lymphocytes Monocytes Histiocytes Neutrophils Neuroectodermal 2-38% (.02-.38) 50-94% (.50-.94) 1-9% (.01-.09) 0-8% (0.00-.08) rare 0-1000/µL (0-1000 x 106/L) 0-800/µL (0-800 x 106/L) 0-50/µL (0-50 x 106/L) 0-5/µL (0-5 x 106/L) 0-5/µL (0-5 x 106/L) Adults Lymphocytes Monocytes Histiocytes Neutrophils Neuroectodermal * SI units are in parentheses. 9.2 63-99% (.63-.99) 3-37% (.03-.37) rare 0-2% (0.00-0.02) rare Serous (Pleural, Peritoneal, Pericardial) This section will cover fluids of the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities (see Figure 2). They include serous, chylous, hemorrhagic, and iatrogenic fluids. The word serous is derived from serum, emphasizing that serous fluids are normally formed by the simple mechanism of plasma ultrafiltration. 9.2.1 Macroscopic Examination Color and clarity of the fluid should be routinely reported by the laboratory. Pathologic fluids may have a variety of colors depending on the etiology of the effusion. Transudates are straw colored and clear. Other colors in pathologic fluids include red, brown, green, white, and black. Clarity may be described as clear, cloudy, or opalescent. If the fluid is viscous, it should be noted on the report. 30 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 9.2.2 9.2.2.1 H56-P Microscopic Examination Enumeration Cell counts may be done manually or on automated counters. Few instruments have been cleared or approved for counting cells in serous fluids by regulatory agencies. Claims of linearity below 200 nucleated cells/µL should be verified by the laboratory, since results in this range may compromise clinical decisions with peritoneal dialysate fluids that require accuracy between 1 and 100/µL. Manual counts are done using a hemocytometer chamber. If fluid is clear, it can be counted undiluted. Cloudy or bloody fluids can be diluted using isotonic saline or other appropriate fluids. All nucleated cells should be counted, since it is difficult to accurately distinguish cell types in the chamber (e.g., a mesothelial cell from a histiocyte). Commercial controls are available. 9.2.2.2 Morphology Differential nucleated cell counts are usually done on stained preparations, primarily using Romanowsky stains. One study indicates that pleural fluid differentials obtained by an automated cell counter was not sufficiently accurate for clinical use.10 Cell types include leukocytes, macrophages, mesothelial cells, and metastatic cells from solid tumors. Leukocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, plasma cells, immature granulocytes, and blasts. Their morphology is described in a previous section. Although morphology in serous fluids is similar to blood or bone marrow, degenerative changes are more frequent. Microorganisms may be visualized. They may be bacteria or fungi. Identification relies on the use of Gram’s, methenamine silver, periodic acid Schiff, acid-fast stains, and culture. 9.2.3 Other Fluids From Serous Cavities These fluids include peritoneal lavage and peritoneal dialysate fluids. Neither is a true body fluid; they are extraneous fluids introduced into the peritoneal cavity for diagnosis or treatment. 9.2.3.1 Peritoneal Lavage Fluids Peritoneal lavage fluids are sterile physiologic fluids introduced into the peritoneal cavity, originally used in emergency medicine to diagnose intra-abdominal bleeding from a ruptured organ following blunt trauma to the abdomen. Evaluation of the erythrocyte count determines the need for exploratory laparotomy. The technique has largely been supplanted by radiologic techniques (e.g., ultrasound of the abdomen). However, the technique and the nucleated cell count may also be used to diagnose intestinal perforation. 9.2.3.2 Peritoneal Dialysate Fluids Patients with chronic renal failure may be treated with chronic ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) rather than hemodialysis to control the adverse effects of renal failure. Fluids are sent to the laboratory to evaluate the nucleated cell count, differential, and microbiologic culture to determine infection and the offending organism. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 31 Number 20 9.2.4 9.2.4.1 H56-P Result Reporting Reporting Terminology Specimens received by the laboratory are designated by a variety of names. Pleural fluids are also labeled as chest, thoracentesis, or empyema fluid. A strict definition of the latter means pus in any sac, but in practice is usually used to denote pus in the pleural cavity. Peritoneal fluids may be labeled as abdominal, ascitic, or paracentesis fluid. The latter term actually means withdrawal of fluid from a cavity, but in common parlance has become shorthand notation for abdominal paracentesis. It is preferable that the laboratory report designate the fluid by its proper anatomic term (i.e., pleural, peritoneal, or pericardial fluid). The right or left side should be designated for pleural fluids. Reports should include both color and clarity of the fluid. A notation should be made if the specimen has clots. Quantitative counts include nucleated and red blood cell counts. The term nucleated cell count is preferred to leukocyte or white blood cell count, since the former is more inclusive. On manual counts, it may not be possible to differentiate macrophages from mesothelial cells. Not all laboratories will agree on whether to designate macrophages as leukocytes. To avoid these ambiguities and for uniform interlaboratory reporting, the term “nucleated cell count” is preferable. Units of measurement are uniformly metric, but vary widely between laboratories from SI units to conventional units (cells/µL). SI units are expressed as 109/L for nucleated cell counts and 1012/L for red blood cell counts. The former should be expressed to two and the latter to three decimal places. It is not unusual for laboratories to use different units of measurement for cell counts in serous fluids compared with cell counts in blood. No recommendation is made in this regard, although uniformity would be preferable. Differential counts should include all cell types and be reported as percentages. Absolute cell counts have limited value. It is not necessary to distinguish between band neutrophils and segmented neutrophils. Monocytes and macrophages may be counted in a single category, since transitional forms cause difficulty in exact classification and categorizing the cells separately serves no medical purpose. Neoplastic cells from solid tumors should be recognized and be reported after confirmation by a pathologist, cytologist, or other certified personnel deemed qualified to diagnose malignant cells. Fluids suspected of malignancy should be correlated with specimens sent to the cytology laboratory, and evaluated using Papanicolaou or histologic stains. Cooperation between hematology and cytology laboratories is necessary, and slides should be correlated to provide optimal diagnosis. The techniques and expertise in the hematology laboratory maximize the diagnosis of hematologic malignancies, whereas the techniques and expertise of the cytology laboratory maximize the diagnosis of nonhematologic malignancies. 9.2.4.2 Reference Intervals In pleural fluid, reference intervals for normal fluids in humans have been inferred from studies on other animals. Only two studies have been done on normal humans. One normal value study was done on Japanese soldiers by puncturing the intercostal space and attempting to recover fluid.52 These results had total cell counts ranging from 1700 to 6200/µL with mean differential counts of 53.7% monocytoid cells, 10.2% lymphocytes, 3.0% mesothelial cells, 3.6% granulocytes, and 29.5% unidentified cells. More recently, a more sophisticated study was done using a minimally invasive pleural lavage technique on 34 adults.53 Volume, cell counts, and differential counts were analyzed. Since it is not possible for laboratories to determine their own reference range, this study of pleural fluid provides a convenient normal reference range derived from the literature as summarized in Table 5. 32 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P Normal values for peritoneal fluid have not been determined. Although not completely satisfactory, “sterile” ascitic fluid has been used to distinguish “normal” ascites from peritonitis and other serious intra-abdominal disorders, as discussed in Section 9.2.5. Reference intervals for peritoneal dialysate fluid are listed in Table 6. 9.2.5 Analytic Significance 9.2.5.1 Macroscopic Examination Transudates are typically straw colored and clear, as are some exudates.54 A red color indicates blood. If erythrocytes lyse, hemoglobin may be oxidized to methemoglobin, imparting a brown color. If fluid is grossly bloody, a hematocrit will distinguish between gross bleeding and a serosanguineous effusion. Green indicates bile. Fluids that are white indicate pus or chyle, and may be distinguishable macroscopically by the quality of the color and centrifugation. The supernatant of the former will be clear after centrifugation. Ascitic fluids may have a pronounced yellow color in jaundiced patients. A black color has been reported in melanoma. Cloudy fluids are due to increased numbers of cells or increased triglycerides, and chylous effusions may have an opalescent appearance. In the rare circumstance of a mesothelioma, the fluid may be viscous because of a high concentration of hyaluronic acid.54 A foul odor suggests infection and if the odor of urine is detected, it indicates a ruptured urinary bladder or urine if the sample is inadvertently collected from the bladder during abdominal paracentesis. 9.2.5.2 9.2.5.2.1 Cell Counts and Differentials Pleural Fluid Red blood cell counts are of little significance. As indicated previously, a hematocrit can distinguish between a serosanguineous effusion and hemothorax. The latter may be secondary to trauma, pulmonary emboli, or malignancy.54 The nucleated cell count is of some significance, but chemical tests are the primary studies used to distinguish transudates from exudates. Approximately 80% of transudates will have cell counts less than 1000/µL and most of the remainder are less than 2000/µL. Cell counts above 10 000/µL are usually associated with parapneumonic effusions. Differential counts are useful and in exudative lymphocytic effusions, immunophenotyping can distinguish between benign and malignant lymphoproliferative disorders. Differential cell counts are important in determining the etiology of an effusion. The interpretation of differential cell counts in pleural fluid is summarized in Table B2. Neutrophilia (>50%) indicates an acute inflammatory process (e.g., parapneumonic effusions). Eosinophilia (>10%) is seen in many conditions including pneumothorax, pulmonary emboli, traumatic hemothorax, possible immunoallergic reaction to chest tubes, parasitic diseases, and Churg-Strauss syndrome.54 9.2.5.2.2 Peritoneal Fluid Red blood cell counts have limited diagnostic value. Pink ascitic fluid has red blood cell counts of at least 10 000/µL. With counts >20 000/µL, the fluid appears red. A traumatic tap must be distinguished from hemoperitoneum. Malignancy may be associated with bloody fluids. Normal values for nucleated cell counts, differentials, and biochemical tests have not been established for peritoneal fluid. Thus, medical decision levels are based on comparison with sterile ascitic fluid in © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 33 Number 20 H56-P cirrhotic patients without other intra-abdominal disease. In one reported study of sterile uncomplicated ascitic fluids, cell counts ranged from 0 to 2610/µL. When the skewed distribution was corrected, 0 to 562/µL was the reference range.55 Total cell counts may increase markedly following diuretic therapy. In sterile uncomplicated ascitic fluid, neutrophils ranged from 0 to 100%, with a mean value of 27%.55 Absolute neutrophil counts ranged from 0 to 2532/µL with a mean of 82/µL. The total nucleated cell count and absolute neutrophil count are the “standards for diagnosing spontaneous bacterial peritonitis,” with an absolute neutrophil value of >250/µL suggestive of peritonitis.56 In tuberculous peritonitis, cell counts are typically greater than 1000/µL and lymphocytes predominate. As indicated previously, 10% of cases of ascites are secondary to malignancy. The morphologic criteria for identifying malignant cells from solid tumors has been mentioned previously. Mesothelial cells must be distinguished from malignant cells. Some miscellaneous observations include LE cells, Reed-Sternberg cells, mast cells, and megakaryocytes. Mast cells are shed from the omentum and have no pathologic significance. Megakaryocytes have been reported in myeloproliferative disorders. 9.2.5.2.3 Peritoneal Lavage Fluid As indicated previously, this technique was initially used for the diagnosis of bleeding following intraabdominal trauma and has been supplanted by radiologic techniques when available. Red blood cell counts are used to determine the need for exploratory laparotomy. The procedure introduces some red blood cells and values up to 10 000/µL are considered consistent with the technique. Each hospital will determine appropriate values for exploratory surgery. Originally, 100 000/µL was considered an appropriate level. This was then decreased to 50 000/µL. The lower the selected cutoff value, the higher the percentage of negative laparotomies. 9.2.5.2.4 Peritoneal Dialysate Fluid Normally, dialysate fluid is clear and colorless. If peritonitis develops, the fluid becomes cloudy and the diagnosis is obvious. Representative cell counts and differentials of noninfected fluids in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis are shown, in Table 6. Noninfected fluids usually have nucleated cell counts of 50/µL or less.57,58 Cell counts are routinely done on infected fluids to monitor the effectiveness of antimicrobial therapy. Following infection, neutrophils significantly increase from mean values of 18% in noninfected fluids to mean values greater than 70%.57 In addition to the neutrophilia seen in acute inflammation, eosinophilia (≥10%) may be present in some fluids. The pathogenesis is speculative. Possible etiologies include immunoallergic reactions to the plastic catheter, additives to the fluid (e.g., antibiotics), or the introduction of air into the peritoneal cavity. 9.2.5.2.5 Pericardial Fluid Most pericardial effusions are serosanguineous or hemorrhagic. Red blood cell counts have little clinical significance. In contrast, nucleated cell counts differ significantly in transudates compared with exudates. In one study, mean values for transudates were 2210/µL, compared with values of 14 116/µL for exudates.59 The standard deviations are large and there is considerable overlap. Bacterial and rheumatoid effusions had the highest percentage of neutrophils with mean values approximately 70% or greater.59 Monocytosis was secondary to hypothyroid or malignant effusions, with mean values of 75% or greater.59 The incidence of malignant effusions varies in reported series from 10 to 25%, depending on the geographic location.60,61 Identification of malignant cells is similar to that described in other fluids, and mesothelial cells must be distinguished from neoplastic cells. LE cells have also been reported in pericardial effusions.59 34 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P Table 5. Reference Intervals for Pleural Fluid. (From Noppen M, De Waele M, Li R, et al. Volume and cellular content of normal pleural fluid in humans examined by the pleural lavage. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:1023-1026. Official Journal of the American Thoracic Society. ©American Thoracic Society. Reprinted with permission.) * Volume (mL/cavity) 4.1-12.7 mL Nucleated cell count 1395-3734/µL Macrophages 64-80%* Lymphocytes 18-36%* Neutrophils 0-1%* Mesothelial cells 0-2%* Results expressed as interquartile range.53 Table 6. Peritoneal Dialysate Cell Count and Differential in Noninfected Drainage Fluids (n=29). (Modified from Rubin J, et al. Peritonitis during continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Ann Intern Med. 1980;92:7-13. Reprinted with permission from the American College of Physicians.) * © Red blood cells/µL 24 ± 48* Total nucleated cells/µL 36 ± 48 Leukocytes/µL 21 ± 27 Neutrophils (%) 18 ± 15.8 Lymphocytes (%) 24 ± 26 Monocytes (%) 35 ± 26 Eosinophils (%) 7±7 Basophils (%) 3±2 Results expressed as mean ± SD. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 35 Number 20 H56-P Figure 2. Relationship of Serous Membranes, Body Cavities, and Viscera. The heart is enclosed in the pericardial sac. The inner surface of the pericardial sac is the parietal pericardium, and the firmly attached membrane lining the exterior surface of the heart is the visceral pericardium. Parietal pleura lines the inner surface of the wall of the thoracic cavity and the visceral pleura covers the lung. Parietal peritoneum covers the walls of the abdominal and pelvic cavities. Visceral peritoneum lines the surfaces of the abdominal organs. (Reprinted from Glasser L. Extravascular biological fluids. In: Kaplan LA, Pesce AJ. Clinical Chemistry: Theory, Analysis, and Cellular Composition. St. Louis: CV Mosby Co; 1996, with permission from Elsevier.) 9.3 9.3.1 Synovial Fluid Macroscopic Examination Macroscopic analysis includes color, clarity, and viscosity. Normal synovial fluid is colorless or pale yellow and clear. Print can be clearly read through a tube containing synovial fluid. Pathologic specimens may be colored yellow, white, or red, and the clarity may be translucent, cloudy, or opaque. As with other fluids, breakdown products of heme cause a yellow color, leukocytes make the fluid white, erythrocytes impart a red color, and cells (nucleated cells or erythrocytes) cause a cloudy appearance. If particles are present, they should be noted. These may be fragments of cartilage (wear particles) or particles containing collagen or fibrin (rice bodies). Particles may also be seen in metallosynovitis from a prosthetic implant. Viscosity can be measured at the bedside by the physician placing a finger at the tip of the syringe and stringing out the fluid or determining the length of the string after expressing it from the syringe. Normal fluids will form a string greater than four centimeters. Clinically, there is no need for a sophisticated measurement of viscosity. Like the gross observation of viscosity, the mucin clot test may reflect the degree of hyaluronate polymerization. Hyaluronidase derived from neutrophils most likely has a pathogenetic role in decreasing viscosity. The test is qualitative and involves the addition of 2% acetic acid to synovial fluid. Mucin clots are graded as good, fair, or poor. Since other tests provide similar or more definitive information, a critical re-evaluation of the test would be of value to determine if it is obsolete. 36 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 9.3.2 9.3.2.1 H56-P Microscopic Enumeration Cell counts may be done manually or by automated methods. Manual methods require a hemacytometer. Clear fluids usually require no dilution. Isotonic saline is an adequate diluent. With most fluids, the nucleated cell and erythrocyte counts can be done in the same chamber. If desired, erythrocytes can be lysed using 0.3% saline as a diluent. Solutions containing acetic acid should not be used, since they coagulate hyaluronate. Noninflammatory fluids are viscous and create problems in loading the chamber. This can be resolved using hyaluronidase, if desired. Approximately 400 units of hyaluronidase are added to 1 mL of synovial fluid and incubated for ten minutes at 37 °C.13 However, since viscous fluids are either normal or noninflammatory, approximate cell counts are clinically acceptable, and excessive personnel time is not justified. Automated cell counts have been validated for total nucleated cells and erythrocytes on impedance-based and laser-based optical systems.62,63 Lower limits of detection should both follow analytically acceptable standards and provide clinically relevant information.62-64 Acceptable lower limits of detection were set as >0.150 or 0.200 x 109/L for nucleated cells and 0.01 or 0.03 x 1012/L for erythrocytes.62,63 Samples flagged for cellular interference should be enumerated manually.62 If automated instruments are used, pretreatment of samples with hyaluronidase was considered necessary adding an additional 20 minutes of processing time.62,63 NOTE: Flow imaging technology has also been validated for automated cell counts for nucleated cells and erythrocytes.65-69 9.3.2.2 Morphology Differential cell counts are done using manual or automated methods. The former has many advantages that include identification of unusual cell types, crystals, or microorganisms. Differential counts using automated instruments are problematic. One study indicates that the percentages of neutrophils and mononuclear cells can be reliably measured. However, the latter category includes lymphocytes, monocytes, immature granulocytes, and blasts.63 In addition, automated methods discourage cytological observations that may have clinical relevance or important clinical consequences (e.g., bacteria). Normal cellular constituents of synovial fluid include neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, histiocytes, and synovial lining cells. Neutrophils normally constitute less than 25% of all nucleated cells. In addition to intact neutrophils, it is not unusual to see necrobiotic changes, many characteristic of apoptotic cells with single or multiple dense, hyperchromatic, homogenous nuclear masses. In pathologic specimens, neutrophils may have dark cytoplasmic inclusions of immune complexes in wet preparations with light microscopy. Such cells are called ragocytes or R.A. cells, the latter name because of the association with rheumatoid arthritis. In collagen vascular diseases, typical L.E. cells may be seen on Romanowsky-stained smears. L.E. cells are neutrophils that have engulfed large, round, purple hyaline homogeneous nuclear masses. In normal fluids, cells in the monocyte/macrophage category normally constitute the majority of cells with a mean value of 48%.13 On stained smears, monocyte/macrophages with basophilic cytoplasmic inclusions have been designated Reiter cells. Lymphocytes range from few to many in normal fluids (see Table 7), with a mean value of approximately 25%.13 They have similar morphologic features to blood lymphocytes or may show reactive changes in pathologic fluids. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 37 Number 20 H56-P Normally, synovial lining cells on average constitute only 4% of nucleated cells. Many other cell types have been described in pathologic fluids. These include eosinophils, basophils, mast cells, plasma cells, bone marrow cells, chondrocytes, Gaucher cells, platelets, and sickle cells. Unlike the other body fluids discussed, malignant cells are so rarely seen that it does not impact the routine clinical laboratory. The morphologic appearance of cells is illustrated in the accompanying photomicrographs. 9.3.2.3 9.3.2.3.1 Crystals Polarization Microscopy Polarization microscopy is one of the cornerstones in the laboratory analysis of synovial fluids, and is essential for the diagnosis of crystalline joint disease. Because the crystal has two different indices of refraction, the material is said to be birefringent, a property detected by polarization microscopy. A polarizing microscope is a light microscope that has two additional filters, designated a polarizer and analyzer. The substage light source emits light vibrating in all planes. The light is then screened by the polarizer, a grid that filters out all rays of light except the ray vibrating parallel to the direction of the lines of the grid. The polarized light then passes through the condenser and the specimen slide to the analyzer, similar to the grid of the polarizer, and then through the eyepiece lens to the eye. If the analyzer grid lines are at right angles to the lines of the grid of the polarizer, all the rays of light are screened out and the field is black. If a birefringent crystal is present, it rotates the polarized light so that the light can pass through the grid of the analyzer and appear white against a black background (see Figure 3). The physical characteristics of a crystal can be exploited further for exact identification using a first order red compensator. The background appears red and the crystals yellow or blue, depending upon the orientation of the axes of the crystal. Some suggestions regarding technique for crystal identification include the following: 13,70,71 1. Both wet and stained cytocentrifuge preparations should be examined. 2. Crystals may be missed with light microscopy by bright light. Lowering the condenser improves contrast. 3. No examination for crystals is complete without polarization microscopy. 4. Dust, scratches, and debris must be distinguished from pathologic crystals. 5. With polarization microscopy, it may be difficult to keep the plane of focus because of the black background. Introducing more light and using the first order red compensator will help. 6. Scan the slide using a 10X objective and use higher power objectives (40X, 100X) for definitive identification. 9.3.2.4 Crystal Identification Although several types of crystals have been noted in synovial fluid, monosodium urate and calcium pyrophosphate dehydrate are the most frequent. Other crystals of pathologic significance include basic calcium phosphate, steroid crystals, and cholesterol. Monosodium urate (MSU) crystals are associated with gout. They may be difficult to visualize with bright light. With polarization microscopy, they are 2 to 10 µ thin, needle-shaped, bright crystals with negative birefringence. Identification is enhanced using the first order red compensator.70 When its long 38 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P axis is perpendicular to the direction of slow vibration of the light in the compensator, it appears blue, and when its long axis is parallel to this direction, it appears yellow.13 A fixed preparation from a known case of gout can be used as a control to determine the orientation of the crystal using the first order red compensator. Numerous monosodium urate intraleukocyte crystals are seen in acute gout. If gout is suspected clinically but crystals are not detected, some studies suggest that repeat examination after 24 hours of storage at 4 °C improves the diagnostic yield.72 However, others question the diagnostic validity of this finding.13 Urate crystals may on rare occasions form a spherulite with a beach ball appearance. They are extracellular and in some cases, the only form of the crystal.73 They must be distinguished from globules of fat. Calcium pyrophosphate dehydrate (CPPD) crystals are associated with pseudogout but may also be present in lesser amounts in noninflammatory fluids. 15 Their shape, birefringence, and dichroism contrast with MSU. Thus, they are usually rhomboid; rarely, needle shaped; easily detected on stained preparation with light microscopy; weakly birefringent; positively birefringent; and with the first order red compensator, demonstrate yellow and blue dichroism opposite that of MSU. The crystals are phagocytized by both neutrophils and monocytes. CPPD can also be detected by staining air-dried cytocentrifuge preparations with alizarin red S.74 Basic calcium phosphates (BCP) include several chemical forms of calcium, including hydroxyapatite. The crystals are not usually detected in the routine clinical laboratory because they are at the limit of resolution of the light microscope. By electron microscopy, they are rhomboid or needle like and form aggregates that can be suspected by the expert light microscopist. Their association with arthritis is well documented.75,76,77 In one study, BCP crystals were only associated with osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis.15 Steroid crystals have protean morphology.78,79 Intra-articular injection of corticosteroids is a wellestablished clinical practice. Steroids may crystalize and synovial fluids may contain crystals from a previous injection or inadvertently, if joint fluid was aspirated through a needle used to withdraw fluid from a medicinal vial. Like other crystals, steroids may cause an acute inflammatory synovitis in 0.6 to 2% of patients, beginning several hours after injection and lasting up to 72 hours.80,81 The crystals may mimic CPPD or MSU. They have been described as needles, rods, amorphous, branched, and agglutinated. Birefringence is bright and the sign (+ or -) depends on the steroid. Interpretation of crystals should be guarded following intra-articular therapy. Cholesterol crystals are seen in chronic effusions of joints or bursae. They are seen in rheumatoid arthritis and suggest a chronic severe persistent synovitis. Cholesterol crystals are extracellular rectangles with notched corners and bright birefringence. Other crystals or particles include hematoidin, Charcot-Leyden crystals, metal, and artifacts. Hematoidin is a breakdown product of hemoglobin indicative of extravasation of erythrocytes but with no additional pathologic significance. Charcot-Leyden crystals have been reported in eosinophilic synovitis associated with urticaria.13 Fragments of metal from a prosthesis may cause a metallosynovitis. They may be extraor intracellular. Artifacts include crystals of calcium oxalate, dry K2EDTA, lithium heparin, starch granules, and dust. A useful chart has been previously published (see Table 8).71 9.3.3 9.3.3.1 Result Reporting Reporting Terminology Laboratory reports should include the type of fluid, the joint or bursa, side of the body, color, clarity, presence of particulate material, presence or absence of crystals, type of crystals, erythrocyte count, © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 39 Number 20 H56-P nucleated cell count, differential count, and special morphologic findings. Viscosity is best evaluated at the time of aspiration and should be recorded in the physician’s notes. The mucin clot test is also a measure of viscosity. Results should be recorded as good, fair, or poor. Cell counts are reported in standard units (µL) or SI units, 109/L for nucleated cells and 1012/L for erythrocytes. If SI units are used, the former should be reported to the second decimal point and the latter to the third. Laboratories make several observations on crystals that include morphology, birefringence, strength of birefringence, sign of birefringence, and extinction angle.13 However, these parameters do not need to be in the laboratory report; only the type of crystal needs to be reported. The frequency (rare, numerous) has diagnostic significance and should be noted. For example, calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease has been defined as containing an average of more than one CPPD crystal per 50X oil immersion field in an unstained preparation.15 The differential count is reported in percentage. Segmented and band neutrophils should be reported together. Monocytes and macrophages should also be reported as a single category. The term mononuclear cells should not be used, since lymphocytes should be reported as a separate category. One question that needs to be addressed is the reporting of R.A. cells, Reiter cells, tart cells, Döhle bodies, and toxic granules. In the author’s opinion, this places an unnecessary burden on the clinical laboratory for information that is either nonspecific or has no clinical relevance. Others may disagree.15 Miscellaneous observations should be noted in a comments section. These include particulate matter, LE cells, siderophages, fat, bone marrow, and tumor cells. Bacteria are a critical observation and should be reported immediately to the physician with the names of the persons reporting and receiving the report, and the time should be documented on the report. If bacteria are present, a Gram stain should be done and results reported. 9.3.3.2 Reference Intervals Reference intervals for synovial fluid are shown in Table 7. 9.3.4 Analytic Significance The macroscopic, microscopic, and bacteriologic examination of synovial fluid are the keystones to diagnosis. Unlike other fluids of the parental body cavities, chemical determinations play a secondary role. Synovial fluids can be divided into five groups by their gross appearance at the time of aspiration: normal, noninflammatory, inflammatory, purulent (septic), and hemorrhagic. Inflammatory fluids can be further subdivided into a broad category of inflammatory diseases of diverse etiology and crystalline joint disease. Characteristic findings of each group are listed in Table B3.82 The diagnostic significance of crystals, tissue fragments, microorganisms, and cell types are discussed below. Rice bodies are polished white fragments of tissue containing collagen and fibrin. They are seen in joint fluid of patients with many arthritides (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis). Fragments of fibrocartilage are described in meniscal or cruciate ligament tears and cartilage in osteoarthritis.15 Crystal analysis leads to a specific diagnosis in gout. CPPD crystals are associated with inflammatory fluids in pseudogout, but may also be seen in noninflammatory fluids with a coincidental chrondocalcinosis.15 In the same study, BCP crystals were found only in osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Others consider their presence a crystalline deposition disease.83 Metallic debris has been noted from titanium implants. The metallic fragments are both extra- and intracellular. 40 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P Table 7. Normal Synovial Fluid Values. (Modified from McCarty DJ. Synovial fluid. In: Koopman WJ, ed. Arthritis and Allied Conditions. 14th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. 2001:83-104. Reprinted with permission from Lippincott Williams and Wilkins (http://lww.com)). Color Clarity Viscosity Mucin clot Nucleated cells Differential (%) neutrophils lymphocytes monocytes histiocytes synoviocytes Erythrocytes Crystals © Colorless or pale yellow Transparent Very high Good 13-180/µL 0-25 0-78 0-71 0-26 0-12 0-2000/µL None Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 41 Number 20 H56-P Table 8. Birefringent Material That May Be Found in Synovial Fluid. (From Judkins JW, Cornbleet PJ. Synovial fluid crystal analysis. Lab Med. 1997;28:774-779. ©1997 American Society for Clinical Pathology. Reprinted with permission.) Material Crystals Calcium oxalate Calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD) Cartilage, collagen Cholesterol Hydroxyapatite Monosodium urate (MSU) Steroids Betamethasone acetate Cortisone acetate Methyl prednisone acetate Prednisone tebulate Triamcinolone acetonide Triamcinolone hexacetonide Other Materials Debris EDTA (dry, dipotassium) Fat (cholesterol esters) Lithium heparin (not sodium) Starch granules Shape Birefringence Bipyramidal Often rhomboid, may be rodlike, diamond, or square, usually <10 µm long Irregular shaped, rodlike Flat, platelike, with notch in corner, occasionally needlelike, often >100 µm Small (<1 µm), only aggregates seen Needle, rodlike, with parallel straight edges, usually 8-10 µm long Strong (no axis) Weak (+) Rods, 10-20 µm, blunt ends Large rods Pleomorphic, small fragments, tending to clump Small, pleomorphic with branched and irregular configuration Pleomorphic, small fragments, often clumped Large (15-60 µm) rods with blunt, squared, or tapered end Strong (-) Strong (+) Strong (no axis) Small, irregular with jagged, rounded nonparallel edges Small, amorphous Globules May resemble CPPD Variable Weak Strong (Maltese cross) Weak (+) Varying size, round Strong (Maltese cross) Strong (+) Strong Plates (no axis) Needles (-) Weak (no axis) Strong (-) Strong (+) Strong (no axis) Strong (-) + indicates positive, - negative 42 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P Figure 3. A. Incident light vibrates in all planes. B. The vibration of light can be resolved into a vertical and horizontal vector. C. Polarizer is oriented to allow passage of the horizontal vector. D. Polarized light vibrating in the horizontal plane. E. Analyzer oriented to allow passage of vertical vector only. If no light passes, the microscopic field is black. A crystal is placed between the polarizer and analyzer. In this example, it is anisotropic and rotates the horizontal vector 90°, so that light passes, through the analyzer and the image of the crystal appears light against a black background. (Figure contributed by Benjamin Glasser.) 9.4 Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is defined as the bronchoscopic procedure to retrieve cells and soluble substances from the lining fluid of the distal airways and alveolar units, containing immunologic components of the lung’s epithelial surface.84 The procedure thus provides a sample that represents a correlate to an endobronchial or transbronchial biopsy tissue specimen and cellular and immunologic components in the vascular circulation. It provides a specimen that is involved with a disease process or in close approximation with it. BAL is a safe and minimally invasive diagnostic procedure for patients with interstitial lung disease, whether an infectious, noninfectious immunologic, or malignant etiology is suspected.85-87 In addition, the bronchoscopic technique reveals specific information in disorders, such as pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, Langerhans cell histiocytosis, alveolar hemorrhage, or dust exposure.85 It may also be complementary to high-resolution computerized tomography (CT) or at least useful for diagnosis by exclusion, and may help to decide whether or not to do surgical biopsy.86 Determination of rather simple laboratory parameters from BAL fluid allows conclusions about cellular and morphological changes in lung parenchyma, which can hardly be made with other methods. Differentiation of cells contained in BAL, as well as subtyping of lymphocytes, has gained special importance for differential diagnosis and analysis of activity-status of interstitial lung diseases. 9.4.1 Macroscopic Examination The macroscopic examination of BAL fluid will identify the following characteristic states: • • © gray-brown BAL fluid typical for smokers; blood (hemorrhagic BAL); Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 43 Number 20 • • H56-P lipids and lipoproteins (milky BAL); and mucous flakes. 9.4.1.1 Hemorrhagic BAL A fresh alveolar hemorrhage results in a BAL fluid looking like a diluted suspension of erythrocytes. A hemorrhage secondary to bronchoscopy typically results in increasing contaminations during the fractionated sampling, and this should be reported on the request form. In an older hemorrhagic syndrome (i.e., when a hemorrhage has taken place earlier and is partially resorbed), BAL-fluid looks orange red to russet. This macroscopic finding is an indication to look at intracellular iron content by cytochemistry. 9.4.1.2 Lipids and Lipoproteins A milky aspect of recovered BAL fluid is an indication of alveolar proteinosis. Accumulation of phospholipid-protein complexes, which are derived from pulmonary surfactant in lung alveoli, is characteristic for an alveolar proteinosis. An aliquot should be centrifuged if the BAL looks milky. If typical lipid-protein complexes exist, a creamy layer forms on top of the rest of the BAL after centrifugation. 9.4.2 Microscopic Examination Due to its nature as an artificial lavage fluid, the interpretation of results is highly dependent on the procedure for obtaining the fluid and the laboratory aims to determine the representation through a number of quality parameters. Thus, improper lavage technique may result in bronchial, rather than alveolar, sampling, indicated by observing many ciliate bronchial cells. If ciliated bronchial cells are present, no further tests (e.g., immunophenotyping) should be performed. Contamination by blood obscures results in case of a hemorrhagic BAL. 9.4.2.1 Enumeration Determination of cell number in BAL can be performed both with a hemacytometer and with an automated cell counter. The advantage of automated cell counting is the fast quantification of cell number and the simultaneous discrimination between erythrocytes and nucleated cells. By using a hemacytometer, a simultaneous testing of cell viability by adding trypan blue is possible. When cell number is < 50/µl, the method of hemacytometer cell count should be preferred. 9.4.2.2 Morphology Evaluation of the cell pattern with cell phenotype is used in clinical practice to distinguish the various forms in interstitial lung diseases. In addition to examining cell differentials, observing the morphologic appearances of cells and particles is diagnostic. Examples are the different morphology of macrophages in extrinsic allergic alveolitis and sarcoidosis, or the detection of dust particles in occupational exposure conditions.85 The following parameters are typically determined in BAL: • • • • • 44 neutrophils; lymphocytes; ratio of CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes (CD4/CD8 ratio); eosinophils; macrophages (including the determination of hemosiderin-loading, golden, brown, or black pigment inclusions resembling smoker’s pigment, or foamy cells); and © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 • H56-P other cells (red cells, atypical reactive type II pneumocytes, and fragments of hyaline membranes). Slides for the differential count may be prepared using a cytocentrifuge. If BAL contains a large number of contaminating erythrocytes, a “wedge” smear may be preferred. In addition to smears or cytocentrifuge, filter preparations can be prepared from BAL specimens.88 As a standard staining method, Romanowsky-type stain is recommended. For additional staining, unstained samples should be prepared and stored. The following staining methods are typically applied for special purposes: iron stain, PAS, silver, Nile red, or Ziehl-Neelsen. 9.4.2.3 Further Studies The quantitative determination of the ratio CD4 and CD8 positive T-lymphocytes is the most frequently requested immunological study in BAL, specifically with relevance to the detection of sarcoidosis. This is typically performed by flow cytometry, which allows the rapid screening of many cells. Dual staining with the T-cell-specific antigen CD3 is typically performed to discriminate CD4 and CD8 expression by monocytes or macrophages and NK cells, respectively. The heterogeneity in the size and granularity of cells in BAL may lead to difficulties in analysis. Specific gating techniques employing CD45 and side scatter, however, result in reliable identification of cells in good correlation to immunocytochemical techniques.89 Specific gating strategies may also allow the use of less antibody combinations.90 Immunocytochemical techniques allow the use of a conventional light microscope; however, double labeling is time consuming.88 The analysis of intracellular cytokine profiles by flow cytometry allows the detection of hallmarks of lymphocyte activation (e.g., increased interferon-gamma production in allergic asthma), which occurs in the absence of numeric changes in CD4 or CD8 T-cells.91 The determination of CD1a-positive cells is used for diagnosis in the case of Langerhans cell histiocytosis, although antigen expression also occurs in alveolar macrophages under pathological conditions.92 9.4.3 9.4.3.1 Result Reporting Reporting Terminology Laboratories should report total cell counts per mL, as well as the macroscopic appearance of the BAL sample. A differential cell count is given together with a description of cytological abnormalities and particular contents of the sample. Cells that should be routinely reported in the differential count as a percentage include: macrophages/monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes. Unusual findings, such as neoplastic cells, dust particles, asbestos particles, or microorganisms, should be noted. The presence of any ciliated epithelial cells should always be noted on the report. In addition, lymphocyte subpopulations are quantified and reported as a ratio (helper/cytotoxic cells). Laboratories should report the site of the BAL fluid (e.g., right or left upper or middle lobe). 9.4.3.2 Reference Intervals Reference intervals highly depend on age,93,94 sex,95 and smoking,96 but also the standardization of sampling, and should be determined for each methodology. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 45 Number 20 9.4.4 9.4.4.1 H56-P Analytic Significance Clinical Information Required for Interpretation of Results Information on prior tests facilitates the interpretation of findings. A previous bronchoalveolar lavage (within the past two weeks) may lead to local inflammation of the lower airways, resulting in the presence of neutrophils. Changes in morphology of macrophages (e.g., basophilic or soot inclusions) have been reported in smoking. Also, details on a possible occupational exposure to minerals (e.g., stone dust, coal dust, asbestos, mineral fibers) should be recorded. Treatment with steroids or other immunosuppressive drugs will affect the composition of BAL fluid and should be indicated. For interpretation of findings, the macroscopic aspect during the bronchoscopic investigation should be known. Information on suspicion of neoplastic infiltration, purulent secretion, or hemorrhage is important. Moreover, the anatomic site of lavage is important and should be noted on all requisitions. 10 Additional Studies 10.1 Immunologic Studies Cytologic examination of single cells and small groups of cells provides a wealth of diagnostic and prognostic information to laboratory professionals with specialized training in deciphering complex morphological information. These interpretations are usually based on the characteristics of cells stained with a variety of organic and inorganic dyes that can differentially highlight various cellular and subcellular components. Immunocytology adds an additional dimension to cytology by further providing the means for molecular analysis. By employing specific antibodies that target well-characterized molecular targets, it is possible to combine molecular analysis with cellular and subcellular analysis. The principles of immunocytology borrow many of their methods from those of general cytology, as well as from general immunohistology. The true strength of immunocytology lies in its unique ability to integrate these two methodologies. 10.1.1 Sample Collection In sample collection, there are three primary methods: 1) collecting the sample into a transport or collection medium containing a fixative; 2) collecting the sample into a container without fixative; or 3) collecting the sample directly onto the microscope slide in the unfixed state. The latter two methods are similar in that the cells are not initially exposed to a fixative before being placed on the microscope slide. 10.1.1.1 Sample Collection With Fixative Cytology samples may be collected directly into a medium containing fixative. This is particularly true when using an automated monolayer preparation instrument where this method of collection is required by the manufacturer. Although these methods have been optimized for ease of collection, transport, and morphological analysis, they have not been extensively tested for compatibility with immunocytology. Because the manufacturer’s transport medium is proprietary, little information is available on its effects in preserving epitopes for subsequent antibody staining. Many of these transport media contain mixtures of ethanol and polyethylene glycol. Such fixatives are generally compatible with immunocytology procedures, whereas fixatives containing high amounts of methanol, isopropanol, or formalin may cause denaturation of certain antigens, thus producing weak immunostaining. 46 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P In order to ensure optimal immunostaining, samples collected into fixatives should be processed and stained as soon as possible. Samples held up to 48 hours are suitable for immunocytochemical analysis. 10.1.1.2 Sample Collection Without Fixative Samples collected without fixative should be processed and stained as soon as possible. Table 9 provides a preferred schedule for sample collection, processing, and staining. Table 9. Schedule for Processing Cytology Specimens Step Cell smears Cell imprints Red blood cell removal Cell wash and resuspension Cell enrichment methods Preparation of monolayer Slide storage Stain slides Time from initial sampling Prepare immediately after sample collection Prepare immediately after sample collection Perform within 24 hours Perform within 24 hours Perform within 24 hours Perform within 24 hours Up to 48 hours (room temperature) Perform within 48 hours The optimal schedule requires that all steps up through preparation of the microscope slide should be completed within the first 24 hours, and all subsequent staining steps should be completed within 48 hours. 10.1.1.3 Comparison of Prefixed to Unfixed Specimens The process of fixation renders the cell membranes rigid. If cells are fixed in suspension, as is the case when cells are collected into transport medium, the cells retain their three-dimensional shapes as freefloating cells. For squamous epithelial cells, this shape is generally elongated and flattened, whereas most other cell types, particularly white blood cells and many types of tumor cells, retain a spherical conformation. When these fixed preparations are deposited onto the slide, they tend to retain a rounded appearance with densely staining nuclei and scant cytoplasm. In contrast, when cells are applied to a microscope slide in the unfixed state, they tend to flatten and spread, providing more nuclear and cytoplasmic detail. Thus, the morphology of the same cell type can be vastly different depending on how the sample was processed. The choice of whether to fix before or after application of the cells to the slide depends on the sample type and also on the manufacturer’s requirements when using an automated monolayer device. Both methods are compatible with antibody staining. However, fixation after application of cells to the slide frequently provides better morphological detail. 10.1.2 Sample Preparation 10.1.2.1 Microscope Slides In order to ensure adequate cellular adhesion, the slides must be chemically treated to promote cell adhesion. Positively charged slides or silanized slides are available from several commercial sources and are preferred for immunocytology applications. 10.1.2.2 Application of Specimens to Microscope Slides Cells may be applied to slides manually, using cell smear methods, or with the aid of an automated monolayer device or cytocentrifuge. For automated methods, follow the manufacturer’s instructions. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 47 Number 20 H56-P After applying samples to the slides, the slides should be either dry or nearly dry without excess liquid. Rapidly air dry any slides containing residual liquid. If storage of slides is required before staining, store slides in the unfixed state. 10.1.2.3 Slide Storage Stain slides as soon as possible after preparation. If it is necessary to delay staining: - Store unfixed slides at room temperature in a sealed container for no more than 24 hours. - If longer storage is necessary, slides may be stored for up to seven days at -20 °C or up to 30 days at 70 °C. o Individually wrap slides with two layers of aluminum foil, securely sealing all seams. Special care is required to avoid scratching or otherwise damaging the area of cellular deposition. o Place wrapped slides in a plastic bag, expel excess air, and seal the bag. o Store at -20 °C to -70 °C. o When slides are removed for staining, first equilibrate slides to room temperature for 30 minutes before removal from the plastic bag. In order to prevent condensation on the unfixed cells, it is important that the slides reach room temperature before unwrapping aluminum foil. o Unwrap slides and proceed immediately to fixation and staining. 10.1.2.4 Fixation The method of fixation is perhaps the most critical step in achieving optimal results. For optimal morphology, a strong fixation is preferred in order to preserve cellular detail. In contrast, for antibody staining, weak fixation is preferred in order to retain protein molecules in their native conformation. The precise balance between these two opposing requirements is critical for optimal staining. Fixatives containing ethanol and propylene glycol are commonly used for cytology and are generally compatible with antibody staining. A further consideration is that immunocytology procedures are generally harsher than standard cytology methods, making the balance between over- and under-fixation particularly challenging. While the goal for immunocytology is to achieve both acceptable morphology and highsensitivity immunostaining, in general practice morphology is frequently compromised in order to achieve the high sensitivity of the latter. Fixatives are generally divided into two categories depending on their mode of action. Agents which combine with proteins are called additive fixatives, and agents that precipitate proteins are called coagulating fixatives. Because of the harsh nature of immunocytology, strong fixation is required in order to achieve optimal morphology. A fixative combining both the additive properties of formalin and the coagulating properties of ethanol provides an ideal solution. A general fixative for immunocytology is located in Appendix A. 10.1.2.5 Fixation Procedure The following procedure is applicable for all samples, whether or not they have been prefixed: 48 Place slides in fixative for ten minutes at room temperature. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P - Rinse briefly in buffered saline (phosphate-buffered saline, PBS, or Tris-buffered saline, TBS; see Appendix A). - Without allowing slides to dry out, proceed to staining. 10.1.3 Immunostaining Methods 10.1.3.1 Permeabilization and Antigen Retrieval Cells must be permeabilized to allow antibodies and visualization reagents to penetrate the cell membranes. A suitable permeabilization reagent can be prepared from a buffer containing detergent (see Appendix A). Formalin is a cross-linking fixative that can denature epitopes by forming methylene bridges. These cross links may be broken, restoring the epitopes to their native configuration, by application of heat. A suitable antigen retrieval reagent can be prepared from a buffer containing detergent. A combined method for simultaneously performing permeabilization and antigen retrieval is outlined below. Permeabilization/Retrieval Procedure - Place permeabilization/retrieval reagent into a Coplin jar and heat to 95 °C. Add slides to Coplin jar and incubate for five minutes at 95 °C. Rinse slides with buffered saline. 10.1.4 Blocking Endogenous Enzymes Peroxidase and alkaline phosphatase are the two enzymes most frequently employed in immunocytology. However, both of these enzymes occur naturally in a variety of cells and tissues. In order to avoid falsepositive staining, these endogenous enzymes must be blocked before immunocytochemical analysis. Blocking methods for peroxidase generally employ solutions of hydrogen peroxide up to 3%. However, for cytology specimens, 3% hydrogen peroxide can severely damage cellular morphology. Therefore, weaker concentrations of hydrogen peroxide containing sodium azide are recommended. Commercial blocking reagents are available. However, the blocking reagent should specify that it is intended for use with cytology samples. Endogenous peroxidase blocking reagent - 0.03% hydrogen peroxide in deionized water 0.2% (w/v) sodium azide Endogenous alkaline phosphatase blocking reagent - 0.1N HCl in deionized water Procedure for blocking endogenous enzymes - © Incubate slides with endogenous enzyme blocking reagent for five minutes at room temperature. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 49 Number 20 H56-P 10.1.5 Antibody Preparation Several manufacturers sell antibodies that have been titered and optimized for tissue immunohistochemistry. These antibodies are frequently referred to as prediluted antibodies or ready-touse antibodies. Generally, these prediluted antibodies can be used, without modification, for immunocytology as well. When preparing antibodies from concentrated stock, it is important to dilute the antibody to an appropriate titer in an acceptable antibody diluent. An acceptable antibody diluent usually contains a buffer, a carrier protein, and optionally an antimicrobial agent. A formula for an acceptable antibody diluent can be found in Appendix A. 10.1.6 Visualization Chemistries The methods described in this section are optimized for brightfield microscopy utilizing enzymatic detection methods. The preferred methods for immunocytology employ an enzymatic reaction that catalyzes the conversion of a soluble substrate-chromogen into an insoluble colored precipitate that can be viewed microscopically. The two enzyme systems most commonly employed are peroxidase and alkaline phosphatase. In the peroxidase method, the peroxidase enzyme, in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (substrate), catalyzes the oxidative polymerization of a chromogen such as diaminobenzidine (DAB), forming a colored precipitate at the site of the enzyme. In the case of the alkaline phosphatase method, the alkaline phosphatase enzyme causes the hydrolytic cleavage of a phosphate group from a substrate such as a naphthol phosphate. The free naphthol reacts with an appropriate chromogen, such as Fast Red, to produce a colored precipitate at the enzyme site. The choice of peroxidase or alkaline phosphatase methodology is primarily a matter of personal preference. However, historically, alkaline phosphatase methods have been preferred for immunocytology. Regardless of the enzyme system employed, the principle is the same. The primary antibody, bound to its cellular antigen, must next be linked to the enzyme. A variety of linking systems are available from several commercial sources. A commonly used method for immunocytology involves the application of a secondary antibody conjugated to an enzyme. If the primary antibody is of murine origin (most monoclonal antibodies), the secondary antibody must be an antimouse immunoglobulin conjugated to either peroxidase or alkaline phosphatase. If the primary antibody is of rabbit origin (most polyclonal antibodies), the secondary antibody must be an antirabbit immunoglobulin conjugated to the appropriate enzyme. Several other detection methodologies are available, and most are compatible with immunocytology. However, detection systems based on (strept)avidin-biotin methods are not recommended, due to potential interference from endogenous biotin, unless an appropriate biotin-blocking method is used. Other detection methods may employ a polymer-based system that includes a polymer backbone to which multiple secondary antibodies and enzyme molecules are conjugated. Although in theory, these polymers should provide enhanced sensitivity by virtue of their large number of enzymes, in practice these polymers have difficulty penetrating fixed cellular membranes. With vigorous cell permeabilization methods such as those previously listed, polymer-based systems can perform satisfactorily in immunocytology applications. Polymer-based immunostaining systems are available from various manufacturers. 50 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P 10.1.6.1 Chromogens A variety of chromogens are available for immunocytochemistry. However, for optimal performance, a chromogen compatible with permanent mounting should be employed. Chromogens that are dissolved in organic solvents will not withstand permanent mounting and should be avoided. For peroxidase enzymes, diaminobenzidine is the most commonly used chromogen. Diaminobenzidine produces a brown stain at the site of the peroxidase enzyme. For alkaline phosphatase, a permanent Fast Red chromogen provides the best sensitivity and best resistance to organic solvents. Permanent Fast Red chromogens are not as widely used as soluble Fast Red chromogens, so care should be exercised in selecting the appropriate Fast Red. It should not be assumed that all Fast Red chromogens are equal. 10.1.6.2 Immunostaining Procedure After slides have been fixed, permeabilized, and blocked, the next step is the immunostaining procedure. Several manufacturers provide automated slide staining equipment. When staining is performed using one of these instruments, the manufacturers’ recommended protocols should be followed. The method listed below can be used for manual staining or can be programmed into an automated stainer. - Apply appropriately diluted primary antibody to the slide and incubate for ten minutes at room temperature. Rinse slides in phosphate buffered saline. Apply secondary antibody/enzyme conjugate and incubate for ten minutes at room temperature. Rinse slides in phosphate buffered saline. Apply substrate/chromogen solution and incubate for ten minutes at room temperature. Rinse slides in deionized water. 10.1.7 Counterstaining A nuclear counterstain, such as hematoxylin, is applied to the immunostained specimen to provide nuclear detail. The nuclear counterstain should be light enough so as not to obscure any specific immunostaining, particularly nuclear immunostaining, but strong enough to provide unambiguous nuclear morphology. Mayer’s hematoxylin (Lillie’s modification containing 5g/L of hematoxylin) provides a suitable counterstain. With this, hematoxylin slides should be stained for about 30 seconds. 10.1.8 Controls 10.1.8.1 Positive Control In every staining procedure, a positive control must be run in order to establish the proper performance of the staining reagents and methods. The most appropriate positive controls are cytology samples containing known positive cells of interest. Once a positive sample is identified, it is possible to make a repository of positive slides that can serve as future positive controls for up to two months. Positive control cell slides can be stored frozen at -20 °C, as previously described, and used for up to two months. After prolonged storage, a decrease in staining intensity is frequently observed. If staining becomes noticeably weaker, the slides should be discarded even if they are less than two months old. In the absence of appropriate cytology material, a tissue section containing known positive elements may be used to verify the performance of the reagents. However, the procedural elements of the protocol cannot be verified with tissue sections. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 51 Number 20 H56-P 10.1.8.2 Negative Control An appropriate negative control is performed on a second identical cytology sample collected and prepared at the same time as the patient test sample. An isotype-matched negative control reagent, diluted to the same concentration as the primary antibody, is used in place of the primary antibody. 10.1.8.3 Interpretation of Controls Nonspecific staining, if present, will be visible in the negative control. If the negative control reagent demonstrates positive staining, results with test specimens should be considered invalid. The positive control should only be utilized to determine correct performance of the reagents and procedures and should not be used to aid in formulating a specific diagnosis. If the positive controls fail to demonstrate positive staining, results with test specimens should be considered invalid. 10.1.9 Staining Interpretation Stained slides are optimized for viewing and analysis via light microscopy. Positive reactivity will be indicated by the presence of a brown (peroxidase) or red (alkaline phosphatase) reaction product within the stained cells along with a blue-stained nucleus. In contrast, negative stained cells will exhibit only a blue nuclear stain. The quality of the nuclear stain should also be examined to ensure cells are morphologically intact and have not been damaged by the cell preparation or immunostaining procedure. 52 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P 10.1.10 Troubleshooting Table 10. Troubleshooting Problem Probable Cause Suggested Action No staining Reagents not used in proper order Repeat experiment and refer to procedure. Ensure that appropriate species-specific linking antibody is used. Weak staining Slides retained too much solution after wash bath Gently tap off excess solution after wash bath. Slides under-incubated Review staining procedures. Inappropriate chromogen preparation Review chromogen preparation procedure. Chromogen expired or used outside its recommended working stability. Excessive background Slides not thoroughly rinsed Use fresh solutions in buffer baths and wash bottles. Specimen dried during staining procedure Use humid chamber. Verify that the appropriate volume is applied to each slide completely covering the entire cell area. Nonspecific binding of reagents to slides Check for proper fixation. Cells detach from slides Use of incorrect slides Use positively charged or silanized slides. Slides display precipitation Inappropriate substratechromogen preparation or used beyond the working shelf life Prepare fresh substrate-chromogen solution and use within specified working shelf life. Excessively strong specific staining Reagent incubation times too long Review staining procedures. Primary antibody too concentrated Make appropriate dilutions of primary antibody. 10.1.11 Limitations 1. Immunocytochemistry is a multistep process that requires specialized training in the selection of appropriate reagents, slide preparation, fixation, staining, and interpretation. 2. The cytologic staining is dependent on the proper handling and processing of the slides before staining. Improper fixation, washing, drying, heating, or contamination may produce artifacts, antibody trapping, or false-negative results. Inconsistent results may be due to variations in sample processing methods, or to inherent irregularities within the cell preparation. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 53 Number 20 H56-P 3. Excessive or incomplete counterstaining may compromise proper interpretation of results. 4. False-positive results may be seen due to nonimmunologic binding of proteins or substrate reaction products. They may also be caused by endogenous enzyme activity. Sometimes nonspecific staining may be associated with bacteria in the sample. 5. The presence of mucous on the slides may inhibit the interpretation of the staining results. Mucous may also produce nonspecific staining. 10.2 Flow Cytometric Studies The multiparametric characterization of single cells in heterogeneous cell suspensions by flow cytometry represents a reliable and routinely applicable technique for the quantitative characterization of cells of the immune and hematopoietic system within different body fluids (see Table 11). According to the principles of flow cytometry, cells are immunophenotypically identified based on the analysis of the co-expression of antigens using fluorochrome-conjugated monoclonal antibodies.97,98 This allows the identification of specific lymphocyte subsets, clonal expansions in lymphoma or leukemia, as well as differential white blood cell analysis. Alternatively, a white blood cell differential also can be achieved simultaneously with absolute counts using hematology analyzers based on the analysis of physical characteristics or cytochemical staining.99-101 Cell surface and intracellular antigens can be analyzed at the same time after permeabilization of cells. Such intracellular antigens facilitate the detection of malignancies, including those of epithelial or mesothelial origin. Cytokine-directed antibodies and biochemical probes also allow the characterization of functional responses of the immune system.102-104 Ploidy analysis following DNA staining can be analyzed in order to identify malignant cells.105 Flow cytometric testing can be performed as a highly standardized, rapid, and quantitative procedure using small sample volumes (e.g., in pediatric samples).106 Cells can be stabilized before analysis99,107 and the immunological phenotype of cells often is more stable than morphologic characteristics. Finally, electronic storage of list-mode data, which are acquired during flow cytometric measurement, allows the documentation and expert review of analysis. The following applications have been examined for flow cytometric analysis and are listed in Table 11. 54 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P Table 11. Applications of Flow Cytometry in the Analysis of Body Fluids Body Fluid Application Methodology Absolute counting of Cerebrospinal fluid • Automated analysis of light erythrocytes and nucleated cells scatter or cytochemistry99,100,101 Quantitative determination of • Light scatter analysis lymphocytes, monocytes, and combined with neutrophils immunophenotyping106 • Automated analysis of light scatter or cytochemistry 99,101 Determination of CD4 and CD8 • Immunophenotyping of T cells, B cells, and NK cells constitutive lymphocyte antigens106,108 Detection of lymphoid or • Immunophenotypic analysis myeloid neoplasm infiltration of clonality (κ/λ light chains, T cell receptor α/βrepertoire) and aberrant antigen expression109,110 Functional characterization of • Immunophenotypic analysis cells of the immune system of cytokines, activation antigens, and functionally regulated receptors111 Detection of lymphoma Serous (pleural, peritoneal, • Immunophenotypic analysis infiltration pericardial) of clonality (κ/λ light chains, T cell receptor α/βrepertoire), and aberrant antigen expression112 Detection of malignant • Immunophenotypic analysis epithelial cells of epithelial and tumor antigens107 • Analysis of aneuploidy105,113 Absolute counting of nucleated • Automated analysis of light Synovial fluid cells scatter114 Characterization of the specific • Immunophenotypic analysis immune response of regulatory T-cells115 • Characterization of antigenspecific cells103 Determination of CD4 and CD8 • Immunophenotyping of Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid T cells, B cells, and NK cells constitutive lymphocyte antigens89,90 Functional characterization of • Immunophenotypic analysis cells of the immune system of cytokines, activation antigens, and functionally regulated receptors91,92 Flow cytometry often is used as an adjunct to microscopy. Both methods are competitive tools for the counting and differentiation of nucleated cells with a higher precision of flow cytometry. Microscopy in comparison has advantages in acute infectious diseases where microbial agents can be assessed during nucleated cell analysis. In addition, contamination by nonhematopoietic cells, such as malignant epithelial cells or reactive mesothelial cells, is more easily observed by microscopy. Flow cytometry, in contrast, is a sensitive tool for the characterization of chronic inflammatory processes, due to the specific © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 55 Number 20 H56-P characterization of proliferative responses in lymphocytes as well as monocytes and macrophages. Furthermore, the characterization of infiltration by hematopoietic malignancies is a specific indication for flow cytometric analysis. 10.2.1 Sample Preparation Flow cytometry in general only requires that cells are available in suspension. Preparation of samples, therefore, is similar to that for microscopy. Filtering, washing, or treatment with hyaluronidase is only applied in the case of contamination by large debris particles, fibrin, or a high viscosity. As a general rule, any manipulation including washing steps should be reduced to a minimum. The stability of the material depends on the cell types and the parameters that are analyzed. Thus, constitutive antigens on lymphocytes (e.g., CD3 or CD4) are typically stable in expression while antigen expression densities on phagocytic cells may rapidly change (e.g., following cooling and rewarming). Storage on ice, which is performed in some procedures, therefore, cannot be generally recommended. Stabilizing solutions or fixatives can be alternatively applied for extended sample storage, but this is not possible for all procedures due to interferences with the detection of certain antigens and functional assays. 10.2.1.1 Preparation of Aliquots for Staining For labeling, typically samples with 20 000 to 100 000 cells in 100 µL are prepared. In case of samples with a lower cell concentration, this is performed by concentration of cells though centrifugation and resuspending in autologous medium or staining buffer, which contains protein. Even significantly lower numbers of cells can be processed successfully in the case of cell-poor cerebrospinal fluid samples.116 Antibodies are usually titrated for staining of up to 1 000 000 cells in 100 µL. Samples with such a high concentration of cells, therefore, can be processed without dilution. Filtration through a 50- to 70-µm nylon filter can be applied if needed (e.g., in the case of BAL fluid with a high amount of mucus). Analysis can also be performed on frozen or stabilized material.107 10.2.1.2 Selection of Antibodies In comparison to the analysis in blood, the identification of cells in body fluids is complicated by often lower cell counts, cells with a high autofluorescence (e.g., macrophages), cells of nonhematopoietic origin (e.g., epithelial or mesothelial cells), and high amounts of cellular debris or microorganisms. The identification of cellular subsets based on scatter, therefore, often is less reliable than in blood and immunological gating procedures (e.g., based on CD45 expression), or multidimensional assays are performed in order to improve the precision of the identification of cells.89,90,116 The redundant analysis of the same antigen in different tubes allows the correlation of marker expression across tubes through immunological gating. Counterstaining of cells, which are outside of the interest of analysis and which obscure the analysis due to high autofluorescence or nonspecific binding of antibodies, is another technique to improve the identification of cells. Nonspecific binding is a special problem when secondary antibodies are used. Thus, macrophages can be counterstained (e.g., using CD14), and dead cells can be counterstained using fluorescent DNA dyes, which are excluded by vital cells. Direct fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies and single-step staining is preferred as cell losses through washing are reduced and nonspecific staining is lower. The choice of fluorochromes affects the sensitivity for the detection of antigens with a low expression of antigens. A higher sensitivity is reached using 56 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P fluorochromes, such as R-phycoerythrin, allophycocyanin, or tandem conjugates thereof in comparison to fluorescein isothiocyanate or peridinin chlorophyll, which lead to a lower signal-to-noise ratio for antibody-labeled cells. Cellular autofluorescence can be a major problem in the characterization of the antigen profile of macrophages or epithelial cells. The use of fluorochromes that do not overlap with autofluorescence in emission spectrum and quenching of autofluorescence (e.g., with trypan blue) are techniques that improve the fluorescent detection of antigens on these cells. 10.2.1.3 Staining In media with a high immunoglobulin content similar to human serum, antibodies can be directly added without blocking of Fc receptors. Preincubation of samples with rabbit serum in the case of indirect staining or murine immunoglobulin preparations in the case of direct staining may be applied to reduce background staining in other media. Incubation with antibodies can be either performed in native body fluids or staining buffers. These buffers should be of neutral pH (7.4) and contain proteins, which reduce cell losses during sample preparation. In case of the staining of intracellular antigens, fixation and permeabilization of cells typically in a twostep procedure is needed. Methods differ in the preservation of antigen structure and expression, as well as light scatter characteristics of cells.117 Isotype controls cannot be generally recommended for the control of nonspecific staining, as different preparations of directly conjugated antibodies differ in their nonspecific binding. 10.2.1.4 Lysis, Washing, and Fixation Lysis of red blood cells only needs to be performed in the case of significant contamination by these cells. Washing is needed after lysis and, therefore, cell losses may occur. If lysis is performed, methods which will fix and lyse cells in one step may lead to higher cell losses during subsequent washing steps, while lysis without fixation (e.g., using ammonium chloride solutions) often leads to a limited stability of scatter characteristics during prolonged storage. This can be addressed by fixing cells after washing. Washing or dilution of samples are alternative methods to reduce the nonspecific fluorescence of antibodies, which are not tightly bound by cells during analysis. Washing is more effective in reducing background fluorescence and concentrates cells in the sample, which facilitates analysis in case of low cell counts. Cell losses during washing depend on the protein content of the buffer, stringency of centrifugation, as well as the material and the shape of sample preparation tubes. Paraformaldehyde (0.5 to 1.0%) allows the prolonged storage of stained cell samples for up to seven days until later flow cytometric analysis. 10.2.2 Measurement and Analysis 10.2.2.1 Instrument Settings The same flow cytometric instrument settings as those used for the immunological analysis of cells in blood or bone marrow can be used for the analysis of cells in body fluids (see the most current edition of CLSI/NCCLS documents H42—Clinical Applications of Flow Cytometry: Quality Assurance and © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 57 Number 20 Immunophenotyping of Lymphocytes, Immunophenotyping of Leukemic Cells). H56-P and H43—Clinical Applications of Flow Cytometry: Logarithmic amplification of scatter signals may facilitate the analysis of light scatter characteristics of macrophages or epithelial cells at the same time with lymphocytes. Analysis of macrophages may also require a lower amplification of fluorescence signals, due to their high autofluorescence. The analysis speed needs to be increased in case of a low cell concentration in the sample. Acquisition of analysis data in list-mode storage is required to allow offline analysis of flow cytometric measurements. 10.2.2.2 Controls Currently, no stable control materials are available for control of the whole process of sample preparation, staining, and analysis of extracellular body fluid samples. Blood controls or fresh, normal blood samples that are processed in parallel will allow control of parts of the analysis process. 10.2.2.3 Gating and Analysis The identification of cells in body fluids is complicated by often lower cell counts, cells with a high autofluorescence, cells of nonhematopoietic origin, and high amounts of cellular debris or microorganisms. Immunological gating is, therefore, preferred as described in Section 10.2.1.2. 89,90,116 10.2.3 Reporting and Interpretation 10.2.3.1 Technical Information Information on the method of cell preparation, cell counts and viability, all antibody combinations and fluorochromes including lot numbers, testing of controls, instrument quality control, number of cells analyzed, date of the analysis, and names and storage of list-mode files should be kept available in the laboratory. A listing of the CD designation of the antibodies used should be provided in the final report. 10.2.3.2 Interpretation The interpretation should comment on the representativity of the sample for the expected body fluid. Suspected contamination through hemorrhage should be indicated. Depending on the request, percentages or absolute counts should be given for the normal cellular elements addressed with the staining procedure. Reference ranges should be given for these normal cellular elements. Abnormal cellular elements should be precisely described in their immunophenotype. The description of abnormal staining intensities for certain antigens is desirable, but cannot be standardized, currently. Finally, a written interpretation of the results obtained and an explanation of their significance should be provided. This includes the differential diagnosis consistent with the flow cytometric results. 10.3 Cytogenetic Analysis Cytogenetic analysis of body fluids, specifically cerebrospinal, serous (pleural, peritoneal, pericardial), and synovial specimens, is performed to determine their chromosomal complement and, therefore, aid in the clinical diagnosis of a suspected malignant acquired disorder.118 The sample should be collected aseptically and immediately placed in a sterile plastic screw-capped container or a sterile plastic test tube. The optimum sample should contain 30 x 106 malignant cells; 58 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P however, cultures will be attempted on most samples submitted. The sample should be kept at ambient temperature (preferable) or refrigerated, but not frozen. The ability to obtain cells for cytogenetic analysis is dependent on the presence of viable cells in the specimen submitted for culture and the ability to derive mitotically active cells from the cultures established from the specimen. The culturing procedures, harvesting, slide preparation, and metaphase analysis for body fluids are the same as the ones established for blood and bone marrow specimens.119 Briefly, the medium of choice for culturing is RPMI 1640 enriched with fetal bovine serum, L-glutamine, and antibiotics. Depending on the amount of specimen submitted and on the cellularity, one or two short-term culture(s), are established by inoculating approximately 10 000 000 cells into each 10-mL culture. Depending on the suspected clinical diagnosis, mitogen-stimulated cultures for T- and B-cell lymphoid disorders (72 and 96 hours, respectively) may be also set up at a final concentration of 1 x 106/mL per culture.120 Harvest of the cultures is performed following Colcemid treatment, by hypotonic shock, and subsequent fixations using Carnoy’s fixative. Banding of the slides is performed by the use of trypsin and Wright’s or Giemsa stain.121 Metaphases from more than one culture, if possible, are used. If available, at least 20 metaphases are completely analyzed. Very complex chromosome analyses or hyperdiploid analyses may be performed best from photographs. Karyotypes are constructed and interpreted according to the International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (ISCN, 1995).122 If indicated, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) can also be performed on these samples to further characterize abnormalities not detectable during conventional chromosome analysis. FISH techniques are well established for various hematologic and solid tumor malignancies, and are performed using a large variety of commercially available probes.123 11 Sample Storage After Completion of Testing All fluids should be refrigerated upon completion of testing. Refer to the manufacturer’s product insert for specimen stability if additional tests are ordered. 12 Quality Control and Quality Assurance 12.1 Quality Control Each facility is responsible for analyzing the appropriate quality control material and being in compliance with their regulatory, state, and inspection agencies. 12.1.1 Quality Control Material Quality control practices must be standardized and instituted through a documented procedure. These practices must also meet the site’s regulatory and accreditation requirements. Control material containing white and red cells are commercially available. Material should be purchased, evaluated, and integrated into either the site’s manual test or instrument procedure. Duplicate testing can also be used as a check on precision for the manual or automated procedures. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 59 Number 20 H56-P 12.1.2 Reporting Quality Control Results All personnel should use the standardized reporting format instituted in their facility. Unacceptable results must be identified and documented. An examination of the user, test, and instrument system must be investigated and corrective action instituted and documented. 12.2 Quality Assurance 12.2.1 Introduction and Purpose A quality assurance program continuously assesses the components of its system to ensure that it optimally delivers the best standard of care. Quality assurance includes not only the testing of quality control material, but also the development, implementation, and review of policies and procedures for specimen collection, transport, and processing; record keeping; technical competence; standardization; continuing education; and a scheduled, documented review process. 12.2.2 Recordkeeping Recordkeeping is an important aspect of quality assurance in the laboratory. Employees should have access to all current quality control and documentation records. Corrective action policies should be clearly explained in written, departmental procedures. Detection and correction of errors, out-of-control results, and review of test results should be components included in these procedures. In addition, patient results should be reported with accompanying reference intervals. Records of patient results, reagent and quality control material lot and catalog numbers, as well as evaluation data, should be kept in accordance with regulatory and accrediting agencies. These results should also be periodically reviewed by the section supervisor or designee. 12.2.3 Procedures Procedures should be organized in a way that can be easily followed by laboratory personnel, and should contain the following elements: • • • • • • title; purpose or principle; procedure instructions; references; author; and approval signatures. Refer to the most current edition of CLSI/NCCLS document GP2—Clinical Laboratory Technical Procedure Manuals for additional information. 12.3 Proficiency Testing (External Quality Assessment) External proficiency testing programs that are sponsored by manufacturers, professional and medical organizations, and some state public health laboratories are available as a check on accuracy. Unknown specimens are distributed several times a year for evaluation by the individual laboratory. Results are recorded and a summary is sent to the participating laboratories to compare performance. Transparencies included in some proficiency surveys assess the ability of technologists to correctly identify body fluid constituents, but they do not assess the reproducibility of slide preparation nor cell-finding ability. For more details, refer to the most current edition of CLSI/NCCLS documents GP27—Using Proficiency Testing (PT) to Improve the 60 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P Clinical Laboratory; and GP29—Assessment of Laboratory Tests When Proficiency Testing is Not Available. 12.4 Continuous Education and Training The foundation of all good quality systems is effective documentation, coupled with appropriate training for all persons who work within the system. Consistent, predictable, and high-quality outcomes in delivery of services, and accurate laboratory testing can be provided only if laboratory personnel have been appropriately trained. In the present regulatory and quality environment, all training must be documented. Additionally, scheduled, periodic assessments should be done to verify that performance of procedures remains consistent. To ensure the quality of body fluid testing, independent of the site of performance, the qualifications of testing personnel should match the complexity of the testing performed. Test reliability can be demonstrated, regardless of employee qualifications and complexity of testing, through proficiency testing and blind sample studies. Only properly trained personnel should perform a body fluid examination. Training and training verification are key factors in a successful laboratory operation. The process of training and periodic performance verification complements the laboratory’s quality assessment program. Training is used to train new employees, to introduce new methods, to retrain employees, when assessments have shown less than satisfactory performance, and for periodic reverification, which is required to document that an employee remains at an acceptable level of performance. To verify an employee’s performance, he/she must be measured against an established performance standard as defined by laboratory management/supervision. A variety of measuring “tools” may be used to verify performance. For detailed information on training and competence assessment, refer to the most current edition of CLSI/NCCLS document GP21—Training and Competence Assessment. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 61 Number 20 H56-P References 1 ISO. International Vocabulary of Basic and General Terms in Metrology. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization; 1993. 2 ISO. In vitro diagnostic medical devices – Measurement of quantities in biological samples – Metrological traceability materials. ISO 17511. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization; 2003. 3 ISO. Statistics – Vocabulary and Symbols – Part 1: Probability and General Statistical Terms. ISO 3534-1. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization; 1993. 4 ISO. Medical laboratories – Particular requirements for quality and competence. ISO 15189. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization; 2003. 5 ISO. In vitro diagnostic medical devices – Information supplied by the manufacturer – Part 1: In vitro diagnostic reagents for professional use. ISO/CD 18112-1. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization; 2004. 6 Bush V, Green S, Nichols J. Managing Preanalytical Variables. AACC Annual Meeting. Philadelphia, PA. 2003. 7 Sacher RA, McPherson RA, Campos JM. Widmann’s Clinical Interpretation of Laboratory Tests. 11th ed. F.A. Davis Company; 2000. 8 Schaefer JA, McDonald H. Body Fluids (Spinal, Pleural, Synovial) - Cellular Morphology on Wright-Giemsa Preparations Workshop. Toronto: Michener Institute for Applied Health Sciences. 9 Fishman RA. Cerebrospinal Fluid in Diseases of the Nervous System. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company; 1992. 10 Conner B, Lee G, Branca P, et al. Variations in pleural fluid WBC count and differential counts with different sample containers and different methods. Chest. 2003;123:1181-1187. 11 Naylor B. Pleural, peritoneal and pericardial fluids. In: Bibbo M, ed. Comprehensive Cytopathology. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1991: 541-614. 12 Smith GP, Kjeldsberg CR. Cerebrospinal, synovial and serous body fluids. In: Henry JB, ed. Clinical Diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 2001:403-424. 13 McCarty DJ. Synovial fluid. In: Koopman WJ, ed. Arthritis and Allied Conditions. 14th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2001;83-104. 14 Kjeldsberg CR, Knight JA. Body Fluids: Laboratory Examination of Amniotic, Cerebrospinal, Seminal, Serous, and Synovial Fluids. 3rd ed. Chicago: American Society of Clinical Pathology Press; 1993. 15 Freemont AJ, Denton J, Chuck A, Holt PJL, Davies M. Diagnostic value of synovial fluid microscopy: a reassessment and rationalization. Ann Rheum Dis. 1991;50:101-107. 16 Stiene-Martin A, Lotspeich-Steininger C, Koepke J. Clinical Hematology: Principles, Procedures, Correlations. 2nd ed. Philadelphia; Lippincott; 1998;400-414. 17 Faulkner W, King J. Manual of Clinical Laboratory Procedures. 2nd ed. Ohio: The Chemical Rubber Co; 1970;158-166. 18 College of American Pathologists. Commission on Laboratory Accreditation Program: Hematology-Coagulation Checklist; 2004. 19 Barnes PW, Eby CS, Shimer G. An evaluation of the utility of performing body fluid counts on the Coulter LH 750. Lab Hematol. 2004;10(3):127-131. 20 CLIA State Operations Manual, Appendix C - Survey Procedures and Interpretive Guidelines for Laboratories and Laboratory Services, §493.1253 Standard: Establishment and Verification of Performance Specifications: (Rev. 1, 05-21-04). 21 International Council for Standardization in Haematology: prepared by the ICSH Expert Panel on Cytometry. Guidelines for the evaluation of blood cell analysers including those used for differential leucocyte and reticulocyte counting and cell marker applications. Clin Lab Haematol. 1994;(2):157-174. 22 European Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. Guidelines for the evaluation of analyzers in clinical chemistry. ECCLS document, Vol 3, No. 2. Berlin, Germany: Beuth Verlag; 1986. 23 Jones CS, Cornbleet PJ. Wright-Giemsa cytology of body fluids. Techniques for optimal cytocentrifuge slide preparation. Lab Med. 1997;28:713-716. 24 Kobayashi TK, Ueda M, Yamaki T, Yakushiji M. Evaluation of cytocentrifuge apparatus with special reference to the cellular recovery rate. Diagn Cytopathol. 1992;8:420-423. 25 Fleury-Feith J, Escudier E, Pocholle MJ, Carre C, Bernaudin JF. The effects of cytocentrifugation on differential cell counts in samples obtained by bronchoalveolar lavage. Acta Cytol. 1987;31:606-610. 62 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P 26 Steele RW, Marmer DJ, O’Brien MD. Leukocyte survival in cerebrospinal fluid. J Clin Microbiol. 1986;23:965-966. 27 Andrews JM. Schumann GB. Neurocytopathology. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1992:37-38. 28 Chu JY, Hohenberger J. Simple sedimentation method for cytology of cerebrospinal fluid. Am J Clin Pathol. 1980;74:471-472. 29 Kjeldsberg C, Knight J. Body Fluids. 3rd ed. Chicago: ASCP Press; 1993:323. 30 Nishimura K, Hosoya R, Nakajima K. Sedimentation cytology in central nervous system leukaemia with a new simple apparatus. Br J Haem. 1978;40:583-586. 31 Tang TT, McCreadie SR. A simplified method for the cytologic study of body fluids. Am J Clin Pathol. 1973;59:113-116. 32 Barrett DL, King EB. Comparison of cellular recovery rates and morphologic detail using membrane filter and cytocentrifuge techniques. Acta Cytol. 1976;20:174-180. 33 Choi HH, Anderson P. Diagnostic cytology of cerebrospinal fluid by the cytocentrifuge method. Am J Clin Pathol. 1979;72:931-943. 34 Gondos B. Millipore filter vs. cytocentrifuge for evaluation of cerebrospinal fluid. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1986;110:687-688. 35 College of American Pathologists: Glossary of Terms for CSF and Body Fluids. In: 2003 Surveys Hematology Glossary. Chicago: College of American Pathologists; 2003. 36 Cornbleet PJ. Wright-Giemsa cytology of body fluids. Criteria for identification of malignant cells. Lab Med. 1998;29:26-31. 37 Kjeldsberg CR, Knight JA. Body Fluid: Laboratory Examination of Cerebrospinal, Seminal, Synovial and Serous Fluids: A Textbook Atlas. 3rd ed. Chicago: American Society of Clinical Pathologists Press; 1993. 38 Brown W, Keeney M, Chin-Yee I, et al. Validation of body fluid analysis on the Coulter LH750. Lab Hematol. 2003;9:155-159. 39 Aulesa C, Mainar I, Prieto M, et al. Use of the Advia 120 Hematology Analyzer in the differential cytologic analysis of biological fluids (cerebrospinal, peritoneal, pleural, pericardial, synovial, and others). Lab Hematol. 2003;9:214-224. 40 Glasser L, Payne C, Corrigan JJ Jr. The in vivo development of plasma cells: a morphologic study of human cerebrospinal fluid. Neurol. 1977;27:448-459. 41 Kjelsberg CR, Knight JA. Body Fluids: Laboratory Examination of Amniotic, Cerebrospinal, Seminal, Serous, and Synovial Fluids. 3rd ed. Chicago: American Society of Clinical Pathologists Press; 1993. 42 Oehmichen M. Cerebrospinal Fluid Cytology. An Introduction and Atlas. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company; 1976. 43 Bigner SH, Elmore PD, Dee AL, Johnston WW. The cytopathology of reactions to ventricular shunts. Acta Cytologica. 1985;29:391-396. 44 Sornas R. The cytology of normal cerebrospinal fluid. Acta Neurol Scandinav. 1972;48:313-329. 45 Condon B, Patterson JK, Wyper D, et al. A quantitative index of ventricular and extraventricular intracranial CSF volumes using MRI. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1986;10:784-792. 46 Behrman RE, Kleigman RM, Jensen HB, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 17th ed. Elsevier Science; 2004. 47 Merenstein GB, Kaplan DW, Rosenberg AA. Handbook of Pediatrics. 18th ed. Stamford, CT: Appleton and Lange; 1997:992. 48 Wadke M, Duckenfield L, Winokur P, Hyun BH. Correlation of Gram’s stain, cellular response and bacterial culture of cerebrospinal fluids. Lab Med. 1980;11:680-682. 49 Sarff LD, Platt LH, McCracken G, Jr. Cerebrospinal fluid evaluation in neonates: comparison of high-risk infants with and without meningitis. J Pedriatr. 1976;88:473-477. 50 Dyken PR. Cerebrospinal fluid cytology: practical clinical usefulness. Neurology. 1975;25:210-217. 51 Smith GP, Kjeldsberg CR. Cerebrospinal, synovial, and serous body fluids. In: Henry JB ed. Clinical Diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods. 20th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 2001:403-424. 52 Yamada S. Über die seröse flüssigkeit in der pleuralhöhle der gesunden menschen. Z Ges Exp Med. 1933;90:342-348. 53 Noppen M, Wacle M, Li R, et al. Volume and cellular content of normal pleural fluid in humans examined by pleural lavage. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:1023-1026. 54 Light RW. Pleural Diseases. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Williams; 2001:42-86. 55 Bar-Meir S, Lerner E, Conn HO. Analysis of ascitic fluid in cirrhosis. Dig Dis Sci. 1979;24:136-144. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 63 Number 20 H56-P 56 Boyer TD. Diagnosis and management of cirrhotic ascites. In: Zakim D, Boyer TD. Hepatology. 4th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 2003:631-658. 57 Rubin J, Rogers WA, Taylor HM, et al. Peritonitis during continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Ann Intern Med. 1980;92:7-13. 58 Williams P, Pantalouy D, Vas SI, et al. The value of dialysate cell count in the diagnosis of peritonitis in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Peritoneal Dialysis Bulletin. 1981;1:59-62. 59 Meyers DG, Meyers RE, Prendergast JW. The usefulness of diagnostic tests on pericardial fluid. Chest. 1997;111:1213-1221. 60 Burgess LJ, Reuter H, Taljaard JJF, Doubell AF. Role of biochemical tests in the diagnosis of large pericardial effusions. Chest. 2002;121:495-499. 61 Corey GR, Campbell PT, Van Tright PV, et al. Etiology of large pericardial effusions. Am J Med. 1993;95:209-213. 62 Brown W, Keeney M, Chin-Yee I, et al. Validation of body fluid analysis on the Coulter LH750. Lab Hematol. 2003;9:155-159. 63 Ausela C, Mainar I, Prieto M, Cobos N, Galimany R. Use of the Advia 120 hematology analyzer in the differential cytologic analysis of biological fluids (cerebrospinal, peritoneal, pleural, pericardial, synovial, and others). Lab Hematol. 2003;9:214-224. 64 European Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. Guidelines for the evaluation of analyzers in clinical chemistry. ECCLS document, Vol 3, No. 2. Berlin, Germany: Beuth Verlag; 1986. 65 Butch AW, Wah DT, Wises PK. Comparison of cerebrospinal fluid cell counting using the new flow imaging system of the iQ®200 with the traditional hemacytometer method. Clin Chem. 2005;51:A221(E-45). 66 Clayton E, Griph K, Furst-Hughes S. Comparison of serous fluid cell counting using the flow imaging system of the iQ. Clin Chem. 2005;51:A218(E-33). 67 Brown D, Brunzel N, Turner R, Bestmann L, Cappelleti P. Clinical importance of body fluid analysis and advancements in automation of urine and body fluids testing. ISW 6, IFCC. Glasgow, May 2005. 68 Clayton E, Griph K, Furst-Hughes S. Comparison of CSF cell counting using the iQ200 with the hemocytometer method. IFCC, Glasgow, May 2005 (WP7.01). 69 Butch AW, Wises PK, Wah DT. Clinical efficiency of the iQ®200 compared with hemocytometer cell counts for serous fluid. IFCC, Glasgow. May 2005 (TP4.26). 70 Phelps P, Steele AD, McCarty DJ Jr. Compensated polarized light microscopy. JAMA. 1968;203:508-512. 71 Judkins SW, Cornbleet PJ. Synovial fluid crystal analysis. Lab Med. 1997;28:774-779. 72 Yuan S, Bien C, Wener M, Simkin P, Rainey PM, Astion ML. Repeat examination of synovial fluid for crystals: is it useful? Clin Chem. 2003;49:1562-1563. 73 Fiechtner JJ, Simkin PA. Urate spherulites in gouty synovia. JAMA. 1981;245:1533-1536. 74 Lazcano O, Li CY, Pierre RV, et al. Clinical utility of the alizarin red S stain on permanent preparations to detect calcium-containing compounds in synovial fluid. Am J Clin Pathol. 1993;99:90-96. 75 McCarty DJ, Gatter RA. Recurrent acute inflammation associated with focal apatite crystal deposition. Arthritis Rheum. 1966;9:804-819. 76 Huskisson EC, Dieppe PA, Crocker P, et al. Apatite deposition disease: a new arthropathy. Lancet. 1976;1:266-269. 77 Schumacher HR, Smolyo AP, Tse RR, et al. Arthritis associated with apatite crystals. Ann Inter Med. 1977;87:411-413. 78 Kahn CB, Hollander JL, Schumacher HR. Corticosteroid crystals in synovial fluid. JAMA. 1970;211:807-809. 79 Glasser L. Reading the signs in synovia. Diag Med. 1980;35-50. 80 Hollander JL, Jessar RA, Brown EM. Intrasynovial corticosteroid therapy: a decade of use. Bull Rheum Dis. 1961;11:239-240. 81 Chandler GN, Wright V, Hartfall SJ. Intraarticular therapy in rheumatoid arthritis: comparison of hydrocortisone, tertiary-butyl-acetate and hydrocortisone acetate. Lancet. 1958;2:659-661. 82 Glasser L. The analysis of body fluids. ASCP Workshop. Chicago; 2004. 83 Dieppe PA, Crocker P, Huskisson EC, Willoughby DA. Apatite deposition disease a new arthropathy. Lancet. 1976;266-269. 84 Reynolds HY. Use of bronchoalveolar lavage in humans – Past necessity and future imperative. Lung. 2000;178:271-293. 64 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P 85 Costabel U, Guzman J. Bronchoalveolar lavage in interstitial lung disease. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2001;7:255-261. 86 Rottoli P, Bargagli E. Is bronchoalveolar lavage obsolete in the diagnosis of interstitial lung disease? Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2003;9:418-425. 87 Klech H, Hutter C, eds. Clinical guidelines and indications for bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL): Report of the European Society of Pneumology Task Group on BAL. Eur Respir J. 1990;3:937-974. 88 Klech H, Pohl W, eds. Technical recommendations and guidelines for bronchoalveolar lavage. Eur Respir J. 1989;2:561-585. 89 Dauber JH, Wagner M, Brunsvold S, Paradis IL, Ernst LA, Waggoner A. Flow cytometric analysis of lymphocyte phenotypes in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid: Comparison of a two-color technique with a standard immunoperoxidase assay. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1992;7:531-541. 90 Barry SM, Janossy G. Optimal gating strategies for determining bronchoalveolar lavage CD4/CD8 lymphocyte ratios by flow cytometry. J Immunol Methods. 2004;285:15-23. 91 Krug N, Madden J, Redington AE, et al. T-cell cytokine profile evaluated at the single cell level in BAL and blood in allergic asthma. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1996;14:319-326. 92 Agea E, Forenza N, Piattoni S, et al. Expression of B7 co-stimulatory molecules and CD1a antigen by alveolar macrophages in allergic bronchial asthma. Clin Exp Allergy. 1998;28:1359-1367. 93 ERS Task Force on bronchoalveolar lavage in children (Members of the Task Force: de Blic J, Midulla F, Barbato A, et al.) Bronchoalveolar lavage in children. Eur Respir J. 2000;15:217-231. 94 Meyer KC, Soergel P. Variation of bronchoalveolar lymphocyte phenotypes with age in the physiologically normal lung. Thorax. 1999;54:697-700. 95 Mund E, Christensson B, Larsson K, Gronneberg R. Sex dependent differences in physiological aging in the immune system of lower airways in healthy non-smoking volunteers: Study of lymphocyte subsets in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and blood. Thorax. 2001;56:450455. 96 Welker L, Jörres RA, Costabel U, Magnussen H. Predictive value of BAL cell differentials in the diagnosis of interstitial lung diseases. Eur Respir J. 2004;24:1000-1006. 97 Terstappen LW, Hollander Z, Meiners H, Loken MR. Quantitative comparison of myeloid antigens on five lineages of mature peripheral blood cells. J Leukoc Biol. 1990;48:138-148. 98 Orfao A, Schmitz G, Brando B, et al. Clinically useful information provided by the flow cytometric immunophenotyping of hematological malignancies: Current status and future directions. Clin Chem. 1999;45:1708-1717. 99 Aune MW, Becker JL, Brugnara C, et al. Automated flow cytometric analysis of blood cells in cerebrospinal fluid: Analytic performance. Am J Clin Pathol. 2004;121:690-700. 100 Van Acker JT, Delanghe JR, Langlois MR, Taes YE, De Buyzere ML, Verstraete AG. Automated flow cytometric analysis of cerebrospinal fluid. Clin Chem. 2001;47:556-560. 101 Hoffmann JJ, Janssen WC. Automated counting of cells in cerebrospinal fluid using the CellDyn-4000 haematology analyser. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2002;40:1168-1173. 102 Gratama JW, Kern F. Flow cytometric enumeration of antigen-specific T lymphocytes. Cytometry. 2004;58:79-86. 103 Thiel A, Wu P, Lauster R, Braun J, Radbruch A, Sieper J. Analysis of the antigen-specific T cell response in reactive arthritis by flow cytometry. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2000;43:2834-2842. 104 Rothe G, Klouche M. Phagocyte function. Methods Cell Biol. 2004;75:679-708. 105 Both CT, de Mattos AA, Neumann J, Reis MD. Flow cytometry in the diagnosis of peritoneal carcinomatosis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2001;96:1605-1609. 106 Häusler M, Sellhaus B, Schweizer K, Ramaekers VT, Opladen T, Kleines M. Flow cytometric cerebrospinal fluid analysis in children. Pathol Res Pract. 2003;199:667-675. 107 Davidson B, Dong HP, Berner A, et al. Detection of malignant epithelial cells in effusions using flow cytometric immunophenotyping: An analysis of 92 cases. Am J Clin Pathol. 2002;118:85-92. 108 Kleine TO, Albrecht J, Zofel P. Flow cytometry of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) lymphocytes: Alterations of blood/CSF ratios of lymphocyte subsets in inflammation disorders of human central nervous system (CNS). Clin Chem Lab Med. 1999;37:231-241. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 65 Number 20 H56-P 109 Roma AA, Garcia A, Avagnina A, Rescia C, Elsner B. Lymphoid and myeloid neoplasms involving cerebrospinal fluid: Comparison of morphological examination and immunophenotyping by flow cytometry. Diagn Cytopathol. 2002;27:271-275. 110 French CA, Dorfman DM, Shaheen G, Cibas ES. Diagnosing lymphoproliferative disorders involving the cerebrospinal fluid: Increased sensitivity using flow cytometric analysis. Diagn Cytopathol. 2000;23:369-374. 111 Kivisäkk P, Liu Z, Trebst C, et al. Flow cytometric analysis of chemokine receptor expression on cerebrospinal fluid leukocytes. Methods. 2003;29:319-325. 112 Czader M, Ali SZ. Flow cytometry as an adjunct to cytomorphologic analysis of serous effusions. Diagn Cytopathol. 2003;29:74-78. 113 Saha I, Dey P, Vhora H, Nijhawan R. Role of DNA flow cytometry and image cytometry on effusion fluid. Diagn Cytopathol. 2000;22:8185. 114 de Jonge R, Brouwer R, Smit M, et al. Automated counting of white blood cells in synovial fluid. Rheumatology. 2004;43:170-173. 115 Cao D, van Vollenhoven R, Klareskog L, Trollmo C, Malmstrom V. CD25brightCD4+ regulatory T cells are enriched in inflamed joints of patients with chronic rheumatic disease. Arthritis Res Ther. 2004;6:R335-46. 116 Subira D, Castanon S, Aceituno E, et al. Flow cytometric analysis of cerebrospinal fluid samples and its usefulness in routine clinical practice. Am J Clin Pathol. 2002;117:952-958. 117 Kappelmayer J, Gratama JW, Karaszi E, et al. Flow cytometric detection of intracellular myeloperoxidase, CD3 and CD79a. Interaction between monoclonal antibody clones, fluorochromes and sample preparation protocols. J Immunol Methods. 2000;242:53-65. 118 Mitelman F, Johansson B, Mertens F, eds. Mitelman database of chromosome aberrations in cancer. Available at: http://cgap.nci.nih.gov/Chromosomes/Mitelman. Accessed on April 4, 2005. 119 Henry JB. Clinical Diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods. Vol. 1, 16th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co; 1979:25. 120 Prosad RK, et al. Cytogenetic and histologic correlations in malignant lymphoma. Blood. 1987;69:97-102. 121 Seabright M. A rapid banding technique for human chromosomes. Lancet. 1971;2:971. 122 Mitelman F, ed. ISCN: an international system for human cytogenetic nomenclature. Basel, Switzerland: S. Karger Publishers; 1995. 123 Weier HU, Greulich-Bode KM, Ito Y, Lersch RA, Fung J. FISH in cancer diagnosis and prognostication: From cause to course of disease. Expert Rev Mol Diagn. 2002;2:109-119. 66 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P Appendix A. Reagent Formulations A1. Buffered Saline Phosphate Buffered Saline, pH 7.2 - Na2HPO4 dibasic sodium phosphate, anhydrous - NaH2PO4 monobasic sodium phosphate, monohydrate - NaCl sodium chloride - Add deionized water up to 1 L. Tris Buffered Saline, pH 7.6 - TRIS base trishydroxymethyl aminomethane Dissolve in deionized water. - 1 N HCl 1 N hydrochloric acid - Dilute to a total volume of 1 L in deionized water. - Adjust pH as needed to pH 7.6 ± 0.2 at 25 °C. 6.8 g 2.6 g 8.0 g 6.10 g 500 mL 37 mL A2. General Fixative for Immunocytology - 50 mL of absolute (100%) ethanol - 5 mL of 40% (w/v) solution of polyethylene glycol in deionized water - 5 mL of formalin from 37% formaldehyde stock - 40 mL of deionized water A3. Permeabilization/Retrieval Reagent - 1.92 g citric acid, anhydrous - Dissolve in 900 mL deionized H2O. - 0.1% nonionic detergent (e.g., octylphenoxy polyethoxyethanol) - pH to 6.0 with concentrated NaOH - Bring up to 1000 mL with deionized H2O. A4. Antibody Diluent - buffered saline - 1% bovine serum albumen - 0.1% sodium azide - pH to 7.2 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 67 Number 20 H56-P Appendix B. Interpretation of Cell Types Table B1. Interpretation of Cerebrospinal Fluid Cell Types Cell Type Condition Neutrophils Infectious: bacterial, tuberculous, fungal, early viral Eosinophils (>10%) Basophils Lymphocytes Monocytes Noninfectious (modest increases): hemorrhage, intrathecal injections, infarction Infectious: parasites, C. immitis Noninfectious: lymphoma, leukemia, ventricular peritoneal shunts, blood contamination Rare, nonspecific, occasional cases of lymphoma Infectious: viral, tuberculous, fungal; partially treated bacterial meningitis Noninfectious: multiple sclerosis, neurosyphilis, cerebral neoplasmas, lymphoproliferative disorders (e.g., lymphoma) Infectious: tuberculous, fungal Noninfectious: nonspecific response to mass lesions (e.g., tumor) Macrophages erythrophage, siderophage lipophage Plasma cells Blasts Immature granulocytes and/or erythroblasts Neoplastic cells Indicators of pathologic bleed if no previous tap Parenchymatous destructive process Indicator of antigenic stimulation of Blymphocytes, seen in a variety of conditions (e.g., multiple sclerosis, viral meningoencephalitis, cysticercosis, syphilis) Rarely seen in plasma cell myeloma Hematopoietic malignancies (e.g., precursor Bor T-cell lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma, Burkitt’s (B-ALL) lymphoma/leukemia, acute myeloid leukemias) Bone marrow contamination Primary CNS tumors (15% have positive cytology) Metastatic tumors (20% positive if cerebral parenchyma involved, 50% if meninges involved) 68 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P Appendix B. (Continued) Table B2. Interpretation of Pleural Fluid Cell Types Cell Type Condition Neutrophilia (>50% PMN) Acute inflammation (e.g., parapneumonic effusion) Eosinophilia (>10%) Pneumothorax, pulmonary emboli, traumatic hemothorax, reaction to chest tubes, parasitic diseases, Churg-Strauss syndrome Lymphocytosis (>50%) Transudates, tuberculosis, carcinoma, coronary artery bypass surgery, lymphoproliferative disorders, chylous effusions Monocytes/Macrophages Limited diagnostic significance, erythrophages and siderophages are useful in distinguishing pathologic fluids from traumatic taps. Blasts Hematopoietic malignancies Plasma cells Reactive conditions, plasma cell myeloma (rare) Mesothelial cells Normal constituent (≥5%), markedly decreased in tuberculous effusions (<0.1%) NOTE: They must be distinguished from tumor cells. Neoplastic cells from solid tumors Metastatic carcinoma, etc. Miscellaneous Systemic lupus erythematosis LE-cells Reed-Sternberg cells Hodgkin’s disease Megakaryocytes Myeloproliferative disorders © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 69 Number 20 H56-P Appendix B. (Continued) Table B3. Pathologic Classification of Synovial Fluids Test Normal Group I Group II Noninflammatory Inflammatory Group III Septic Group IV Hemorrhagic Color Pale yellow Yellow Yellow-white Yellow-green Red-brown Viscosity High High Low Low Decreased Mucin Clot Firm Firm Friable Friable Friable Leukocyte count (cells µL) <200 200-2000 2000-100 000 10 000->100 000 >5000 % Neutrophils <25 <25 >50 >75 >25 Glucose (mg/dL) ~Blood ~Blood >25 mg/dL lower than blood >25 mg/dL lower than blood ~Blood Culture Negative Negative Negative Often positive Negative 70 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P NOTES © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 71 Number 20 H56-P The Quality System Approach Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) subscribes to a quality management system approach in the development of standards and guidelines, which facilitates project management; defines a document structure via a template; and provides a process to identify needed documents. The approach is based on the model presented in the most current edition of CLSI/NCCLS document HS1—A Quality Management System Model for Health Care. The quality management system approach applies a core set of “quality system essentials” (QSEs), basic to any organization, to all operations in any healthcare service’s path of workflow (i.e., operational aspects that define how a particular product or service is provided). The QSEs provide the framework for delivery of any type of product or service, serving as a manager’s guide. The quality system essentials (QSEs) are: Documents & Records Organization Personnel Equipment Purchasing & Inventory Process Control Information Management Occurrence Management Assessment Process Improvement Service & Satisfaction Facilities & Safety GP2 GP21 X EP5 EP6 EP9 GP29 Facilities & Safety Service & Satisfaction Process Improvement Assessment Occurrence Management Information Management Process Control Purchasing & Inventory Equipment Personnel Organization Documents & Records H56-P addresses the quality system essentials (QSEs) indicated by an “X.” For a description of the other documents listed in the grid, please refer to the Related CLSI/NCCLS Publications section on the following page. GP27 Adapted from CLSI/NCCLS document HS1—A Quality Management System Model for Health Care. Path of Workflow A path of workflow is the description of the necessary steps to deliver the particular product or service that the organization or entity provides. For example, CLSI/NCCLS document GP26⎯Application of a Quality Management System Model for Laboratory Services defines a clinical laboratory path of workflow which consists of three sequential processes: preexamination, examination, and postexamination. All clinical laboratories follow these processes to deliver the laboratory’s services, namely quality laboratory information. H56-P addresses the clinical laboratory path of workflow steps indicated by an “X.” For a description of the other documents listed in the grid, please refer to the Related CLSI/NCCLS Publications section on the following page. X Post-test Specimen Management X GP16 Postexamination Results Report X Laboratory Interpretation Specimen Receipt X Testing Review Specimen Transport Examination Specimen Collection Test Request Patient Assessment Preexamination X Adapted from CLSI/NCCLS document HS1—A Quality Management System Model for Health Care. 72 © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. Volume 25 H56-P Related CLSI/NCCLS Publications* EP5-A2 Evaluation of Precision Performance of Quantitative Measurement Methods; Approved Second Edition (2004). This document provides guidance for designing an experiment to precision performance of quantitative measurement methods; recommendations on comparing precision estimates with manufacturers’ precision performance claims and determining comparisons are valid; as well as manufacturers’ guidelines for establishing claims. Guideline— evaluate the the resulting when such EP6-A Evaluation of the Linearity of Quantitative Measurement Procedures: A Statistical Approach; Approved Guideline (2003). This document provides guidance for characterizing the linearity of a method during a method evaluation; for checking linearity as part of routine quality assurance; and for determining and stating a manufacturer’s claim for linear range. EP9-A2 Method Comparison and Bias Estimation Using Patient Samples; Approved Guideline—Second Edition (2002). This document addresses procedures for determining the bias between two clinical methods, and the design of a method comparison experiment using split patient samples and data analysis. GP2-A4 Clinical Laboratory Technical Procedure Manuals; Approved Guideline—Fourth Edition (2002). This document provides guidance on development, review, approval, management, and use of policy, process, and procedure documents in the laboratory testing community. GP16-A2 Urinalysis and Collection, Transportation, and Preservation of Urine Specimens; Approved Guideline—Second Edition (2001). This guideline describes routine urinalysis test procedures that address materials and equipment, macroscopic examinations, clinical analyses, and microscopic evaluations. GP21-A Training and Competence Assessment; Approved Guideline—Second Edition (2004). This document provides background information and recommended processes for the development of training and competence assessment programs that meet quality/regulatory objectives. GP27-A Using Proficiency Testing (PT) to Improve the Clinical Laboratory; Approved Guideline (1999). This guideline provides assistance to laboratories in using proficiency testing as a quality improvement tool. GP29-A Assessment of Laboratory Tests When Proficiency Testing is Not Available; Approved Guideline (2002). This document offers methods to assess test performance when proficiency testing (PT) is not available; these methods include examples with statistical analyses. This document is intended for use by laboratory managers and testing personnel in traditional clinical laboratories as well as in point-of-care and bedside testing environments. * Proposed-level documents are being advanced through the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute consensus process; therefore, readers should refer to the most recent editions. © Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. All rights reserved. 73 Active Membership (as of 1 July 2005) Sustaining Members Abbott Laboratories American Association for Clinical Chemistry Bayer Corporation BD Beckman Coulter, Inc. bioMérieux, Inc. CLMA College of American Pathologists GlaxoSmithKline Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics, Inc. Pfizer Inc Roche Diagnostics, Inc. Professional Members American Academy of Family Physicians American Association for Clinical Chemistry American Association for Respiratory Care American Chemical Society American Medical Technologists American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science American Society for Microbiology American Society of Hematology American Type Culture Collection, Inc. Assn. of Public Health Laboratories Assoc. Micro. Clinici ItalianiA.M.C.L.I. British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy Canadian Society for Medical Laboratory Science - Société Canadienne de Science de Laboratoire Médical Canadian Standards Association Clinical Laboratory Management Association COLA College of American Pathologists College of Medical Laboratory Technologists of Ontario College of Physicians and Surgeons of Saskatchewan ESCMID International Council for Standardization in Haematology International Federation of Biomedical Laboratory Science International Federation of Clinical Chemistry Italian Society of Clinical Biochemistry and Clinical Molecular Biology Japanese Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry National Association of Testing Authorities - Australia National Society for Histotechnology, Inc. Ontario Medical Association Quality Management Program-Laboratory Service RCPA Quality Assurance Programs PTY Limited Sociedad Espanola de Bioquimica Clinica y Patologia Molecular Sociedade Brasileira de Analises Clinicas Taiwanese Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (TCCLS) Turkish Society of Microbiology Government Members Armed Forces Institute of Pathology Association of Public Health Laboratories BC Centre for Disease Control Caribbean Epidemiology Centre Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services/CLIA Program Chinese Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Bureau of Laboratories Department of Veterans Affairs Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN) FDA Center for Devices and Radiological Health FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine FDA Division of Anti-Infective Drug Products Iowa State Hygienic Laboratory Maryland Dept. of Health & Mental Hygiene Massachusetts Department of Public Health Laboratories National Center of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases (Bulgaria) National Health Laboratory Service (South Africa) National Institute of Standards and Technology National Pathology Accreditation Advisory Council (Australia) New York State Department of Health Ontario Ministry of Health Pennsylvania Dept. of Health Saskatchewan Health-Provincial Laboratory Scientific Institute of Public Health; Belgium Ministry of Social Affairs, Public Health and the Environment Industry Members AB Biodisk Abbott Diabetes Care Abbott Laboratories Acrometrix Corporation Advancis Pharmaceutical Corporation Affymetrix, Inc. Ammirati Regulatory Consulting Anna Longwell, PC A/S ROSCO AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals Axis-Shield POC AS Bayer Corporation - Elkhart, IN Bayer Corporation - Tarrytown, NY Bayer Corporation - West Haven, CT BD BD Diabetes Care BD Diagnostic Systems BD VACUTAINER Systems Beckman Coulter, Inc. Beckman Coulter K.K. (Japan) Bio-Development S.r.l. Bio-Inova Life Sciences International Biomedia Laboratories SDN BHD bioMérieux, Inc. (MO) Biometrology Consultants Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc. Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc. – France Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc. – Plano, TX Blaine Healthcare Associates, Inc. Bristol-Myers Squibb Company Cepheid Chen & Chen, LLC Chi Solutions, Inc Chiron Corporation The Clinical Microbiology Institute Comprehensive Cytometric Consulting Copan Diagnostics Inc. Cosmetic Ingredient Review Cubist Pharmaceuticals Cumbre Inc. Dade Behring Inc. - Cupertino, CA Dade Behring Inc. - Deerfield, IL Dade Behring Inc. - Glasgow, DE Dade Behring Inc. - Marburg, Germany Dade Behring Inc. - Sacramento, CA David G. Rhoads Associates, Inc. Diagnostic Products Corporation Digene Corporation Eiken Chemical Company, Ltd. Elanco Animal Health Electa Lab s.r.l. Enterprise Analysis Corporation F. Hoffman-La Roche AG Gavron Group, Inc. Gen-Probe Genzyme Diagnostics GlaxoSmithKline Greiner Bio-One Inc. Immunicon Corporation Instrumentation Laboratory International Technidyne Corporation I-STAT Corporation Johnson and Johnson Pharmaceutical Research and Development, L.L.C. K.C.J. Enterprises LabNow, Inc. LifeScan, Inc. (a Johnson & Johnson Company) Medical Device Consultants, Inc. Merck & Company, Inc. Micromyx, LLC National Pathology Accreditation Advisory Council (Australia) Nippon Becton Dickinson Co., Ltd. Nissui Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research Olympus America, Inc. Optimer Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics, Inc. (Rochester, NY) Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical (Raritan, NJ) Oxoid Inc. Paratek Pharmaceuticals Pfizer Animal Health Pfizer Inc Powers Consulting Services Predicant Biosciences Procter & Gamble Pharmaceuticals, Inc. QSE Consulting Radiometer America, Inc. Radiometer Medical A/S Reliance Life Sciences Replidyne Roche Diagnostics GmbH Roche Diagnostics, Inc. Roche Diagnostics Shanghai Ltd. Roche Laboratories (Div. HoffmannLa Roche Inc.) Roche Molecular Systems Sanofi Pasteur Sarstedt, Inc. Schering Corporation Schleicher & Schuell, Inc. SFBC Anapharm Streck Laboratories, Inc. SYN X Pharma Inc. Sysmex Corporation (Japan) Sysmex Corporation (Long Grove, IL) TheraDoc Theravance Inc. Thrombodyne, Inc. THYMED GmbH Transasia Engineers Trek Diagnostic Systems, Inc. Vicuron Pharmaceuticals Inc. Wyeth Research XDX, Inc. YD Consultant YD Diagnostics (Seoul, Korea) Trade Associations AdvaMed Japan Association of Clinical Reagents Industries (Tokyo, Japan) Associate Active Members 82 MDG/SGSCL (Sheppard AFB,TX) Academisch Ziekenhuis -VUB (Belgium) ACL Laboratories (WI) All Children’s Hospital (FL) Allegheny General Hospital (PA) Allina Health System (MN) American University of Beirut Medical Center (NY) Anne Arundel Medical Center (MD) Antwerp University Hospital (Belgium) Arkansas Department of Health Associated Regional & University Pathologists (UT) Atlantic Health System (NJ) AZ Sint-Jan (Belgium) Azienda Ospedale Di Lecco (Italy) Barnes-Jewish Hospital (MO) Baxter Regional Medical Center (AR) Baystate Medical Center (MA) Bbaguas Duzen Laboratories (Turkey) BC Biomedical Laboratories (Surrey, BC, Canada) Bo Ali Hospital (Iran) Bon Secours Hospital (Ireland) Brazosport Memorial Hospital (TX) Broward General Medical Center (FL) Cadham Provincial Laboratory (Winnipeg, MB, Canada) Calgary Laboratory Services (Calgary, AB, Canada) California Pacific Medical Center Cambridge Memorial Hospital (Cambridge, ON, Canada) Canterbury Health Laboratories (New Zealand) Cape Breton Healthcare Complex (Nova Scotia, Canada) Carilion Consolidated Laboratory (VA) Carolinas Medical Center (NC) Cathay General Hospital (Taiwan) Central Laboratory for Veterinarians (BC, Canada) Central Ohio Primary Care Physicians Central Texas Veterans Health Care System Centro Diagnostico Italiano (Milano, Italy) Chang Gung Memorial Hospital (Taiwan) Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta (GA) Children’s Hospital (NE) Children’s Hospital Central California Children’s Hospital & Clinics (MN) Childrens Hospital of Wisconsin Children’s Hospital Medical Center (Akron, OH) Chinese Association of Advanced Blood Bankers (Beijing) Christus St. John Hospital (TX) City of Hope National Medical Center (CA) Clarian Health - Methodist Hospital (IN) CLSI Laboratories (PA) Community College of Rhode Island Community Hospital of Lancaster (PA) Community Hospital of the Monterey Peninsula (CA) CompuNet Clinical Laboratories (OH) Covance Central Laboratory Services (IN) Creighton University Medical Center (NE) Detroit Health Department (MI) DFS/CLIA Certification (NC) Diagnostic Accreditation Program (Vancouver, BC, Canada) Diagnósticos da América S/A (Brazil) Dianon Systems (OK) Dr. Everett Chalmers Hospital (New Brunswick, Canada) Duke University Medical Center (NC) Dwight David Eisenhower Army Medical Center (GA) Emory University Hospital (GA) Enzo Clinical Labs (NY) Florida Hospital East Orlando Focus Technologies (CA) Focus Technologies (VA) Foothills Hospital (Calgary, AB, Canada) Franciscan Shared Laboratory (WI) Fresno Community Hospital and Medical Center Gamma Dynacare Medical Laboratories (Ontario, Canada) Gateway Medical Center (TN) Geisinger Medical Center (PA) General Health System (LA) Guthrie Clinic Laboratories (PA) Hagerstown Medical Laboratory (MD) Harris Methodist Fort Worth (TX) Hartford Hospital (CT) Headwaters Health Authority (Alberta, Canada) Health Network Lab (PA) Health Partners Laboratories (VA) High Desert Health System (CA) Highlands Regional Medical Center (FL) Hoag Memorial Hospital Presbyterian (CA) Holy Cross Hospital (MD) Hôpital Maisonneuve - Rosemont (Montreal, Canada) Hôpital Saint-Luc (Montreal, Quebec, Canada) Hospital Consolidated Laboratories (MI) Hospital de Sousa Martins (Portugal) Hospital for Sick Children (Toronto, ON, Canada) Hotel Dieu Grace Hospital (Windsor, ON, Canada) Huddinge University Hospital (Sweden) Humility of Mary Health Partners (OH) Hunter Area Health Service (Australia) Hunterdon Medical Center (NJ) Indiana University Innova Fairfax Hospital (VA) Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science (Australia) International Health Management Associates, Inc. (IL) Jackson Health System (FL) Jacobi Medical Center (NY) John H. Stroger, Jr. Hospital of Cook County (IL) Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions (MD) Kaiser Permanente (MD) Kantonsspital (Switzerland) Kimball Medical Center (NJ) King Abdulaziz Medical City – Jeddah (Saudi Arabia) King Faisal Specialist Hospital (Saudi Arabia) LabCorp (NC) Laboratoire de Santé Publique du Quebec (Canada) Laboratorio Dr. Echevarne (Spain) Laboratório Fleury S/C Ltda. (Brazil) Laboratorio Manlab (Argentina) Laboratory Corporation of America (NJ) Lakeland Regional Medical Center (FL) Lawrence General Hospital (MA) Lewis-Gale Medical Center (VA) L'Hotel-Dieu de Quebec (Canada) Libero Instituto Univ. Campus BioMedico (Italy) Lindy Boggs Medical Center (LA) Loma Linda Mercantile (CA) Long Beach Memorial Medical Center (CA) Long Island Jewish Medical Center (NY) Los Angeles County Public Health Lab (CA) Maimonides Medical Center (NY) Marion County Health Department (IN) Martin Luther King/Drew Medical Center (CA) Massachusetts General Hospital (Microbiology Laboratory) MDS Metro Laboratory Services (Burnaby, BC, Canada) Medical Centre Ljubljana (Slovinia) Medical College of Virginia Hospital Medical Research Laboratories International (KY) Medical University of South Carolina Memorial Medical Center (Napoleon Avenue, New Orleans, LA) Methodist Hospital (Houston, TX) Methodist Hospital (San Antonio, TX) Middlesex Hospital (CT) Montreal Children’s Hospital (Canada) Montreal General Hospital (Canada) National Healthcare Group (Singapore) National Serology Reference Laboratory (Australia) NB Department of Health & Wellness (New Brunswick, Canada) The Nebraska Medical Center Nevada Cancer Institute New Britain General Hospital (CT) New England Fertility Institute (CT) New York City Department of Health & Mental Hygiene NorDx (ME) North Carolina State Laboratory of Public Health North Central Medical Center (TX) North Coast Clinical Laboratory (OH) North Shore - Long Island Jewish Health System Laboratories (NY) North Shore University Hospital (NY) Northern Plains Laboratory (ND) Northwestern Memorial Hospital (IL) Ochsner Clinic Foundation (LA) Onze Lieve Vrouw Ziekenhuis (Belgium) Orlando Regional Healthcare System (FL) Ospedali Riuniti (Italy) The Ottawa Hospital (Ottawa, ON, Canada) Our Lady of the Resurrection Medical Center (IL) Pathology and Cytology Laboratories, Inc. (KY) Pathology Associates Medical Laboratories (WA) Phoenix College (AZ) Piedmont Hospital (GA) Presbyterian Hospital of Dallas (TX) Providence Health Care (Vancouver, BC, Canada) Provincial Laboratory for Public Health (Edmonton, AB, Canada) Quest Diagnostics Incorporated (CA) Quintiles Laboratories, Ltd. (GA) Regional Health Authority Four (NB, Canada) Regions Hospital Rex Healthcare (NC) Rhode Island Department of Health Laboratories Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital (NJ) Sahlgrenska Universitetssjukhuset (Sweden) St. Alexius Medical Center (ND) St. Agnes Healthcare (MD) St. Anthony Hospital (CO) St. Anthony’s Hospital (FL) St. Barnabas Medical Center (NJ) St. Christopher’s Hospital for Children (PA) St-Eustache Hospital (Quebec, Canada) St. John Hospital and Medical Center (MI) St. John Regional Hospital (St. John, NB, Canada) St. John’s Hospital & Health Center (CA) St. Joseph’s Hospital – Marshfield Clinic (WI) St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital (TN) St. Mary Medical Center (CA) St. Mary of the Plains Hospital (TX) St. Michael’s Hospital (Toronto, ON, Canada) St. Vincent’s University Hospital (Ireland) Ste. Justine Hospital (Montreal, PQ, Canada) San Francisco General Hospital (CA) Santa Clara Valley Medical Center (CA) Seoul Nat’l University Hospital (Korea) Shands at the University of Florida South Bend Medical Foundation (IN) South Western Area Pathology Service (Australia) Southern Maine Medical Center Specialty Laboratories, Inc. (CA) State of Connecticut Dept. of Public Health State of Washington Department of Health Stony Brook University Hospital (NY) Stormont-Vail Regional Medical Center (KS) Sun Health-Boswell Hospital (AZ) Sunnybrook Health Science Center (ON, Canada) Sunrise Hospital and Medical Center (NV) Swedish Medical Center Providence Campus (WA) OFFICERS Thomas L. Hearn, PhD, President Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Robert L. Habig, PhD, President Elect Abbott Laboratories Wayne Brinster, Secretary BD Gerald A. Hoeltge, MD, Treasurer The Cleveland Clinic Foundation Donna M. Meyer, PhD, Immediate Past President CHRISTUS Health Glen Fine, MS, MBA, Executive Vice President Tenet Odessa Regional Hospital (TX) The Children’s University Hospital (Ireland) The Permanente Medical Group (CA) Touro Infirmary (LA) Tri-Cities Laboratory (WA) Tripler Army Medical Center (HI) Truman Medical Center (MO) Tuen Mun Hospital (Hong Kong) UCLA Medical Center (CA) UCSF Medical Center (CA) UNC Hospitals (NC) Unidad de Patologia Clinica (Mexico) Union Clinical Laboratory (Taiwan) United Laboratories Company (Kuwait) Universita Campus Bio-Medico (Italy) University of Chicago Hospitals (IL) University of Colorado Hospital University of Debrecen Medical Health and Science Center (Hungary) University of Maryland Medical System University of Medicine & Dentistry, NJ University Hospital University of MN Medical Center Fairview University of the Ryukyus (Japan) The University of the West Indies University of Virginia Medical Center University of Washington US LABS, Inc. (CA) USA MEDDAC-AK UZ-KUL Medical Center (Belgium) VA (Tuskegee) Medical Center (AL) Virginia Beach General Hospital (VA) Virginia Department of Health Washington Adventist Hospital (MD) Washington State Public Health Laboratory Washoe Medical Center Laboratory (NV) Wellstar Health Systems (GA) West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University (P.R. China) West Jefferson Medical Center (LA) Wilford Hall Medical Center (TX) William Beaumont Army Medical Center (TX) William Beaumont Hospital (MI) Winn Army Community Hospital (GA) Winnipeg Regional Health Authority (Winnipeg, Canada) York Hospital (PA) BOARD OF DIRECTORS Susan Blonshine, RRT, RPFT, FAARC TechEd J. Stephen Kroger, MD, MACP COLA Maria Carballo Health Canada Jeannie Miller, RN, MPH Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services Kurt H. Davis, FCSMLS, CAE Canadian Society for Medical Laboratory Science Gary L. Myers, PhD Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Russel K. Enns, PhD Cepheid Klaus E. Stinshoff, Dr.rer.nat. Digene (Switzerland) Sàrl Mary Lou Gantzer, PhD Dade Behring Inc. James A. Thomas ASTM International Lillian J. Gill, DPA FDA Center for Devices and Radiological Health Kiyoaki Watanabe, MD Keio University School of Medicine 940 West Valley Road T Suite 1400 T Wayne, PA 19087 T USA T PHONE 610.688.0100 FAX 610.688.0700 T E-MAIL: customerservice@clsi.org T WEBSITE: www.clsi.org T ISBN 1-56238-575-5