00059 Bruce The Canon of Scripture

other Works by F. E Bruce
THE BOOKS AND THE PARCHMENTS
THE SPREADING FLAME
TRADITION OLD AND NEW
NEW’ TESTAMENT HISTORY
PAUL: APOSTLE OF THE HEART SET FREE
JESLJS AND CHRISTIAN ORIGINS OUTSIDE THE NEW TESTAMENT
THE NEW TESTAMENT DOCUMENTS
THE HARD SAYINGS OF JESUS
ISRAEL AND THE NATIONS
JESUS: LORD 8s SAVIOR
SCR
OF
EEBRUCE
hTERh'hRSITY PRESS
DO~E~GROVE.IUINOlS60515
TO THE DEPARTMENTS
OF HUMANITY AND GREEK
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN
FOUNDED 1497
@1988F F Bruce
Published in the United States of America b InterVarsity Press, Downers &we, Illinois, with
permission from Chapter House Ltd., Glasgow, Scotland
AU rights resened No part of this kook may be reproduced in any form without u&ten
permission from lnterVars@ Press, P.O. Bwr 14W, Downers Grove, U 60515.
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Dlsh-ibuted in Canaah through InterVarxity Prw 860 Denison St., Unit 3, Markham, Ontario
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The Scripture quotations contained herein are from the ReuFted Standard Version of tbe Bible,
copvri@ed 1946, 1952, 1971 @the Ditiion of Christian Education of the National Council of
the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A and used bypermission. All ngh& reserued
Cowr iihcrhation: Jerry TiritiUi
ISBN 0 8308 12588-X
Printed in the United States of America
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WITH GRATITUDE FOR THE PAST
AND WITH HOPE
OF THEIR EARLY AND VIGOROUS RESURRECTION
-
CONTENTS
Preface 9
Abbreviations 11
PART ONE:
1
INTRODUCTION 15
17
HOLY SCRIPTURE
PART
TWO:
OLD TESTAMENT
25
THE LAW AND THE PROPHETS
THE GREEK OLD TESTAMENT
THE OLD TESTAMENT BECOMES A NEW BOOK
27
43
55
THE CHRISTIAN CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT:
A. IN THE EAST
6
THE CHRISTIAN CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT:
7
BEFORE AND AFTER THE REFORMATION
B. IN THE LATIN WEST
PART THREE:
83
98
NEW TESTAMENT 115
8
WRITINGS OF THE NEW ERA
9
MARCION
10
11
68
VALENTINUS AND HIS SCHOOL
THE CATHOLIC RESPONSE
117
134
145
150
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
THE MURATORIAN FRAGMENT
IRENAEUS,
HIPPOLYTUS,
NOVATIAN
TERTULLIAN, CYPRIAN AND OTHERS
THE ALEXANDRIAN FATHERS
EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA
ATHANASIUS AND AFTER
THE WEST IN THE FOURTH CENTURY TO JEROME
AUGUSTINE TO THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES
THE NEW TESTAMENT CANON IN THE AGE
241
OF PRINTING
PART FOUR:
21
22
23
158
170
180
186
197
208
216
230
CONCLUSION 253
CRITERIA OF CANONICITY
A CANON WITHIN THE CANON?
CANON, CRITICISM AND INTERPRETATION
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
THE ‘SECRET’ GOSPEL OF MARK
PRIMARY SENSE AND PLENARY SENSE
Bibliography 335
Index 339
255
270
284
298
316
PREFACE
When I taught in the University of Manchester I lectured in alternate
years on the Text and Canon of the Old Testament and the Text and
Canon of the New Testament. My lectures on the text, I hope, served
the needs of the students who listened to them, but they do not call for
further publication. The subject-matter of my lectures on the canon,
however, has continued to engage my attention, as regards both its
historical aspect and its relevance today.
It will be plain in what follows that I am more concerned about the
New Testament canon than about the Old Testament canon. The
collapse of the century-old consensus on the Old Testament canonnamely, that the process of canonization is indicated by the traditional
threefold division of books in the Hebrew Bible-has been underlined
in two important works of recent date: Roger Beckwith’s The Old
Testament Canon of the New Testament Church andJohn Barton’s Oracles of
God. Attacks have been made on the consensus on the New Testament
canon-namely, that its main structure was substantially fixed by the
end of the second century. It continues to stand, however, because it is
supported by weighty evidence, as is shown in Bruce Metzger’s
magnificent work on The Canon oftbe New Testament. When a consensus
is attacked, it has to be carefully reassessed, and that is all to the good:
rhere is no point in pretending that we know more than we do.
With works like those mentioned now available, it may be asked,
9
_ ‘___.~ __“,,,___,“________ . .____,.___
_,_,____“_l_~_-__“,_.__-‘-..-
._... ~.“~~_~1_I_““_____I_----.~~-I.I”.-”----”.”--~----“.“X
PR E F A C E
what need is there for this book? Perhaps the author needs to get it out
of his system, but it may justify its appearance as an attempt to
communicate the present state of knowledge to a wider public.
I am most grateful to the University of London for permission to
reproduce my Ethel M. Wood Lecture (1974) as Appendix 1, and to
the Eporth Review and its editor, the Revd John Stacey, for permission
to reproduce my A. S. Peake Memorial Lecture (1976) as Appendix 2.
My first introduction to this subject was effected through the
original edition of The Text and Canon of the New Testament, by my
revered teacher Alexander Souter, Regius Professor of Humanity in
the University of Aberdeen. My indebtedness to him and to the
Department over which he presided with high distinction, together
with its sister Department ofGreek, is acknowledged in the dedication.
ABBREVIATIONS
F.F.B.
GENERAL
ANF
AV/KJV
BJRL
CSQ
CHB
Cod(d).
CSEL
I1B
IXB
The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Eerdmans)
Authorized/King James Version (I6 11)
Bulletin
of the John Rylands (Unizlersity) Library
Catholic Biblical Quarterly
Cambridge HiJtoty of the Bible, I-III (Cambridge,
1963-70)
Codex (Codices)
Corpus Scriptorurn Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum (Vienna)
Dictionary ofthe Bible, I-IV, ed. W. Smith (London, ‘1893)
Dictionary of Christian Biography, I-IV, ed. W. Smith
and H. Wace (London, 1877-87)
EQ
Ezjangelical Quarterly
E.T.
English translation
Forschungen zur Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons,
FGNTK
I-IX, ed. T. Zahn (Leipzig, 188 I- 1929)
Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller (Berlin)
EAejiastical History (Eusebius, !&omen)
Haward Theological Re~ieu~
Journal of Bib&al Literature
Jonmal of Bible and Religion
jwrnal o~Thn,lo~zl-al Studie.,
Septuagint (pre-Chris< ian Greek version of OT)
Martyn /,/Pale.rtim (Eusebius)
manuscript(s)
I1
IO
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
Masoretic text (of Hebrew Bible)
New Century Bible
New English Bible (1961, 1970)
NEB
New International Greek Testament Commentary
NIGTC
New International Version (1978)
NIV
NovT Sup Supplement(s) to Nouum Testamenturn
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (Eerdmans)
NPNF
new series
n.s.
New Testament
NT
Nruj Testament Studies
NTS
Old Testament
OT
Patmhgia Gvaeca (ed. J.-P. Migne)
PG
Patrologia Latina (ed. J.-P. Migne)
PL
Revised Standard Version (1952, 197 1)
RSV
Stromateis (Miscellanies), by Clement of Alexandria
Stlvnf.
Supplement(s)
sup.
II& rwahuh = ‘under the word’
9.1’.
Babylonian Talmud
TB
MT
NCB
TDNT
TNTC
TS
TU
UCCF
VTSup
ZNW
ZTK
Tbeolo~ical Dictionary nfthe New Testament, I-X, ed. G. Kittel
and G. Friedrich, E. T. by G. W. Bromiley
(Eerdmans, 1964-76)
Tyndale New Testament Commentaries
Texts and Studies (Cambridge University Press)
Texte und Untersuchuqen
Universities and Colleges Christian Fellowship
Supplement(s) to Vrtns Testamentum
Zeitschrift fiir die neutestamentkhe Wissensrbaft
Zeitscbrift fi;r Tbenlogie und Kircbe
MANUSCRIPTS
A
Aleph
B
$
G”
Codex
Codex
Codex
Codex
Alexandrinus (in British Museum, London)
Sinaiticus (in British Museum, London)
Vaticanus (in Vatican Library, Rome)
Bezae (in Cambridge University Library)
Codex Claromontanus (in Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris)
Codex Boernerianus (in Sgchsische Landesbibliothek,
Chester Bcarty papyrus codex of Gospels and Acts
<Ihester Bcatty papyrus codex of Pauline epistles
and Hebrews
<Ilester Bcatry papyrus codcx of Revelation
I.?
ABBREVIATIONS
P=
P 72
P’5
P. Fouad 266
P. oxy.
P. Ryl. 458
Rylands Library papyrus fragment of John 18
Bodmer papyrus codex of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude
Bodmer papyrus codex of Luke and John
Cairo papyrus fragment ofDeut. 3 1-32 ( LXX)
Oxyrhynchus Papyri
Rylands Libary papyrus fragment of Deut. 23-28 ( LXX)
Qumran: a number preceding Q indicates the numbered
Q
cave in which the MS was found
4Qflorilegium Biblical anthology from Qumran Cave 4
~QLXX Lva
Fragment of Leviticus (LXX) from Qumran Cave 4
~QLXX Lvb
Another fragment of Leviticus (LXX) from Qumran Cave 4
~QLXX Num Fragment of Numbers (LXX) from Qumran Cave 4
~QLXX Ex
Fragment of Exodus (LXX) from Qumran Cave 7
~QLXX Ep Jer Fragment of Letter of Jeremiah from Qumran Cave 7
CD
Book of the Covenant of Damascus (two main MSS in
Cairo; some fragments from Qumran Cave 4)
8Ijev XII gr MS of Minor Prophets in Greek from Wadi Ijever
PART ONE
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER
ONE
HOLY SCRIPTURE
THE
WORD
‘CANON’
When we speak of the canon of scripture, the word ‘canon’ has a simple
meaning. It means the list of books contained in scripture, the list of
books recognized as worthy to be included in the sacred writings of a
worshipping community. In a Christian context, we might define the
word as ‘the list of the writings acknowledged by the Church as
documents of the divine revelation.” In this sense the word appears to
have been first used by Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, in a letter
circulated in AD 367.’
The word ‘canon’ has come into our language (through Latin) from
the Greek word kancn. 3 In Greek it meant a rod, especially a straight
rod used as a rule; from this usage comes the other meaning which the
word commonly bears in English- ‘rule’ or ‘standard’. We speak, for
example, of the ‘canons’ or rules of the Church of England. But a
straight rod used as a rule might be marked in units of length (like a
modern ruler marked in inches or centimetres); from this practice the
’ R. P. C. Hanson, Origen’s Doctrine o/Tradition (London, 1954), pp.93, 133; rfhis
Tradition in the Early Church (London, 1962), p.247.
z See pp.71,78,79, 208f.
3 The Greek word was probably borrowed from the Semitic word which appears in
Hebrew as q&eh, ‘reed, ‘rod’. From the same origin come Latin cunna and Eng. ‘cane’.
I7
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
HOLY SCRIPTURE
Greek word kanzn came to be used of the series of such marks, and
hence to be used in the general sense of ‘series’ or ‘list’. It is this last
usage that underlies the term ‘the canon of scripture’.
Before the word ‘canon’ came to be used in the sense of ‘list’, it was
used in another sense by the church- in the phrase ‘the rule of faith’
or ‘the rule of truth’.4 In the earlier Christian centuries this was a
summary of Christian teaching, believed to reproduce what the apostles
themselves taught, by which any system of doctrine offered for
Christian acceptance, or any interpretation of biblical writings, was to
be assessed. But when once the limits of holy scripture came to be
generally agreed upon, holy scripture itself came to be regarded as the
rule of faith. For example, Thomas Aquinas (c 1225- 1274) says that
‘canonical scripture alone is the rule of faith’. From another theological
perspective the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), after listing
the sixty-six books of the Old and New Testaments, adds: ‘All which
are given by inspiration of God, to be the rule of faith and life. ” These
words affirm the status of holy scripture as the ‘canon’ or ‘standard’ by
which Christian teaching and action must be regulated. While the
‘canon’ of scripture means the list of books accepted as holy scripture,
the other sense of ‘canon’- rule or standard- has rubbed off on this
one, so that the ‘canon’ of scripture is understood to be the l&t of books
which are acknowledged to be, in a unique sense, the IX/~ of belief and
practice.
The question to be examined in the following pages is: how did
certain documents, and these only, come to receive this recognition?
Who, if any one, decided that these, and no others, should be
admitted to the list of the holy scriptures, and what were the criteria
which influenced this decision?
to be known as ‘people of the book’ in a special sense. This is a
designation given repeatedly in the Qur’an to Jews and Christians.
Among ‘people of the book’ the ‘book’ has a regulative function:
conformity to what the book prescribes is a major test of loyalty to
their religious faith and practice.
For Jews the ‘book’ is the Hebrew Bible, comprising the Law, the
Prophets and the Writings (from the initials of these three divisions in
Hebrew the Bible is often referred to among Jews as the TeNaKb).’ For
Christians it is the Hebrew Bible, which they call the Old Testament
(amplified somewhat in certain Christian traditions),8 together with
the New Testament. Muslims recognize the Hebrew Bible, the tawrat
(the Arabic equivalent of Heb. tc%Zh, ‘law’), and the Christian New
Testament, the in$ (from Gk. euangelion. ‘gospel’), as earlier
revelations of God, but these find their completion in the revelation
given through the Prophet, the Qzlr’& (literally ‘recitation’ or
‘reading’), the ‘book’ par excellence.
PEOPLE OF THE BOOK
Many religions have sacred books associated with their traditions or
their worship. There was a once-famous series of volumes entitled ‘I’he
.SC~U~~/ U&.I c,J~thr &at.’ But Jews, Christians and Muslims have come
THE TWO TESTAMENTS
Our concern here is with the Christian Bible, comprising the Old and
New Testaments. The word ‘testament’ in English normally means a
will (someone’s ‘last will and testament’); but this is not the sense in
which it is used of the two parts of the Christian Bible. Our word
‘testament’ comes from Latin testamentum, which similarly means a
will, but in this particular context the Latin word is used as the
translation of the Greek word diathk?. This Greek word may indeed
mean a will,9 but it is used more widely ofvarious kinds ofsettlement
or agreement, not so much of one which is made between equals as of
one in which a party superior in power or dignity confers certain
privileges on an inferior, while the inferior undertakes certain obligations towards the superior. It is used repeatedly in both Old and New
Testaments, both in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible and in
the original Greek of the New Testament. It is usually rendered by our
word ‘covenant’, and its most distinctive usage relates to an agreement
between God and human beings. Here, of course, there can be no
<question of an agreement between equals.
’ This word is an acronym, formed of the initial letters of 7’&h (‘law’, ‘direction’),
fl”‘/,i.i,,, (‘prophets’) and fllihin, (‘writings’), the names given to the three divistons
(\CC p.29).
H see pp.47f.
‘Seep.181.
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
In the earliest books of the Old Testament God makes a covenant
with Noah and his descendants (Gen. 9:x-17), and again with
Abraham and his descendants (Gen. 15:18; 17:1-4). The external
token of the covenant with Noah was the rainbow; the external token
of the covenant mrith Abraham was the rite of circumcision. Later,
~v11c.n Al)rrrl~~m‘s desc~nctants (or at least one important group of
ttlt:ln) 11~i~f rnigr;1tccI to Egypt and were drafted into forced labour
+~~~, rilr,rc, C;O~ remembered his covenant with Abraham and brought
‘LIx)LI~ thclr deliverance. Having left Egypt under the leadership of
hloscs, rhey were constituted a nation in the wilderness ofsinai. Their
national constitution took the form of a covenant into which the God
of their fathers entered with them, making himself known to them by
his name Yahweh. lo The terms of this covenant were, very simply, ‘I
will be your God, and you shall be my people. ’ Yahweh undertook to
make various kinds of provision for them; they undertook to worship
him exclusively and to obey his commandments. These undertakings
were recorded in a document called ‘the book of the covenant’.
According to the narrative of Exodus 24:4-g,
Moses wrote all the words of Yahweh. And he rose early in the
morning, and built an altar at the foot of the mountain, and
twelve pillars, according to the twelve tribes of Israel. And he
sent young men of the people of Israel, who offered burnt
offerings and sacrificed peace offerings of oxen to Yahweh. And
Moses took half of the blood and put it in basins, and halfof the
blood he threw against the altar. Then he took the book of the
covenant, and read it in the hearing of the people; and they said,
‘All that Yahweh has spoken we will do, and we will be
obedient.’ And Moses took the blood and threw it upon the
people, and said, ‘Behold the blood of the covenant which
Yahweh has made with you in accordance with all these words.’
This narrative is summarized in the New Testament, in Hebrews
c):18-20, where the covenant thus ratified is qualified as ‘the first
covenant’. This is because the writer to the Hebrews sets it in contrast
with the ‘new covenant’ promised in Jeremiah 31:31-34. Over six
hundred years after the ratification of the covenant ofMoses’ day at the
ti)ot of Mount Sinai, the prophet Jeremiah announced that, in days to
come, the God of Israel would establish a new covenant with h i s
pcoplc to replace that which he had made with the Exodus generation
HOLY
SCRIPTURE
when he ‘took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of
Egypt’ Uer. 3 1:3 l-34). That ancient covenant made the divine will
plain to them, but did not impart the power to carry it out; for lack of
that power they broke the covenant. Under the new covenant, however,
not only the desire but the power to do the will of God would be
imparted to his people: his law would be put within them and written
on their hearts. ‘In speaking of a new covenant’, says the writer to the
Hebrews, ‘he treats the first as obsolete’ (Heb. 8: 13). And he leaves his
readers in no doubt that the new covenant has already been established,
ratified not by the blood of sacrificed animals but by the blood of
Christ, a sacrifice which effects not merely external purification from
ritual defilement but the inward cleansing of the conscience from
guilt.
This interpretation of the promise of the new covenant is fully in
line with Jesus’s own words. During the evening before his death,
sitting with his disciples round the supper-table, he gave them bread
and wine as memorials of himself. When he gave them the wine,
according to Mark’s record, he said, ‘This is my blood of the covenant
(my covenant blood), which is poured out for many’ (Mark 14:24).
The echo of Moses’ words, ‘Behold the blood of the covenant. . . ‘, can
scarcely be missed. That the covenant associated with the blood of
Jesus (his voluntary offering himself up to God) is Jeremiah’s new
covenant is implied; the implication is explicit in Paul’s record: ‘This
cup is the new covenant in my blood’(1 Cor. 11:25).”
Each of these covenants- the ancient covenant of Sinai and the new
covenant inaugurated by Jesus-launched a great spiritual movement.
Each of these movements gave rise to a special body of literature, and
these bodies of literature came to be known in the Christian church as
‘the books of the ancient covenant’ and ‘the books of the new covenant’.
The former collection came into being over a period of a thousand
years or more; the latter collection has a more inaugural character. Its
various parts were written within a century from the establishment of
the new covenant; they may be regarded as the foundation documents
ofchristianity. It was not until the end of the second century AI> that
the two collections began to be described, briefly, as the Old Covenant
(or Testament) and the New Covenant (or Testament). These short
titles are attested in both Greek and Latin almost simultaneously- in
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Greek, in the works of Clement ofAlexandria;” in Latin, in the works
of Tertullian of Carthage. l3
It has been suggested that the expression ‘the New Covenant (or
Testament)’ is first used to denote a collection of books in AD 192, in
an anti-Montanist work in Greek by an unknown writer, addressed to
the Phrygian bishop Avircius14 Marcellinus, from which Eusebius
quotes some extracts. This work speaks of ‘the word of the new
covenant of the gospel, to which nothing can be added by any one who
has chosen to live according to the gospel itself and from which
nothing can be taken away’. I5 It is unlikely, however, that this is a
reference to the New Testament in our sense of the term;16 the
anonymous writer is a little disturbed by the possibility that his own
work might be viewed as an addition to ‘the word of the new covenant
of the gospel’.
A CLOSED CANON
The words ‘to which nothing can be added. . and from which
nothing can be taken away’, whatever they precisely meant in this
context, seem certainly to imply the principle of a closed canon. There
are some scholars who maintain that the word ‘canon’ should be used
only where the list of specially authoritative books has been closed;
and there is much to be said in favour of this restrictive use of the word
(a more flexible word might be used for the collection in process of
formation), although it would be pedantic to insist on it invariably.
Such language about neither adding nor taking away is used in
relation to individual components of the two Testaments. To the law
of Deuteronomy, for example, the warning is attached: ‘You shall not
add to the word which I command you, nor take from it’ (Deut. 4:2; cf
12:32). A fuller warning is appended to the New Testament
Apocalypse: ‘I warn every one who hears the words of the prophecy of
this book: if any one adds to them, God will add to him the plagues
described in this book, and if any one takes away from the words of the
I4 Also spelt Abercius (Gk. Ahwkros).
” Seep. 180.
” Seep. 188.
I5 HI.u. Et-d. 5. 16.3.
lb At one time W. C. van Unnik thought rhat this might indeed be the earliest
surviving instance of the phrase ‘New Covenant’ or ‘New Testament’ (Gk. &in?
d~rrthZ&) co denote acollection ofwritings (‘De la r*gle mitrprr,Jthein/rt n&&elein dans
I’hiscolre du canon’, Vq~/iue Chrirtknac 3 [ 19491, pp. l-36; later, however, he had
second thoughts on this (‘HZ &ZINS Jz~/h&-a Problem in the Early History of the
Canon’, .yf~/l~ P&j.!trtir = TU 79 {1961], ~9.212-227, especially p.218).
HOLY
SCRIPTURE
book of this prophecy, God will take away his share in the tree of life
and in the holy city, which are described in this book’ (Rev. 22:18
f.). ”
The author of the DidzcbZ (an early manual of church order) echoes
the warning of Deuteronomy when he says, ‘You shall not forsake the
commandments of the Lord, but you shall keep the things you
received, “neither adding nor taking away” .‘I8 Around the same time
(end of the first century A D) Josephus uses similar language about the
Hebrew scriptures: ‘Although such long ages have now gone by, no
one has dared to add anything to them, to take away anything from
them, or to change anything in them.‘lg This language can scarcely
signify anything other than a closed canon. ‘O
LITURGICAL
RECOGNITION
The status of the scriptures is symbolically acknowledged in various
traditions of public worship. Special veneration is paid to the scrolls of
the law in a synagogue service as they are carried from the holy ark,
where they are kept, to the bimab, from which they are read to the
congregation. In the liturgy of the Orthodox Church the gospel book
is carried in procession, and the reading from it is preceded by the call:
‘Wisdom! All stand; let us hear the holy gospel.’ The veneration thus
paid to the gospel book is not paid to the materials of which it is
composed nor to the ink with which it is inscribed, but to the Holy
Wisdom which finds expression in the words that are read. In the
Catholic liturgy the gospel is treated with comparable veneration and
the reading from it is preceded and followed by special prayers. In the
Anglican communion service the people stand while the gospel is
read, and when it is announced they commonly say, ‘Glory to Christ
” It is immaterial for our present purpose whether this warning comes from the
seer of Patmos or from an editor of his work.
lx Diduch4.13.
I9 Against Apion, 1.42.
” See p.32. Similar language about neither adding nor subtracting occurs in the
Letter of Arirteas, 311 (see p.44). where, after the translation of the Pentaceuch into
Greek, a curse was pronounced, ‘in accordance with custom, on any one who should
make any alteration, either by adding anything or changing in any way whatsoever
anything that was written or leaving anything out’; also twice in Irenaeus (Agrrimt
Hrrrsies, 4.33.8; 5.30.1.)-on the latter occasion as a warning to those who reduce
the number of the beast (Rev. 13: 18) by 50 so as co read 616 (perhaps the first, but
certainly not the last misuse of the warning of Rev. 22: 15 f. fo inhiblr the propr
exercise of textual criticism). See also Athanasius (p.79).
23
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
our Saviour’, while at its conclusion, when the reader says, ‘This is the
gospel of Christ’, they respond, ‘Praise to Christ our Lord.’
In churches of the Reformed order (such as the Church of Scotland
and other Presbyterian churches throughout the world) the first formal
action in a service of public worship takes place when the Bible is
carried in from the vestry and placed on the reading desk. Someone, of
course, must carry it (the beadle, perhaps, or ‘church officer’), but the
person who does so has no liturgical significance (even if, in earlier
days, he thought it proper to ‘magnify his office’); it is the Bible that
has liturgical significance. The Bible is followed at a respectful distance
by the minister. And why? Because he is the minis&r- that is to say,
in the original sense of the term, the ‘servant’ of the Word. No letters
indicating academic achievement or public honour can match in
dignity the letters V.D.M., appended to the pastor’s name in some
Reformed churches-V&i Divini Minister, ‘servant of the Word of
God.’ When the time comes in the service for the audible reading of
the Bible, this lesson is underlined by the introductory exhortation:
‘Let us hear the Word of God.’
It is from the contents, the message, of the book that it derives its
value, whether we think of the gospel in particular or the Bible as a
whole. It is therefore important to know what its contents are, and
how they have come to be marked off from other writings-even holy
and inspired writings. That is the point of examining the growth of
the canon of holy scripture.
24
PART TWO
OLD TESTAMENT
CHAPTER TWO
THE LAW
AND THE PROPHETS
JESUS’ APPEAL TO THE
HEBREW
SCRIPTURES
The Christian church started its existence with a book, but it was not
to the book that it owed its existence. It shared the book with the
Jewish people; indeed, the first members of the church were without
exception Jews. The church owed its distinctive existence to a person
-to Jesus of Nazareth, crucified, dead and buried, but ‘designated
Son of God in power. . . by his resurrection from the dead’ (Rom. 1:4).
This Jesus, it was believed, had been exalted by God to be universal
Lord; he had sent his Spirit to be present with his followers, to unite
them and animate them as his body on earth. The function of the book
was to bear witness to him.
Jesus, according to all the strata of the gospel tradition, regularly
appealed to the Hebrew scriptures to validate his mission, his words
and his actions. According to Mark, he began his ministry in Galilee
with the announcement: ‘The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of
God is at hand’ (Mark 1:14). This was the good news which he
proclaimed, inviting his hearers to believe it. Those of them who were
familiar with the book of Daniel can scarcely have missed the reference
in his words to the prophecy in that book concerning a coming day in
which ‘the God of heaven will set up a kingdom which shall never be
27
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
destroyed’ (Dan. 2:44 cf 7:14, 18, 27). The kingdom was to be
bestowed on ‘the saints of the Most High’; Daniel in vision saw how
‘the time came when the saints received the kingdom’ (Dan. 7:22).
The implication of Jesus’ announcement was that this time had now
arrived. So, according to another evangelist, he encouraged his disciples with the assurance: ‘it is the Father’s good pleasure to give you
the kingdom’ (Luke 12:32). What was actually involved in this
kingdom was spelled out in his teaching (especially his parables) and
in his general ministry.
Luke records how, in the synagogue of his home town Nazareth,
Jesus set out the programme of his ministry by reading from Isaiah
61: If. the declaration of the unnamed prophet that God, by placing his
Spirit on him, had anointed him ‘to preach good news to the
poor,. . . to proclaim release to the captives and recovering of sight to
the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the
acceptable year of the Lord’ (Luke 4: 18f.). His reading of those words
was followed by the announcement: ‘Today this scripture has been
fulfilled in your hearing’ (Luke 4:21). This emphasis on scripture
characterized Jesus’ ministry right on to the time when (again according to Luke) he appeared in resurrection to his disciples and assured
them that his suffering and rising again, together with the consequent
proclamation of the gospel to all the nations, formed the subjectmatter of what was ‘written’ (Luke 24:46f.).
The church’s use of those writings was based on Jesus’ use of them:
as his followers searched them further, they discovered increasingly ‘in
all the scriptures the things concerning himself (Luke 24:27). The
Old Testament, as Christians in due course came to call these writings,
was a book about Jesus. Here was the church’s Bible. Here was the
Bible of the J ewish people also; but so differently did the two
communities read the same writings that, for practical purposes, they
might have been using two different Bibles instead of sharing one. ’
THE
CANON
OF
THE
OLD
TESTAMENT
Our Lord and his apostles might differ from the religious leaders of
Israel about the meaning of the scriptures; there is no suggestion that
they differed about the limits of the scriptures. ‘The scriptures’ on
whose meaning they differed were not an amorphous collection: when
THE LAW AND THE PROPHETS
they spoke of ‘the scriptures’ they knew which writings they had in
mind and could distinguish them from other writings which were not
included in ‘the scriptures’. When we speak of ‘the scriptures’ we
mean ‘the sacred writings’ as distinct from other writings: to us
‘scripture’ and ‘writing’ are separate words with distinct meanings.
But in Hebrew and Greek one and the same word does duty for both
‘writing’ and ‘scripture’: in these languages ‘the scriptures’ are simply
‘the writings’- that is to say, ‘the writings’par excellence. As we shall
see, sometimes this involves a measure of ambiguity: does the word in
this or that context mean ‘scripture’ in particular or ‘writing’ in
general?’ But when ‘the scr’p
I tures’ or ‘the writings’ are mentioned,
there is usually no ambiguity. Similarly in English ‘the book’ can be
used in a special sense (indicated perhaps by the tone of voice or by the
use of a capital initial) to denote the Bible- the Book as distinct from
all other books.
The books of the Hebrew Bible are traditionally twenty-four in
number, arranged in three divisions. The first division is the T&ih
(‘law’ or ‘direction’), comprising the five ‘books of Moses’ (Genesis,
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy). The second division is
theNeb”?^
1 rm (‘prophets’): it is further subdivided into the four Former
Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings) and the four Latter
Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Book of the Twelve
Prophets)‘. The third division is called the K&@n (‘writings’): it
comprises eleven books. First come the Psalms, Proverbs and J o b ;
then a group of five called the Megil& or ‘scrolls’ (Song of Songs,
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther); finally Daniel, EzraNehemiah (reckoned as one book), Chronicles.4 This is the arrangement regularly followed in printed editions of the Hebrew Bible.
One of the clearest and earliest statements of these three divisions
’ Compare the ambiguity at the beginning of 2 Tim. 3: 16. Does graphs here mean
‘scripcure’ (in the special sense) or ‘writing’ (in the general sense)? If the former (which
IS more probable), the translation is ‘Every scripture is divinely inspired (Godbreathed) and profitable. ‘; if the latter, the translation is ‘Every divinely inspired
writing is also profitable. ‘.
’ The twelve prophets are those commonly called the Minor Prophers-not
because they are less important, but because the books bearing their names are so
much shorter than those of the ‘Major Prophets’ (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel).
’ These twenty-four books are identical with the thirty-nine of the Protestant Old
Testament; the difference in reckoning arIses from counting the twelve (‘minor’)
prophets separately and dividing Samuel, Kings, Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah into
two each.
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
and their respective contents comes in a buruitha (a tradition from the
period AD 70-200) quoted in the Babylonian Talmud, in the tractate
Bahcr Batha.’ This tradition assigns inspired or authoritative authors
to all twenty-four books, and discusses their order. The order of the
five books in the first division is fixed, because they are set in a
historical framework in which each has its chronological position; this
is true also of the four Former Prophets. But the order of the books in
the Latter Prophets and in the Writings was not so firmly fixed. This is
inevitable when separate scrolls are kept together in a container. It is
different when a number of documents can be bound together in a
volume of modern shape-a codex, to use the technical term. Here
the first must precede the second and the second must precede the
third, whether there is any logical or chronological basis for that
sequence or not. The codex began to come into use early in the
Christian era, but even after its introduction religious conservatism
ensured that the Jewish scriptures continued for long to be written on
scrolls. If the eleven books making up the Writings-or, to take one
subdivision of them, the five M”il&-were kept in one box, there
was no particular reason why they should be mentioned in one order
rather than another.
But it cannot be by accident that, in the traditional arrangement of
the books, Chronicles follows Ezra-Nehemiah. This is a quite
unnatural sequence, which could not have been adopted without some
substantial reason. Ezra-Nehemiah takes up the history of Israel where
Chronicles leaves off, whether or not Ezra-Nehemiah was originally
part of the same work as Chronicles- ‘the work of the Chronicler’, as
it is often called.6 Practically every edition of the Old Testament,
therefore, apart from the Hebrew Bible (and versions which follow its
order), makes Ezra-Nehemiah come immediately after Chronicles
(which is the logical and chronological sequence). Why then should
the Hebrew Bible place Chronicles after Ezra-Nehemiah, which is
properly the sequel to Chronicles? One answer to this question is that,
when t& canon of Old Testament scripture was in course of formation,
Chronicles was ‘canonized’ (included in the canon) after .EzraNehemiah. There is no firm evidence that this is how it happened, but
T H E f&W A N D
THE
PROPHETS
it is difficult to think of a more probable answer.
There is evidence that Chronicles was the last book in the Hebrew
Bible as Jesus knew it. When he said that the generation he addressed
would be answerable for ‘the blood of all the prophets, shed from the
foundation of the world’, he added, ‘from the blood of Abel to the
blood of Zechariah, who perished between the altar and the sanctuary’
(Luke 11:5Of.). Abel is the first martyr in the Bible (Gen. 49);
Zechariah is most probably the son of Jehoiada, who was stoned to
death ‘in the court of Yahweh’s house’ because, speaking by the Spirit
of God, he rebuked the king and people of Judah for transgressing the
divine commandments (2 Chron. 24:20-22). Zechariah (c 800 B C)
was not chronologically the last faithful prophet to die as a martyr; some
two centuries later a prophet named Uriah was put to death in
Jerusalem because his witness was unacceptable to King Jehoiakim
(Jer. 26:20-23). But Zechariah is canonically the last faithful prophet
to die as a martyr, because his death is recorded in Chronicles, the last
book in the Hebrew Bible.7
How old is the threefold division? It is widely believed, and perhaps
rightly, that it is referred to for the first time by the grandson ofJeshua
Ben Sira when, shortly after emigrating from Palestine to Alexandria
in Egypt in 132 BC, he translated his grandfather’s book of wisdom
(commonly called Ecclesiasticus or Sirach’) from Hebrew into Greek.
Repeatedly in the prologue to his translation he speaks of his grandfather as a student of ‘the law and the prophets and the other books of
our fathers’, ‘the law itself, the prophecies and the rest of the books’.
Here we may indeed have a reference to the Law, the Prophets and the
Writings. But it is just possible to understand that Ben Sira is being
described as a student of the holy scriptures (the law and the prophets)
and of other Jewish writings not included among the scriptures.’
There is one place in the New Testament which may reflect the
threefold division. In Luke’s account of the appearance of the risen
Lord to his disciples in Jerusalem, they are reminded how he had told
’ For arguments against the customary view that Ezra-Nehemiah was an integral
part of the work of the Chronicler see H. G. M. Williamson, Israel tn the Books of
(.‘hr~~r~~t/e.~ (Cambridge, 1977); see also the balanced discussion in D. J. A. Clines,
f:‘zrd. Nrhrrrtrah, Esther. NCB (London/Grand Rapids, 1084). pp. l-24.
’ If the quotation from ‘the Wisdom ofGod’ (Luke 11:49) goes on to ‘ between
the altar and the sanctuary’ in verse 5 1, the chronological evidence for the position of
Chronicles as the last book in the Bible is unaffected. But probably RSV is right in
making the quotation end with ‘ persecute’ at the end of verse 49; the emphasis on
‘this generation’ is characteristic ofJesus’own style. Matthew’s reference to ‘Zechariah
the son ofBarachiah’ in his parallel passage (Mart. 24:35) is a problem on its own, but
the Zechariah of 2 Chronicles 24:20-22 is most probably meant.
” Sirrrr-h is a Greek spelling of Slrrr, the (Hebrew) name of the author’s father.
‘) See J. Barron, OruA ct,fCoJ(London. 1986), p.47.
30
3’
’ Buhu Buthru 14b- 15a.
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
them ‘that everything written about me in the law of Moses and the
prophets and the psalms must be fulfilled’ (Luke 24:44). Here ‘the
psalms’ might denote not only the contents of the Psalter” but also
the whole of the third division-the Writings-ofwhich the Psalter
was the first book. We cannot be sure of this; in any case, the Hebrew
scriptures are more often referred to in the New Testament as ‘the law
and the prophets’. Jesus said that the golden rule sums up ‘the law and
the prophets’ (Matt. 7: 12); Paul claims that God’s way of righteousness
set forth in the gospel which he preaches is attested by ‘the law and the
prophets’ (Rom. 3:2 1). No problem was felt about including books of
the third division among the ‘prophets’: David is called a prophet in
Acts 2:30, Daniel in Matthew 24: 15, and even Job, by implication, in
James 5 : 1 Of.
Sometimes the whole Hebrew Bible, or any part of it, is referred to
as ‘the law’: in John lo:34 Jewish disputants are told that part of
Psalm 82 is ‘written in your law’; in 1 Corinthians 14:21 a quotation
from Isaiah 28: 1 If. is similarly said to be written ‘in the law’, while in
Romans 3: lo- 19 a chain of quotations from the Psalms and Isaiah is
included in ‘whatever the law says’. Less often the whole collection is
described as ‘the prophets’: when Jesus on the Emmaus road spoke of
the two disciples’ being so ‘slow of heart to believe all that the
prophets have spoken’ (Luke 24:25), it is plain from the context that
Moses is included among ‘the prophets’ (he was, in fact, the greatest of
them).
T H E E V I D E N C E O F JOSEPHUS
A rather different threefold division of the same books is mentioned by
Josephus, the Jewish historian, in the first volume of his treatise
Against Apion, written in the nineties of the first century A D. Josephus
contrasts the reliable sources for early Jewish history with the many
conflicting accounts of origins given by Greek historians:
We have not myriads of books, disagreeing and conflicting with
one another, but only twenty-two, containing the record of all
time, and justly accredited.
Of these, five are the books ofMoses, containing the laws and
THE+AW
AND
THE
PROPHETS
the history handed down from the creation of the human race
right to his own death. This period falls a little short of three
thousand years. From the death of Moses to the time of
Artaxerxes, who was king of Persia after Xerxes, the prophets
who followed Moses have written down in thirteen books the
things that were done in their days. The remaining four books
contain hymns to God and principles of life for human beings.
From Artaxerxes to our own time a detailed record has been
made, but this has not been thought worthy ofequal credit with
the earlier records because there has not been since then the
exact succession of prophets. ”
When he says that since Artaxerxes’ time there has been no exact
succession of prophets, Josephus does not mean that the gift of
prophecy itself died out. He mentions its exercise among the
Essenes 7 ” he says that the Jewish ruler John Hyrcanus I (134- 104 BC)
was divinely enabled ‘to foresee and foretell the future’, I3 and he
claims to have had the gift himself. I4 But in the period between Moses
and Artaxerxes (465-423~~) he appears to envisage an unbroken
succession of prophets, guaranteeing the continuity and trustworthiness of the records which they were believed to have produced.
When Josephus speaks of twenty-two books, I5 he probably refers to
exactly the same documents as the twenty-four of the traditional
Jewish reckoning, Ruth being counted as an appendix to Judges and
Lamentations to Jeremiah. His three divisions might be called the
Law, the Prophets and the Writings. His first division comprises the
same five books as the first division in the traditional arrangement.
But his second division has thirteen books, not eight, the additional
five being perhaps Job16, Esther, Daniel, Chronicles and
Ezra-Nehemiah. The four books of the third division would then be
Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs. It is impossible
to be sure, because he does not specify the books of the three divisions
one by one.
It is unlikely that Josephus’s classification of the books was his own;
” The Psalter was a specially rich source of gospel ‘testimonies’ (OT texts fulfilled
in the gospel story),not least because the portrayal of the righteous sufferer (e.g. Pss.
22: 1; 69:4, 9, 2 1) was believed to anticipate the experiences ofJesus.
’ ’ Josephus, Against Apion 1.38-41.
” Josephus, A&pities 13.311; 15.373-379.
I4 Josephus, Jewish War3.351-354.
” Josephus, Antiquities 13.300.
” The total of 22 may have been arranged so as to correspond with the number of
letters in the Hebrew alphabet; see p.73, 78, 90.
I6 Job is perhaps reckoned among ‘the prophets’ in Sirach 49:9 (Hebrew) and James
5 : 1 Of.
32
33
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
he probably reproduces a tradition with which he had been familiar for
a long time, having learned it either in the priestly circle into which he
was born or among the Pharisees with whose party he associated
himself as a young man.
DISCUSSIONS AT JAMNIA
About the same time as Josephus wrote his work Against Apion, the
Hebrew scriptures were among various subjects debated by the rabbis
who set up their headquarters at Jabneh or Jamnia in western Judaea,
under the leadership of Yohanan ben Zakkai, to discuss the reconstruction of Jewish religious life after the collapse of the Jewish
commonwealth in A D 70.” Jewish life had to be adapted to a new
situation in which the temple and its services were no more. So far as
the scriptures are concerned, the rabbis at Jamnia introduced no
innovations; they reviewed the tradition they had received and left it
more or less as it was. ” It is probably unwise to talk as if there was a
Council or Synod of Jamnia which laid down the limits of the Old
Testament canon.
They discussed which books ‘defiled the hands”‘-a technical
expression denoting those books which were the product of prophetic
inspiration. One had to wash one’s hands after handling them, just as
one did after ‘defiling’ the hands (whether materially or ritually). One
might explain this practice in terms of Mary Douglas’s ‘purity and
danger’;” but by the time we are dealing with the idea may simply
have been that if people had to wash their hands every time they
touched a sacred book they would be deterred from handling it
casually.2’
At any rate, the rabbis at Jamnia discussed whether certain books
” There are many references in the Mishnah and later rabbinical compilations to
the discussions of the sages (including pre-eminently Yohanan ben Zakkat) m the
‘vineyard ofJabneh’ in the generation following AD 70. See J. P. Lewis, ‘What do we
mean by Jabneh?‘JBR 32 (1964), pp. 125-132.
” Their ‘discussions have not so much dealt with acceptance of ccrtatn writings
into the Canon, but rather with their right to remain there’ (A. Bcntzen, /t/~mr//~~fzon fo
ihe 0lil Trmz~/m/, I [Copenhagen, 19481, p.3 1).
” See the Mishnah tractate YcrJcryr~~ (‘Hands’), 3.2-5.
“’ M. Douglas, Pnuty crnd Drrrqyr: AN Ancrly~~.~ IIJ Cmtp~ II/ Pdl~~tm~~ it’d ‘L&o
(Harmondsworth, 1970).
34
THE?%AW A N D
THE
PROPHETS
did or did not ‘defile the hands’ in this sense. Did Jeshua ben Sira’s
wisdom book (Ecclesiasticus) defile them or not? It was a work which
inculcated true religion; objectively it was not easy to distinguish it in
point of sacredness from Proverbs or Ecclesiastes. The conclusion,
however was that it did not defile the hands. But what of Proverbs and
Ecclesiastes? Proverbs seems to contradict itself in two adjacent verses:
‘Answer not a fool according to his folly, . . . Answer a fool according
to his folly. . . ’ (Prov. 26:4f.). (It was easily explained that in some
circumstances the one precept, and in some circumstances the other
precept, should be followed.) Ecclesiastes, on the face of it, was a
much less orthodox book than Ben Sira’s work: is it really fitting to
believe that ‘there is nothing better for a man than that he should eat
and drink, and find enjoyment in his toil’ (Eccles. 2:24)? (It was
pointed out that this could be read as a question expecting the answer
‘No’- ‘Is there nothing better for a man. . . ?‘)
Neither Esther nor the Song of Songs contains the name of Godunless indeed his name be concealed in Cant 8:6, where ‘a most
vehement flame’ might be literally ‘a flame of Yah’.” Both works
might appear to be non-religious in character, but Esther provided the
libretto for the popular festival of Purim, and if the Song could be
allegorized so as to become a celebration of Yahweh’s love for Israel, it
could continue to be recognized as an inspired scripture. As for
Ezekiel, the prescriptions in its closing chapters for the new temple
and its services could with difficulty be made to agree with those in the
Pentateuch, and the chariot vision of chapter 1 gave rise to mystical
speculations and exercises which some rabbis believed to be spiritually
dangerous. The opinion was expressed that Ezekiel ought to be
‘withdrawn’ (withdrawn, probably, from the synagogue calendar of
public readings). Other pious souls were content to wait until Elijah
came at the end of the age: the problems of Ezekiel would be among
those which he was expected to solve. Happily, it was not necessary to
wait so long: one Hananiah the son of Hezekiah sat up night after
night burning the midnight oil to the tune of 300 measures until he
had worked out a reconciliation between Ezekiel and Moses.23 But this
simply means that the rabbis of Jamnia, like religious disputants of
other ages, enjoyed a really tough subject for theological debate; it
” Hebrew &ihrhrty~h may be divided into the two words ?alhe!z( I’d. Ydh
‘Jab’) is a short form of Y&u,& (AV/KJV ‘Jehovah’).
” TB Sbabbdt 13b; @g;,@h 13a; Men&@t 45a.
35
(AV
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
does not mean that at this late date the status of Ezekiel was in serious
jeopardy.
From the same period as Josephus and the Jamnia debates comes an
independent reference to twenty-four as the number of books of holy
scripture. The Apocalypse of Ezra (otherwise called 4 Ezra and 2
Esdras)24 was written after the destruction of the temple in AD 70, but
purports to record revelations made to Ezra after the destruction of
Solomon’s temple centuries before. Ezra tells how, by divine illumination, he was enabled to dictate to five men over a period of forty days
the contents of ninety-four books. ‘And when the forty days were
ended, the Most High spoke to me, saying, “Make public the twentyfour books that you wrote first and let the worthy and the unworthy
read them; but keep the seventy that were written last, in order to give
them to the wise among your people” ’ (4 Ezra 14:45f). The twentyfour books accessible to the public appear to be the twenty-four books
of the Hebrew Bible; the other seventy were esoteric or apocalyptic
works which yielded their secret meaning to an inner circle (such as,
for example, the Qumran community).
A. T H R E E - S T A G E C A N O N ?
A common, and not unreasonable, account of the formation of the Old
Testament canon is that it took shape in three stages, corresponding to
the three divisions of the Hebrew Bible. The Law was first canonized
(early in the period after the return from the Babylonian exile), the
Prophets next (late in the third century B C). When these two collections were closed, everything else that was recognized as holy scripture
had to go into the third division, the Writings, which remained open
until the end of the first century AD, when it was ‘closed’ at Jamnia.”
But it must be pointed out that, for all its attractiveness, this account
is completely hypothetical: there is no evidence for it, either in the Old
Testament itself or elsewhere.
We have evidence in the Old Testament of the public recognition of
scripture as conveying the word of God, but that is not the same thing
as canonization.
When, on the occasion already referred to, Moses read ‘the book of
THE
LAW
AND
THE
PROPHETS
the covenant’ to the Israelites at the foot of Mount Sinai, they
responded with an undertaking to keep the divine commandments: to
them what Moses read was the word of God (Exod. 24:3-7). When,
at a later date, the law-code of Deuteronomy was put ‘beside the ark of
the covenant of Yahweh’ (Deut. 3 1:26), this was to be a token of its
sanctity and a reminder to the people of the solemnity of their
obligation to continue in the way which God had commanded them.
When the same law-code, probably (‘the book of the law’), was found
in the temple in the reign of Josiah, it was read by the king’s decree to
a great concourse of the people of Judah and Jerusalem; the king
entered into a solemn undertaking ‘to perform the words of the
covenant that were written in this book; and all the people joined in
the covenant’ (2 Kings 23:1-3). Again, after the return from the
Babylonian exile, Ezra and his associates read publicly from ‘the book
of the law of Moses’ which he had brought from Babylon to Jerusalem,
and the national leaders made a firm covenant to order their lives from
then on in accordance with the commandments which it contained
(Neh. 8: l-9:38).
0; all these occasions the authority of the word of God was
acknowledged in what was read; but there is no mention as yet of
anything in the nature of a collection to which such a document might
be added, or in which others might be added after it. Even in the ban
on adding anything to the law-code of Deuteronomy or taking anything from it (Deut. 4:2) the law-code is envisaged as quite selfcontained; there is no word of adding it to other codes, as has actually
been dotie in the final arrangement of the Pentateuch. 26 (‘Pentateuch’
is a term of Greek origin denoting the five books of the Law.)
Later prophets recognize the divine authority underlying the
ministry of earlier prophets (cfJer. 7:25; Ezek. 38: 17), but the idea of
collecting the oracles of a succession of prophets did not occur at once.
Zechariah the prophet refers to ‘the former prophets’ (Zech. 1:4; 7:7),
meaning those who prophesied before the exile, but he does not imply
that their words have been published as a collection. Such a collection
did come into being in the following centuries, but by what agency
must be a matter of speculation. The earliest reference to such a
collection is probably in Daniel 9:2, where Daniel found Jeremiah’s
z4Seep.47,n.11,85,n.11.
” This account has largely held the field since it was popularized by
H. E. Ryle, T/W GUM/ ~4 /he O/J Tr~/a~n/ (London, 1892, ’ 1909).
L6 It has been held, however, chat Deuteronomy served as the introduction co rhe
‘deuteronomic history’ (comprising Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings), and that this
combined work was the first instalmenc of the Old Testament canon; see R. E.
Clements, !‘rr@hrcy crnJ Trcrdifion (Oxford, 1975), pp.47-57.
36
.37
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
prophecy of the duration of Jerusalem’s desolations (Jer. 25: 1 If.)
among ‘the books’.
In the persecution under Antiochus Epiphanes many copies of the
scriptures were seized and destroyed; possession of a copy of ‘the book
of the covenant’ was punished with death (1 Mace. 1:56f.). It was
necessary therefore to replace the lost copies when religious liberty was
regained. In a letter purporting to be addressed by the Jews of
Jerusalem and Judaea to the Jews of Egypt it is recalled that Nehemiah
in his day ‘founded a library and collected the books about the kings
and prophets, and the writings of David, and letters of kings about
votive offerings’. 27 Following his precedent, the letter goes on, Judas
Maccabaeus also (between 164 and 160 BC) ‘collected all the books
that had been lost on account of the war which had come upon us, and
they are in our possession’ (2 Mace. 2: 13f.).
Where these collected scriptures were housed is not stated, but it
may well have been in the temple. The holy place was a fitting
repository for the holy books. Josephus tells how a copy of the law
formed part of the temple spoils carried in Vespasian’s triumphal
procession in AD 7 1; it was subsequently kept in the imperial palace. 28
It may have been from the temple, too, that the ‘sacred books’ came
which Josephus received as a gift from Titus after the capture and
destruction of the holy place. 29
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE QUMRAN TEXTS
The discoveries made at Qumran, north-west of the Dead Sea, in the
years following 1947 have greatly increased our knowledge of the
history of the Hebrew scriptures during the two centuries or more
preceding AD 70. ‘O The texts discovered and studied appear to represent
about five hundred separate documents, about one hundred of them
being copies of books of the Hebrew Bible (some books in particular
being represented by several copies). A few of these copies are substantially complete, but most are very fragmentary. All the books of
” The ‘letters of kings about votive offerings’ may be those reproduced in Ezra
613-7126.
‘” Jewi.& W’LU, 7, 150, 162. This may be ‘the Scroll of the Temple Court’ mentioned
in theMishnah, icl~‘er/Qo!an, 5.4; f&/l/~ 15.6.
lL’ L/K, 4 IX.
“’ See F. M, Cross, The A ~t7mt l~brq I~QNIII~~II mdModrm Bihhr~alStudk (Grand
Rapids, 1l9XO).
38
THE
LAW
AND
THE
PROPHETS
the Hebrew Bible are represented among them, with the exception of
Esther. This exception may be accidental (it is conceivable that a copy
of Esther once included in the Qumran library has perished completely), or it may be significant: there is evidence of some doubt
among Jews, as later among Christians, about the status of Esther.3’
Esther may have been felt to have too close an affinity to the ideals of
Judas Maccabaeus and his kinsfolk in the Hasmonaean family, of
whom the Qumran community utterly disapproved.32
But the men of Qumran have left no statement indicating precisely
which of the books represented in their library ranked as holy scripture
in their estimation, and which did not. A book setting forth the
community’s rule of life or liturgical practice was no doubt regarded as
authoritative, just as the Book of Common Prayer is (or was) in the
Church of England, but that did not give it scriptural status.
Among their books are several commentaries on books of the
Hebrew Bible, explaining them according to the community’s distinctive principles of interpretation.33 The books thus commented on
were certainly acknowledged as holy scripture: their words were the
words of God spoken through his prophets or spokesmen, foretelling
events of the commentators’ own days, when the end of the current age
was believed to be impending. We may confidently say, therefore,
that the ‘canon’ of the Qumran community included the Pentateuch,
the Prophets, the Psalms (possibly with a few supplementary psalms).
It also included the book of Daniel, who is called ‘Daniel the
prophet’34 (as in Matt. 24: 15), and probably Job (an Aramaic targum
or paraphrase of Job was found in Cave 11 at Qumran). 3s
But what of Tobit, Jubilees and Enoch,36 fragments of which were
also found at Qumran? These were in due course to be reckoned
canonical by certain religious groups; were they reckoned canonical by
the Qumran community? There is no evidence which would justify
3’ See pp.7 1,79,80.
‘* See the discussion in R. T. Beckwith, The Old Testament Canon if the New
Trstament Church, pp.283, 288-297; he points out that Esther conflicts with the
Essenes’ calender, which they believed to be divinely ordained.
s3 Seep.58 with n.5.
j4 44 florilegium 2.3.
‘5 The discovery of this work (edited by J. P. M. van der Ploeg, A. S. van der
Woude and B. Jongeling, Lu Turgm de Job [Leiden, 197 11) reminds one of the notes
appended to the Septuagint version of Job, said to have been ‘translated out of the
Syriac book’, and of the Job Targum which Gamaliel ordered to be built into the
temple walls (TB Shabhdr 115a).
‘b See pp.84-86, 182.
39
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
the answer ‘Yes’; on the other hand, we do not know enough to return
the answer ‘No’. One of the community documents- the Zadokite
Work (or the Book of the Covenant of Damascus)-attaches some degree
of authority to Jubilees: ‘As for the exact statement of all their epochs to
which Israel turns a blind eye, it can be learned from the Book of the
Divisions of the Times into theirJubilees and Weeks. I37 The ‘Temple Scroll’
from Cave 11 (which should perhaps be more accurately called the
‘Torah Scroll’) is a repromulgation of the law of Moses, set in a
deuteronomic framework, which was to be put into effect when
national life was restored in accordance with Qumran ideals. The first
editor of this document, the late Yigael Yadin, argued that it had
canonical status in the community;38 he thought that it too was
referred to in the Zadokite Work as ‘the sealed book of the law’39 (but
this is more probably a reference to the book found in the temple in the
reign of Josiah).
From time to time the community documents indicate more explicitly which books were reckoned ‘canonical’ by quoting from them
with introductory formulae which indicate their quality as divine
revelation. When the Zadokite Work bases a ban on bigamy from the
juxtaposition of the texts ‘male and female he created them’ (Gen.
1:27), ‘they went into the ark two and two’ (Gen. 7:9, 15), and ‘he
shall not multiply wives for himself’ (Deut. 17: 17),40 it is evident
that the documents from which the three texts are quoted are authoritative scripture.
It is probable, indeed, that by the beginning of the Christian era the
Essenes (including the Qumran community) were in substantial
agreement with the Pharisees and the Sadducees about the limits of
Hebrew scripture. There may have been some differences of opinion
and practice with regard to one or two of the ‘Writings’, but the
inter-party disagreements remembered in Jewish tradition have very
little to do with the limits of the canon. The idea that the Sadducees
(like the Samaritans) acknowledged the Pentateuch only as holy
scripture is based on a misunderstanding: when Josephus, for example,
says that the Sadducees ‘admit no observance at all apart from the
laws’,j’ he means not the Pentateuch to the exclusion of the Prophets
” CD 16.4.
I” Y. Yadin, 7’bhr ?‘~~l/p/~S‘-r~~/IN(Jerusalem, I%)), I, pp.390-395.
“) CD 5.2.
4” CD4.21-5.2.
” Josephus, Ant/y//t/~r~. 18. 16; his meaning is made plain in Antrqorter, 13.297,
where the Sadducees are said to ‘hold that only the written laws should be reckoned
40
THE LAW AND THE PROPHETS
and the Writings but the written law (of the Pentateuch) to the
exclusion of the oral law (the Pharisaic interpretation and application
of the written law, which, like the written law itself, was held in
theory to have been received and handed down by Mose~).~* It would
be understandable if the Sadducees did not accept Daniel which
contains the most explicit statement of the resurrection hope in the
whole of the Old Testament. 43
As for the Samaritans, their Bible was restricted to the Pentateuch.
They had their own edition of the book of Joshua and a number of
other traditions, but these were not recognized as holy scripture. The
Samaritan Bible was basically a popular Palestinian recension of the
Hebrew Pentateuch, which was subjected to an editorial process to
bring it into line with certain aspects of Samaritan tradition which
conflicted with Jewish tradition. 44 The Samaritan Bible has customarily been treated as evidence for the view that the final Samaritan
schism took place at a time when the Pentateuch but not the Prophets
or Writings had been ‘canonized’, but this is not necessarily ~0.~’
When we think of Jesus and his Palestinian apostles, then, we may
be confident that they agreed with contemporary leaders in Israel
about the contents of the canon. We cannot say confidently that they
accepted Esther, Ecclesiastes or the Song of Songs as scripture, because
evidence is not available. We can argue only from probability, and
arguments from probability are weighed differently by different
judges. But when in debate with Jewish theologians Jesus and the
apostles appealed to ‘the scriptures’, they appealed to an authority
which was equally acknowledged by their opponents. This near-unanimity might suggest that some widely acknowledged authority had
valid, but that those handed down by tradition from the fathers need not be observed’.
It was probably misinterpretation ofJosephus, directly or indirectly, that led Origen
(Apinst Ceh, 1.49) and Jerome (Comnrenrury on Marthew,on 22:3 If.) to say that the
Sadducees accept the books of Moses alone as scripture.
Q This oral law is the ‘tradition of the elders’ mentioned in Mark 7:5.
” Daniel 12:2. When Jesus appealed to scripture in refutation of the Sadducees’
denial ofresurrection, he cited Exod. 3:6, basing his argument on the character ofGod
(Mark 12:26f.).
44 See P. Kahle, Thr Cairo Geniza (London, 1947), pp.147f.; F. M. Cross, The
Ancient Lihravy ofQmwan and M&n Biblical Studies, pp. 172f., 192f.
” A. C. Sundberg argues that the Samaritan restriction of the canon to the
Penrateuch involved ‘a conscious rejection of the collection of Prophets, since the
Prophets were then regarded as canonical in Jerusalem’ (T/x O/rl7r~/crv~en/ /I/ rhr &r/y
(./JNII~ [Cambridge, Mass., 19641, p. 111); 1fJ. Barton, 0rcrrlr.1 ~/GM/, pp.282f.
4’
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
promulgated a decision on the matter. It is not easy, however, to
identify an authority in the relevant period which would have
commanded the assent of such diverse groups. But, as later with the
New Testament,46 so with the Old Testament it is probable that,
when the canon was ‘closed’ in due course by competent authority,
this simply meant that official recognition was given to the situation
already obtaining in the practice of the worshipping community.
46 See p. 262
CHAPTER THREE
THE GREEK OLD
TESTAMENT
THE ORIGIN OF THE SEPTUAGINT
Almost from the time that Alexander the Great founded Alexandria in
Egypt in 331 B C, there was a Jewish element in its Greek-speaking
population, and this element continued to increase in the generations
that followed. There were Jewish settlements in most of the other
Greek-speaking cities established throughout the area of Alexander’s
conquests, but none was so important as that in Alexandria. The
process of Jewish settlement there was facilitated by the fact that,
until 198 B C, Judaea formed part of the kingdom of the Ptolemies,
who succeeded to Alexander’s empire in Egypt and made Alexandria
their capital.
Before long the Jews of Alexandria gave up using the language their
ancestors had spoken in Palestine and spoke Greek only. This would
have involved their being cut off from the use of the Hebrew Bible and
the traditional prayers and thanksgivings, had the scriptures not been
translated into Greek. The Greek translation of the scriptures was
made available from time to time in the third and second centuries BC
(say during the century 250-150 BC). The law, comprising the five
books of Moses, was the first part of the scriptures to appear in a Greek
version; the reading of the law was essential to synagogue worship,
and it was important that what was read should be intelligible to the
42
43
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
THE GREEK OLD TESTAMENT
congregation. At first, perhaps, the law was read in Hebrew, as it was
back home in Palestine, and someone was appointed to give an oral
translation in Greek. ’ But as time went on a written Greek version was
provided, so that it could be read directly.
In the course of time a legend attached itself to this Greek version of
the law, telling how it was the work of seventy or rather seventy-two
elders of Israel who were brought to Alexandria for the purpose. It is
because of this legend that the term Septuagint (from Latin septtlaginta,
‘seventy’) came to be attached to the version. As time went on, the
term came to be attached to the whole of the Old Testament in Greek,
and the original legend of the seventy was further embellished. The
legend is recorded originally in a document called the Letter of Aristeas,
which tells how the elders completed the translation of the Pentateuch
in seventy-two days, achieving an agreed version as the result of
regular conference and comparison. Later embellishments not only
extended their work to cover the whole Old Testament but told how
they were isolated from one another in separate cells for the whole
period and produced seventy-two identical versions-conclusive
proof, it was urged, of the divine inspiration of the work! Philo, the
Jewish philosopher of Alexandria, relates how the translators worked
in isolation from one another but wrote the same text word for word,
‘as though it were dictated to each by an invisible prompter’;’ but both
he and Josephus confirm that it was only the books of the law that were
translated by the elders.3 It was Christian writers who extended their
work to the rest of the Old Testament’and, taking over Philo’s belief in
their inspiration, extended that also to cover the whole of the Greek
Old Testament, including those books that never formed part of the
Hebrew Bible.4
that, while the canon of the
twenty-four books of the Law,
the Alexandrian Jews was more
that this was so: indeed, there is
no evidence that the Alexandrian Jews ever promulgated a canon of
scripture. The reason for thinking that they did, and that it was a more
comprehensive canon that that acknowledged in Palestine, is that
Greek-speaking Christians, who naturally took over the Greek Old
Testament which was already in existence, took over the Greek version
of a number of other books and gave some measure of scriptural status
to them also.
While it was at Alexandria that the Hebrew scriptures were first
translated into Greek, the use of the Greek version quickly spread to
other Jewish communities throughout the Greek-speaking world, not
excluding Judaea itself, where (as the New Testament shows) there
were ‘Hellenists’ (Greek-speaking Jews) as well as ‘Hebrews’
(Hebrew - or Aramaic-speaking Jews).’
With few and fragmentary exceptions, the Septuagint manuscripts
now in existence were produced by Christians. (From now on, the
term ‘Septuagint’ is used in this work of the pre-Christian Greek
version of the whole Old Testament.) Jewish copies of the Septuagint
known to have survived are: (a) a fragment of Deuteronomy from the
second century BC in the John Rylands University Library, Manchester
(P. Ryl. 458), (61 another fragment of Deuteronomy of about the same
date preserved in Cairo (P. Fwad 266), (c) fragments from the
Qumran caves of two scrolls of Leviticus (4QLXXLva and 4QLXXLv4
and one of Numbers (4QLXXNum) from Cave 4, and of Exodus
(7QLXXEx) and the ‘Letter of Jeremiah’ (7QLXXEpJer) from Cave 7,
(d) a fragmentary scroll of the Minor Prophets in Greek from Wad!
Hever (8 YevXII gr), hailed in 1953, shortly after it was discovered, as
‘a missing link in the history of the Septuagint’ (it turned out to be
identical, or nearly so, with the Greek text of those books used by
Justin Martyr in the middle of the second century AD).~
The grandson of Jeshua ben Sira evidently knew the Greek version
of the Hebrew Bible: in the preface to the Greek translation of his
grandfather’s book he apologizes for any defects in his work, on the
ground that ‘what was originally expressed in Hebrew does not have
exactly the same sense when translated into another language. Not
only this work, but even the law itself, the prophecies, and the rest of
’ There was a comparable practice in Hebrew-speaking synagogues in Palestineand
farther east, where the reading of the law and the prophets in Hebrew was followed by
an oml interpretation or /u);(‘NIN in Aramaic. (See p. 53).
’ Philo, I_//c’o/ i\l~w. 2.57.
’ Josephus, AN/IC/NIIIPI. proem, 3.
J See pp.89, 96.
s See Acts 6: 1, according to which both these groups were represented at an early
date in the church ofJerusalem.
b See D. Barthklemy, ‘RedCcouverte d’un chainon manquant de I’histoire de la
Septante’, Rwm B~l,lirpe 60 (1953), pp. 18-29; 1~s Jwucrncrrv~ J’Ayrrilr, VTSup 10
(Leiden, 1963).
4‘4
45
A WIDER CANON?
It has frequently been suggested
Palestinian Jews was limited to the
Prophets and Writings, the canon of
comprehensive. There is no evidence
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
the books differ not a little as originally expressed.”
In 2 Maccabees 15 $9 Judas Maccabaeus, encouraging his followers
before their battle with the Greek commander Nicanor (161~0, is
described as ‘encouraging them from the law and the prophets’. Judas
would have used the Hebrew scriptures, but it would probably be
right to infer that ‘the law and the prophets’ were known in Greek to
the compiler of 2 Maccabees (c 50 BC) and indeed to Jason of Cyrene, a
Hellenistic Jewish writer whose five-volume work on the Maccabaean
struggle is abridged in 2 Maccabees.
Philo of Alexandria (c 20 BC-AD 50) evidently knew the scriptures in
the Greek version only. He was an illustrious representative of
Alexandrian Judaism, and if Alexandrian Judaism did indeed recognize
a more comprehensive canon than Palestinian Judaism, one might
have expected to find some trace of this in Philo’s voluminous writings.
But in fact, while Philo has not given us a formal statement on the
limits of the canon such as we have in Josephus, the books which he
acknowledged as holy scripture were quite certainly books included in
the traditional Hebrew Bible. He indicates that special veneration is
paid to ‘the laws, inspired oracles given through the prophets, hymns
and the other books by which knowledge and piety may be increased
and brought to perfection ’ .’ These are the books, he says, which the
Therapeutae (a body of Jewish ascetics in Egypt comparable to the
Essenes in Palestine) keep in their private sanctuaries. The books ‘by
which knowledge and piety may be increased and brought to
perfection’ are presumably poetical and wisdom books: how many of
them Philo knew he does not say. He shows no sign of accepting the
authority of any of the books which we know as the Apocrypha. It
cannot be said certainly that he accepted all the books found in the
Hebrew Bible: there are some, especially in the Writings, of which he
makes no mention.
Josephus in his Antiquities generally depends on the Septuagint. He
used the services of translators, to ensure the literary quality of his
Greek, but the dependence on the Septuagint which the work evinces
is probably his own and not simply theirs. For his precise delimitation
of the canon of scripture, however, he almost certainly relied on
Palestinian sources-this was what he had been taught by his
instructors in the years before the war against the Romans which broke
out in AD 66 (he had little enough opportunity of contact with
Palestinian teachers after the war).“
THE
GREEK
OLD
TESTAMENT
SEPTUAGINTAL ORDER OF BOOKS
The order of books in copies of the Septuagint which have come down
to us differs from the traditional order of the Hebrew Bible, and lies
behind the conventional order of the Christian Old Testament. The
law, comprising the five books of Moses, comes first in both traditions;
it is followed by the historical books, poetical and wisdom books, and
the books of the prophets. As with the Hebrew Bible, so with the
Septuagint, the order of books is more fluid when they are copied on
separate scrolls than when they are bound together in codices. But
there is no reason to think that the Christian scribes who first copied
the Septuagint into codices devised a new sequence for its contents; it
is more likely that they took over the sequence along with the text
itself. It has been held indeed that the Septuagint order represents an
early Palestinian order of the books in the Hebrew Bible, contemporary
with, and possibly even antedating, the Hebrew order which became
traditional. ‘O The evidence is too scanty for any certainty to be
attainable on this matter.
After the Pentateuch, the second division of the Septuagint
corresponds largely with the Former Prophets in the Hebrew Bible,
but Ruth is inserted (in keeping with its dramatic date) between
Judges and 1 Samuel, and the books ofSamuel and Kings (called in the
Septuagint the four books of Kingdoms or Reigns) are followed by the
books of Chronicles (called Paraleipomena, ‘things left over’), 1 Esdras
(a variant Greek edition of the history from 2 Chron. 35:l to Neh.
8:13), 2 Esdras (our Ezra-Nehemiah),” Esther, Judith and Tobit.
Judith and Tobit are not included in the Hebrew Bible; Esther in the
‘” See P. Katz, ‘The Old Testament Canon in Palestine and Alexandria’, ZNW 47
(1956), pp. 191-217.
’ ’ Esdras is the Greek form of Ezra. The nomenclature of the Esdras books is quite
confusing. The following table provides a guide to the variations:
En&h (AV/KJV,
RSV, etc. ) Bthlr and
Apouypha
Ezra
Nehemiah
1 Esdras
2 Esdras
Septua~tnr
=
=
=
=
2 Esdras l-10
2 Esdras 1 l-23
1 Esdras
Luttn Vul@ztr,
Dotray Btble, etc
=
=
=
=
1
2
3
4
Esdras
Esdras
Esdras
Esdras
.? E&as (4 Esdras or 4 Ezra), which is not in the Septuagint, is for the most part
(c haptws 3- 14) a Jewish apocalypseoftheperiod following AD 70 (see p.36), supplied
wlfh a Christian prologue (chapters l-2) and epilogue (chapters 15- 16).
47
THE CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
Septuagint is a considerably expanded edition of the Hebrew Esther.
The third division contains the poetical and wisdom books: Psalms,
Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Job, Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus
(the book of Jeshua ben Sira). Of these, Wisdom (originally written in
Greek) and Ecclesiasticus (originally written in Hebrew) are not found
in the Hebrew Bible. An additional psalm (Ps. 15 1, known in Hebrew
at Qumran) is appended to the Psalter.
As for the fourth division (the prophetical books), the twelve minor
prophets precede the others in the early uncial manuscripts (notably
the Sinaitic, Vatican and Alexandrine codices). Jeremiah is followed
not only by Lamentations but also by the book of Baruch and the Letter
of Jeremiah, I2 neither of which is in the Hebrew Bible. Daniel is
amplified by two stories not in the Hebrew text- the History of
Susanna, which is put at the beginning, I3 and the story of Be1 and the
Dragon, which is added at the end- while a prayer of confession and a
canticle of praise to God Benedicite omnia opera) are put in the mouths
of Daniel’s three friends in the fiery furnace, so that 68 verses are
inserted between verses 23 and 24 of chapter 3.
The books of Maccabees- two, three or four in number’4-form a
sort of appendix to the Septuagint; they do not belong to any of its
main divisions.
Those works which appear in the Septuagint but not in the Hebrew
Bible are sometimes referred to as the ‘Septuagintal plus’; together
with two or three other compositions they are the books which, since
Jerome’s time, have commonly been called the Apocrypha. I5
THE SEPTUAGINT IN THE CHURCH
The scriptures known to Jesus and his disciples were no doubt the
scrolls of the Hebrew Bible-the Law, the Prophets and the
Writings- kept in synagogues for use during regular services and
” In AV/KJV the Lefrer c/]erevLzh is printed as chapter 6 of Baruch.
” In the earliest stage of the Greek version it was perhaps appended to the canonical
book.
I4 1 Maccabees relates the persecution of the Jews under Antiochus IV (175- 164
nc:) and the Maccabaean (Hasmonaean) resistance from a pro-Hasmonaean viewpoint;
2 Maccabees relates part of the same story from a Pharisaic viewpoint; 3 Maccabees
describes a threat to the Jews of Alexandria under Ptolemy IV (221-203 ac); 4
Maccabees presents a moralizing meditation on the martyrdoms described in 2
Maccabees.
‘s See pp.‘)O-93.
48
THE GREEK OLD
TESTAMENT
possibly at other times. When Jesus was about to read the second
lessoni in the Nazareth synagogue on the first sabbath that he visited
his home town after the beginning of his public ministry, and ‘there
was given to him the book of the prophet Isaiah’ (Luke 4: 17), it was
most probably a Hebrew scroll that he received. But even in Palestine,
and not least in Jerusalem itself, there were many Greek-speaking
Jews, Hellenists, and there were synagogues where they might go to
hear the scriptures read and the prayers recited in Greek. Such was the
Synagogue of the Freedmen where Stephen held debate in Jerusalem
(Acts 623).
However much the wording of Stephen’s defence in Acts 7 may owe
to the narrator, the consistency with which its biblical quotations and
allusions are based on the Septuagint is true to life. Since Stephen was
a Hellenist, the Septuagint was the edition of the scriptures which he
would naturally use.
As soon as the gospel was carried into the Greek-speaking world,
the Septuagint came into its own as the sacred text to which the
preachers appealed. In was used in the Greek-speaking synagogues
throughout the Roman Empire. When Paul at Thessalonica visited
the synagogue on three successive sabbaths and ‘argued with them
from the scriptures, explaining and proving that it was necessary for
the Christ to suffer and to rise from the dead’ (Acts 17:2f.), it was on
the Septuagint that he based his arguments. We see him doing this
earlier in greater detail in the synagogue of Pisidian Ant&h. There,
after the reading of the two regular sabbath lessons from ‘the law and
the prophets’, he outlined the history of Israel from the Exodus in
Moses’s day to the beginning of David’s reign, and showed how this
course of events led inevitably and ultimately to the coming of Jesus,
‘great David’s greater Son’, in whose death and resurrection the
promises made by God to David found their fulfilment (Acts 13: 17 37). For Christians, the Old Testament pointed forward to Jesus; it
was, in fact, meaningless without him.
The Septuagint played its part even when the gospel was presented
to complete pagans, like the unsophisticated Lycaonians at Lystra,
who mistook Paul and Barnabas for divine beings (Acts 14:8- 18), or
the sophisticated members of the Athenian court of the Areopagus,
who had no such exaggerated estimate of Paul (Acts 17: 16-32). To
them the Septuagint was not specifically quoted, yet the preliminary
” There were two scripture lessons in the synagogue service: the first lesson from
the Law, the second from the Prophets (cf Acts 13: 15).
/“- - .- --------L
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
arguments from God’s work in creation and providence were securely
based on the Greek scriptures.
‘Greek Judaism’, it has been said, ‘with the Septuagint had ploughed
the furrows for the gospel seed in the Western world’;” but it was the
Christian preachers who sowed the seed. So thoroughly, indeed, did
Christians appropriate the Septuagint as their version of the scriptures
that the Jews became increasingly disenchanted with it. The time
came when one rabbi compared ‘the accursed day on which the seventy
elders wrote the Law in Greek for the king’ to the day on which Israel
made the golden calf. I8 New Greek versions of the Old Testament
were produced for Jewish use- in particular, the very literal rendering
of Aquila and a more idiomatic rendering by Theodotion. I9
(Theodotion’s version of Daniel was so far superior to the earlier
Septuagint version that Christians preferred it: in almost all manuscripts of the Greek Bible it is Theodotion’s Daniel, not the original
Septuagint version, that appears.)”
THE
NEW
TESTAMENT EVIDENCE
While the New Testament writers all used the Septuagint, to agreater
or lesser degree, none of them tells us precisely what the limits of its
contents were. The ‘scriptures’ to which they appealed covered substantially the same range as the Hebrew Bible. We cannot say with
absolute certainty, for example, if Paul treated Esther or the Song of
Songs as scripture any more than we can say if those books belonged to
the Bible which Jesus knew and used. Paul possibly alludes to
Ecclesiastes when he says that creation was made subject to ‘vanity’
(Rom. 8:20), using the same word (Gk. nlat&t~r) as is used in the
Septuagint for the refrain of that book: ‘Vanity of vanities, all is
vanity’ (Eccles. 1:2; 12:8).
On the other side of the frontier which divides the books of the
THE GREEK OLD TESTAMENT
Hebrew Bible from the ‘Septuagintal plus’, the book of Wisdom was
possibly in Paul’s mind as he dictated part of the first two chapters of
Romans, but that would not give it scriptural status: if he does allude
to it, he probably contradicts it here and there.” The writer to the
Hebrews probably had the martyrologies of 2 Maccabees 6: 18 - 7 :4 1
or 4 Maccabees 5 : 3 - 18: 24 in view when he spoke of the tortures and
other hardships which some endured through faith (Heb. 11:35b3Q2* and when he says in the same context that some were sawn in
two he may allude to a document which described how the prophet
Isaiah was so treated.23
The Nestle-Aland edition of the Greek New Testament (1979) has
an index of Old Testament texts cited or alluded to in the New
Testament, followed by an index of allusions not only to the
‘Septuagintal plus’ but also to several other works not included in the
Septuagint. Many of these last are resemblances rather than conscious
allusions; only one is a straight quotation explicitly ascribed to its
source. That is the quotation from ‘Enoch in the seventh generation
from Adam’ in Jude 14 f; this comes recognizably from the apocalyptic
book of Enoch (1 Enoch 1:9). 24 Earlier in Jude’s letter the account of
Michael’s dispute with the devil over the body of Moses may refer to a
work called the Assumption of Moses or Ascension of Moses, but if so, the
part of the work containing this incident has been lost (Jude 9). 25
There are, however, several quotations in the New Testament
which are introduced as though they were taken from holy scripture,
but their source can no longer be identified. For instance, the words
‘He shall be called a Nazarene’, quoted in Matthew 2:23 as ‘what was
spoken by the prophets’, stand in that form in no known prophetical
E. T. (Edinburgh, 1907), p.95.
‘” Tractate S/~&U/N I .8f. The ‘king’ is Ptolemy II of Egypt (285-246 H(.) who,
according to the legend in the Lr/trr Nf Arrttwr. lent his good offices m arranging for
the seventy-two translators to come to Alexandria to carry out their work.
I” Theodotion’s version may have been in part a revision ofan earlier one. Another
<ireek verston, made by one Symmachus in the late second or early third century AI),
was used by the Jewish Christian group known as Eblonites.
‘I’ Two exceptions are LXX cocl~ces XX (the Chigi manuscript of the Septuagint) and
907 (one of the Chester Bcxty bibltcal pzapyrl); these exhiblr the oqmal Septuagint
version.
” The exposure of pagan immorality in Rome 1:18-32 echoes Wisdom 12-14;
the attitude of righteous Jews criticized by Paul in Rom. 2: l- 11 has affinities with
passages in Wisdom 11- 15 (on these see A. Nygren, Commentary on Rnnuns, E. T.
[London, 19521, pp. 113- 120).
” This is particularly clear in his mention of ‘a better resurrection’ (verse 35b)i.e. better than the restoration to mortal life granted to the sons of the widow of
Zarephath and the Shunammite woman (verse 35a)-for a resurrection to immortality
was the expressed hope of the mother and her seven sons in 2 Maccabees 7.
‘.’ Perhaps the Ast~emion of Isaiah, a composite work of the 2nd century HL to the 4th
century AD. The oldest part tells of Isaiah’s martyrdom under Manasseh.
L4 See p.85.
*’ The extant part (also known as the ?‘r.~fdr~rn/ ojMo.w~) is certainly incomplete, but
the A.wmptron c~/Mmrs may have been a separate work from the ‘f’rJtrtrumt; if so, it has
been entirely lost.
50
5’
” A. Deissmann, Nr~r~l~~~~t~,r~thrNru~~r.~fu~~~mt.
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
book. It has been suggested that there may be an allusion to Isaiah
11: 1, where the expected son of David is described as a ‘branch’ to
grow out of the roots of Jesse, as though Heb. n+~ (‘branch’) were to
be read as n& (‘Nazarene’). 26
Again, in John 7:38 ‘Out of his heart shall flow rivers of living
water’ is introduced by the words ‘as the scripture has said’-but
which scripture is referred to? An allusion to some such passage as
Zechariah 14:8, ‘living waters shall flow out from Jerusalem’ (interpreted along the lines of the ‘river of the water of life’ in Rev. 22: l),
has been suspected, but there can be no certainty.
Paul’s words in 1 Corinthians 29, ‘What no eye has seen, nor ear
heard. . .‘, introduced by the clause ‘as it is written’, resemble Isaiah
64:4, but are not a direct quotation from it. Some church fathers say
they come from a work called the Secrets of Elijah or Apocalypse of Elijah,
but this work is not accessible to us and we do not know if it existed in
Paul’s time. *’ The triplet ‘Awake, 0 sleeper, / and arise from the
dead, / and Christ shall give you light’ (Eph. 5: 14), may be a primitive
baptismal hymn, but it is introduced by the words ‘it is said’ (so RSV
for the more literal ‘he says’ or ‘it says’), exactly like the quotation from
Psalm 68: 18 (LXX 67:19) in Ephesians 4:8.** Any resemblance to
Jonah 1:6 is quite fortuitous. The naming of Moses’ opponents as
Jannes and Jambres in 2 Timothy 3:8 may depend on some document
no longer identifiable; the names, in varying forms, appear in a
number of Jewish writings, mostly later than the date of the Pastoral
Epistles. 29
We have no idea what ‘the scripture’ is which says, according to
James 4:5, ‘He yearns jealously over the spirit which he has made to
dwell in us’; we cannot even be sure of the sense, for it might mean,
‘The spirit which he has made to dwell in us yearns jealously.‘30
lb This device, by which it is suggested that one word be replaced by another
having the same consonants but a different pattern of vowels, is familiar in the
rabbinical writings: ‘Read not X but Y.’
*’ On 1 Cor. 2:9 seep. 162 with nn. 8 and 9.
” See F. F. Bruce, Co//~nran.r, Philemon. EpheGans, NICNT (Grand Rapids, 1984),
pp.376-378.
*’ The earliest occurrence, r. 100 nc: (in the form ‘Yahaneh and his brother’), is in
the Bn~,k cd.rhe Cownant of I)a~~~~rc-r/.r (CD 5. 18). See H. Odeberg, ‘Iannes, Iambres’,
‘l’nN7’ 3, pp. 192f.; A. T. Hanson, Sir&~ in the Pastoral Epistles (London, 1968).
pp.26-28.
I” See P. H. Davids, 7’be f@t/r //Jarr/e.r. NIGTC (Exeter/Grand Rapids, 1982),
pp. I622 165.
52
THE
GREEK
OLD
TESTAMENT
SEPTUAGINT AND
NON-SEPTUAGINTAL VERSIONS
There are several places in which the Septuagint translators used a
form of words which (without their being able to foresee it, naturally)
lent itself to the purposes of New Testament writers better than the
Hebrew text would have done. Thus, Matthew can quote as a prophecy
of the virginal conception of Christ the Septuagint version of Isaiah
7: 14, ‘Behold, a virgin shall conceive and bear a son. . .’ (Matt. 1:23),
where the Greek word partbenos means specifically ‘virgin’, as the
Hebrew ‘ah.& need not. (Aquila, who provided a new Greek version
of the Old Testament for Jewish use to replace the Septuagint, took
care to employ the less specific Greek word neanis, ‘girl’ or ‘young
woman’, to blunt the point of a Christian ‘argument from prophecy’.)
Similarly, the Septuagint of Amos 9: 1 If. provided James the Just at
the Council ofJerusalem with divine authority for the Gentile mission
more directly than the Hebrew text could have done (Acts 15 : 15 - 18).
(Here the Septuagint translators themselves had gone a long way
towards spiritualizing and universalizing an oracle which originally
spoke of national revival and expansion.)3’
But there are some places in the New Testament where the Old
Testament is quoted in a different form from the Septuagint as it has
come down to us. For example, in Matthew 12:18-21 the
announcement of the Servant of the Lord in Isaiah 42: l-4 is quoted in
what appears to be a non-Septuagintal version.32 The statement,
‘Vengeance is mine, I will repay’ (from Deut. 32:35), is quoted in
Romans 12: 19 and Hebrews lo:30 in a form corresponding neither to
the Hebrew text nor to the Septuagint, but to the Aramaic Targums
on the Pentateuch. That renderings or paraphrases known to us only
from the Targums were found also in Greek versions of the Old
Testament in the first century AD is suggested also by such expressions
as ‘lest they should. . . be forgiven’ (Mark 4: 12) in a quotation from
Isaiah 6: 10 where the Hebrew and Septuagint read ‘lest they. . . be
healed’; and ‘he gave gifts to men’ (Eph. 4:8) in a quotation from
3’ LXX ‘that the remainder of mankind may seek [me]’ certainly makes a different
impression from ‘that they [the dynasty of David] may take possession of the
remainder of Edom’ (MT).
” See P. Kahle, The Cairo Gmiza (London, 1947), pp. Ibbf., 2nd edition (Oxford,
1959). pp.250-252; R. H. Gundry, Thr Use (6 the OIJ ~U!~VWU tn St Matthm~‘s
Gu~pr/. NovTSup 18 (Leiden, 1967), pp. 1 IO- 116.
53
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Psalm 68:18 (LXX 67:19) where the Hebrew and Septuagint read
. . . received gifts among men’. 33
There is also a little evidence for forms of the Greek version which
approximated to distinctive features of the Samaritan Bible. For
example, Stephen’s speech in Acts 7 is based throughout on the
Septuagint, but his statement in verse 4 that Abraham left Harran for
Canaan ‘after his father died’ is supported neither by the Septuagint
wording (as we have received it) nor by the Masoretic text of the
Hebrew Bible; it is, however, consistent with the Samaritan text,
which gives Terah’s age at death as 145, not 205 (Gen. 1 1:32).34
33 On Targums see pp.44, 285. In Dem. 32:35; Is. 6:lO and Ps. 68:18 the
Peshifta (the Syriac version of the Old Testament) agrees with the targumic
construction.
34 The Masoretic text (MT) is the traditional Jewish text of the Hebrew Bible. If, as
MT and LXX agree, Abraham was born when his father was 70 (Gen. 11:26) and left
Harran for Canaan when he himself was 75 (Gen. 12:4), then Terah had still 60 years
to live. In James Ussher’s chronology the statement of Acts 7:4 is reconciled with the
MT evidence by the supposition that Terah was 70 when his oldest son was born but
was 130 when Abraham was born.
CHAPTER F O U R
THE OLD TESTAMENT
BECOMES A NEW BOOK
WITNESS TO CHRIST
At the beginning of its existence, then, the Christian church found
itself equipped with a book, a collection of sacred scriptures which it
inherited. It was not based on the book: it was based on a person, Jesus
Christ, crucified under Pontius Pilate, raised from the dead by God
and acknowledged by his followers as Lord of all. But the book bore
witness to him; in this role they found it indispensable. At the same
time they found the record of his life and teaching, his suffering and
triumph, indispensable to their understanding of the book.
In this they were but following a precedent established by Jesus
himself. Throughout his ministry he appealed to the scriptures. The
insistence that ‘so it is written’ is too deeply embedded in all the
gospel strata to be reasonably regarded as only the product of the
church’s reflection on the events of his life and death in the light of
Easter and its aftermath. If the main lines of Old Testament interpretation found in the various New Testament writers are traced back
to their origin, that origin cannot be found elsewhere than in Jesus’
own teaching.
From the inauguration of his Galilaean ministry with the
announcement that the appointed time had come for the kingdom of
God to draw near (Mark 1: 15), the appeal to what is written recurs
54
55
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
throughout Jesus’ ministry until at the end he submits to his captors
in Gethsemane with the words: ‘Let the scriptures be fulfilled’ (Mark
14:49).
According to the Acts of the Apostles, the early preaching of the
gospel to Jews and God-fearing Gentiles was regularly marked by the
appeal to the fulfilment of Old Testament scripture in the work of
Jesus. It is to him, Peter assures Cornelius, that ‘all the prophets bear
witness’ (Acts 10:43). When Philip is asked by the Ethiopian on his
homeward journey from Jerusalem to whom the prophet is referring as
he describes the suffering of the Isaianic Servant, Philip does not
hesitate: ‘beginning with this scripture he told him the good news of
Jesus’ (Acts 835). The impression given in Acts is confirmed by Paul:
‘the gospel of God. . . concerning his Son’, he says, was ‘promised
beforehand through his prophets in the holy scriptures’ (Rom. 1: l--3),
and throughout his exposition of the gospel in the letter to the
Romans he shows in detail what he means by this. Thanks to the
illumination thrown on them by their fulfilment in Christ, the ancient
scriptures became a new and meaningful book to the early Christians.
The prophets themselves, we are assured in 1 Pet l:lO-12, had to
search hard to find out ‘what person or time was indicated by the Spirit
of Christ within them when predicting the sufferings of Christ and the
subsequent glory’; they had to learn that their ministry was designed
for the generation which witnessed the fulfilment ofwhat they foretold.
Various figures of Old Testament expectation were now identified
with Christ- the prophet like Moses (Deut. 18: 15 - 19), the son of
David (2 Sam. 7: 12- 16), the servant of Yahweh (Is. 42:1, etc.), the
righteous sufferer (Ps. 22: 1, etc.), the stricken shepherd (Zech. 13:7),
and others. It is not simply that a number of texts out of context are
given a Christian significance: the New Testament interpretation of a
few Old Testament words or sentences actually quoted often implies
the total context in which these words or sentences occur. Moreover,
different New Testament writers will quote different words from the
same context in a manner which suggests that the whole context had
been given a Christian interpretation before those writers quoted from
it. It has been pointed out, for example, that from Ps. 69:9 (‘zeal for
thy house has consumed me, and the insults of those who insult thee
have fallen on me’) the former part is applied to Jesus’ cleansing of the
temple in John 2: 17 and the latter part to his patient endurance of
verbal abuse in Romans 15:3. While no one is likely to maintain that
the one writer has influenced the other, ‘it would be too much of a
56
THE
OLD
TESTAMENT
BECOMES
A
NEW
BOOK
coincidence if the two writers independently happened to cite the two
halves of a single verse, unless they were both aware that at least this
whole,verse, if not any more of the Psalm, formed part of a scheme of
scriptural passages generally held to be especially significant’. ’ This
implies something more substantial in the way of primitive Christian
exegesis than a chain of isolated proof-texts or ‘testimonies’.
Alongside this contextual element goes another, which has analogies
elsewhere in Judaism: the bringing together and giving a unified
exegesis to widely separated scriptures which have a significant term
in common. For example: at a very early date the reference in Psalm
118:22 to the stone rejected by the builders which has become the
‘head of the corner’ (or capstone of the pediment) was seen to be
specially applicable to Jesus, rejected by men but exalted by God. As
Peter said to the chief priests and their colleagues, ‘this is the stone
which was rejected by you builders, but which has become the head of
the corner’ (Acts 4: 11)‘. But other ‘stone’ passages from the Hebrew
Bible were attracted to this one and an integrated Christian interpretation was provided for all together: Jesus is also the tested corner
stone of sure foundation in Isaiah 28: 16, the rock of refuge amid the
flood waters in Isaiah 8: 14 which causes the downfall of those who
stumble against it, the stone in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream which
pulverizes the great image of pagan world-dominion (Dan. 2:34f.).3
Similarly (and especially in the light of Jesus’ preferred self-designation
as the Son of Man) we find the ‘one like a son of man’ of Daniel 7: 13
brought into close relation with the ‘son of man’ of Psalm 8:4 beneath
whose feet all things have been placed and possibly also with the ‘son
of man’ of Psalm 80: 17 whom God makes strong for himself.4
Something of the same order appears in the biblical exegesis of the
Qumran community, where the prophets are found to foretell the
circumstances of the community’s rise and progress, and especially the
fortunes of its leader, the ‘Rightful Teacher’. If in Habakkuk 1:4 ‘the
wicked circumvent the righteous’, or in Psalm 37: 12 ‘the wicked plots
’ C. H. Dodd, The Old Testament in the New (London, 1952), p.8; cjhis According to
the Scriptures (London, 1952), p.57 (‘it is more probable that both writers wereguided
by a tradition in which this psalm was already referred to Christ’).
* It is used as a ‘testimony’ already in the synoptic tradition (Mark 12: 1Of. and
parallels).
’ C/Luke 20:17f.; Rom. 9:32f.; 1 Pet. 2:6-8. See J. R. Harris, Testimonies, I
(Cambridge, 1916), pp.27-32.
4 C/l Cor. 15:24-28; Heb. 2:6-9.
57
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
against the righteous’, this is understood without more ado by the
Qumran commentators as a prediction of the attacks made on the
Teacher by his enemies. To a great degree the Hebrew scriptures thus
became a new book to the community. Other Jews read the same
scriptures, but lacked the key to their interpretation. This key had
been given to the Teacher, and by him to his followers: God had
shown the prophets what was going to take place, but the knowledge
of when it would take place was withheld from them and revealed in
the fulness of time to the Teacher.’
If the early Christians recognized the righteous sufferer in the
Psalms as Jesus, the persecutors of the righteous sufferer were readily
identified with Jesus’ enemies, and with none more readily than Judas
Iscariot . Here again the cue seems to have been given by Jesus himself:
there is no good reason to doubt that at the Last Supper he used the
words of Psalm 4 1:9, ‘he who ate of my bread has lifted his heel against
me’, to indicate to his companions that he knew there was a traitor in
the camp.6 It was no difficult matter to find other passages in the
Psalter which could be similarly applied to Judas. Two such passages
are applied to him by Peter in Acts 1:20 when he considers with his
fellow-apostles who should be co-opted to fill the vacancy left by
Judas’s defection.’
With such dominical and apostolic precedent the church was able
so to read the Old Testament writings that they yielded not only an
increasing store of ‘testimonies’ regarding the person and work of
Christ but even additional details about New Testament events. (At
some levels this interpretative method is still practised: I have heard a
preacher argue from the AV/KJV rendering of Isaiah 53:9, ‘he made his
grave with the wicked’, that our Lord, before he was crucified, was
compelled to dig his own grave.) This tendency we find in full vigour
in Justin Martyr and in Cyprian’s Testimonies against the Jews (second
and third centuries A D); it was carried to excess in the Middle Ages,
when the passion narrative (for example) was lavishly embellished
5 See F. F. Bruce, Bibliral Exegesis in the Qunrran Texts
Brooke, Exegek at Qumran (Sheffield, 1985).
(London, 1960); G. J.
’ C/John 13: 18 (also 17: 12, ‘none of them is lost but the son ofperdition, that the
scripture might be fulfilled’).
’ Pss. 69:25 (LXX 68:25); 109:8 (LXX 108:8). For Ps. 69 Qn. 1 above. Compare
also the application of Ps. 2: If. in Acts 4:25-28 to ‘Herod and Pontius Pilate with the
Gentiles and the peoples of Israel’ (a similar, but not identical, application of Ps. 2: If.
is found in Tertullian, On the Rcruwrc-tron ojfhe Flesh, 20).
58
THE
OLD
TESTAMENT
BECOMES
A
NEW
BOOK
with Old Testament motifs divorced from their context as well as with
elements from other sources. ’
THE MYSTERY DISCLOSED
That the Old Testament prophecies were ‘mysteries’ whose solution
awaited their fulfilment in the New Testament age was axiomatic in
the early church. Occasionally the word ‘mystery’ itself is used in this
sense (as it was freely used in the Qumran commentaries). ‘To you’,
says Jesus to his disciples, ‘the mystery of the kingdom of God has
been given, but to outsiders all these things come as riddles, so that
they see without perceiving, and hear without understanding; otherwise they would turn back and receive forgiveness’ (Mark 4: 1 lf.).9
In the Pauline writings one aspect of the gospel- the manner and
purpose of its communication to the Gentile world-is treated as a
‘mystery. . . which was not made known to the sons of men in other
generations as it has now been revealed to Christ’s holy apostles and
prophets in the Spirit’ (Eph. 3:4f.). That the Gentiles would place
their hope on the Son of David and rejoice in the God of Israel was
affirmed in the Old Testament, as Paul emphasizes in a series of
quotations in Romans 15:9- 12, but how this prospect would be
realized and what its implications would be could not be appreciated
until the Gentile mission was launched in the apostolic age.
The individual New Testament writers have their distinctive interpretative methods. Matthew records how this or that incident in the
life of Jesus took place ‘in order that it might be fulfilled which was
spoken through the prophet’ (Matt. 1:23, etc.). Paul sees the partial
and temporary setting aside of Israel as clearly stated in the Law, the
Prophets and the Psalms as he finds the ingathering of the Gentiles
adumbrated there. lo The writer to the Hebrews sees the priestly and
’ See the fourteenth-century German mystical treatise now called Chrirri L&&n in
einer Vision gmbaut (Christ’s Sufferings seen in a Vision’), ed F.P. Pickering
(Manchester, 1952); also F. P. Pickering, ‘Christi Kreuzigung: J&s neutestamentliche
Wort, das mittelalterliche Bild’, in Literatur und Darsteilenak Kunst im Mrttelalter
(Berlin, 1966), pp. 146- 192, and ‘TheGothic Image ofchrist’, in Essays on Mediaezal
German Lzterature and Iconography (Cambridge, 1980), pp.3-30. Another example is
the fifteenth-century English pOem Quia amore langueo, where Cant. I:5 (understood
as ‘I suffer pain for love’s sake’) serves as a text for the sufferings of Christ (The Neu,
Ox+-dBook of English Verse, ed. Helen Gardner [Oxford, 19721, No. 11).
’ An allusion to Is. 6:9f.
‘” Cf.Rom. 9:6-l 1:27.
59
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
THE OLD TESTAMENT BECOMES A NEW BOOK
sacrificial order of Israel as an earthly ‘copy’ (ineffective in itself) of the
heavenly reality which was perfected by the work of Christ. l1 John the
evangelist portrays Jesus as giving substance to a number of Old
Testament motifi- the word, the glory, the tabernacle;” the bread of
life, the water of life, the light of life. I3 In the Apocalypse may be seen
what has been called ‘a rebirth of images’ from the Old Testament and
other ancient lore, some of which might have been thought
unadaptable to a Christian purpose, yet all pressed into service to
depict the triumph of Christ. l4 However differently the interpretative
tradition is developed by those writers, the core of the tradition is
common to all: Jesus is the central subject of the Old Testament
revelation; it is to him that witness is borne throughout.
One important phase of this interpretative tradition is the tracing of
a recurrent pattern in the story of God’s dealing with his people.
Something of this sort is already discernible in the Old Testament
itself, where the bringing of the people of God back from the Babylonian exile is presented as a repetition of his delivering power
manifested earlier in the exodus from Egypt. ” New Testament writers
in their turn appear to view the history of Israel from Egypt to Canaan
as recapitulated either in the personal experience of the Messiah or in
the corporate experience of the messianic people. I6
Recapitulation in the Messiah’s personal experience (perhaps by
way of appying Isaiah 639, ‘In all their affliction he was afflicted’)”
appears especially in the Old Testament quotations of Matthew’s
nativity narrative where, for example, the reference to the exodus in
Hosea 11: 1 (‘out of Egypt I called my son’) is said to have been fulfilled
in the holy family’s flight into Egypt and return thence to the land of
Israel. ” Something similar may be implicit in the parallel between
Jesus’ forty days in the wilderness and Israel’s forty years of wilderness
wandering, both periods of testing coming as the sequel to a
‘baptismal’ experience. I9
As for the recapitulation of the Egypt-to-Canaan sequence in the
life of the church, this pervades the New Testament epistles, Pauline
and non-Pauline alike, and must reflect an extremely primitive
Christian tradition.
Israel had the paschal lamb; ‘Christ our passover has been sacrificed
for US’, says Paul (1 Cor. 5:7)- ‘a lamb without blemish and without
spot’, says Peter (1 Pet. 1: 19). *O Israel passed through the Red Sea,
being thus ‘baptized into Moses’, says Paul (baptized without being
immersed, as a Scats divine once pointed out, whereas the Egyptians
were immersed without being baptized);24 Christians for their part are
‘baptized into Christ’ (1 Cor. 10:2; Gal. 3:27). Israel had manna from
heaven and water from the rock to sustain and refresh them in the
wilderness; Christians too have their supernatural food and drink (1
Cor. 10:3f., 16). But for all these privileges, the generation that left
Egypt died in the wilderness because of rebellion against the God who
brought them out; Christians should take due warning lest disobedience on their part brings them into comparable disaster (1 Cor.
lO:6-12). And here the writer to the Hebrews takes over: Israel in the
wilderness had a promised ‘rest’ to look forward to, but failed to enter
into it on account of unbelief; so Christians may miss the rest that
remains for the people of God if they in their turn cherish ‘an evil heart
of unbelief, in falling away from the living God’ (Heb. 3: 12; 4: 1 l).**
Then there is an interpretative principle which has been called the
‘real presence’ of Christ in the Old Testament. 23 In a Pauline passage
already referred to, the rock which accompanied the Israelites in the
wilderness is said to have been Christ’ (1 Cor. 10:4)24-it WAS from
Christ, that is to say, that they drew their spiritual refreshment then,
” Heb. 9:1-10:18.
” These three representations of the divine presence are brought together in John
1: 14, ‘the Word became flesh and trrhrrnaclrrlamong us, and we beheld his glory.’
I3 John 6:35; 4:10-14 and 7:37-39; 8:12.
I4 See A. M. Farrer, A Rrhirfh oflnqes (London, 1949).
” See Is. 43:2, 16, 19; 48:21; 52:12; 63:7- 14.
I* C/ Luke 9:3Of, where Moses and Elijah talk with Jesus on the mount of
transfiguration about his ‘exodus’ which was to be accomplished at Jerusalem.
” LXX renders differently: ‘Not an ambassador, nor a messenger, but he himself
saved them.
‘” Rut see J. Barr, [f/~/y .Su$rlue (Oxford, 1983), p.98.
I9 Mark 1: 13; r@eut. 8:2 (it is noteworthy that Jesus’ three citations of scripture
in response to the tempter, reproduced in Matt. 4:4, 7, 10 par. Luke 4:4,8, 12, are
drawn from Deut. 6 and 8).
*O Melito dwells on this motif in his Paschal Homily, 69, etc. (see p.68).
” Neil Macmichael, quoted by J. Macleod, Scotrirh Theohgy (Edinburgh, 1945),
pp.253f.
‘* This warning comes in the course of an exposition and application of Ps.
95:7- 11 (LXX 94:7-l 1).
*’ A T Hanson Jesus Christ in the OldTestament (London, 1965), p.7, etc.
u Ahalfway stag’e towards Paul’s statement that ‘the rock was Christ’ may be found
in the identification of the rock with divine wisdom, attested in Philo, The Worn
attads the Better, 115 (cfwisdom 1 1:4).
60
61
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
just as Christians do today. Another instance is found in what is
probably the original reading of Jude 5, ‘Jesus, who delivered a people
from the land of Egypt, later destroyed those who did not believe.’ In
place of ‘Jesus’ various authorities for the text have ‘the Lord’ or ‘God’
or the Greek definite article (to be translated ‘he who delivered. . . ‘).
But these various readings have arisen because of the difficulty felt to
inhere in the reading ‘Jesus’; no scribe would have substituted ‘Jesus’
for any one of them. ” What could ‘Jesus’ mean in this context? The
reference is not to Moses’ servant and successor Joshua, as it is in Acts
7:45 and Hebrews 4:8. Joshua led Israel into the promised land (thus
providing the material for a rich Joshua-Jesus typology), but he did
not deliver them from the land of Egypt. Jude’s point seems to be that
the one who led Israel out of Egypt was the Son of God before his
incarnation (the Son of God who in incarnation was called Jesus). The
fact that Yahweh, the personal name of the God of Israel, was
commonly read as ‘Lord’ (Gk. &io_r) in the Septuagint, and that Jesus
was called ‘Lord’ (Gk. krrios) in the church,” made it the easier to
identify Jesus with ‘the Lord’ who went before Israel in a pillar of cloud
and fire, who rescued them from the power of the Egyptians, who
healed them in the wilderness (Exod. 13:21; 14:30; 15:26). It was
even easier to identify Jesus with the covenant-messenger, the angel of
Yahweh’s presence, who led them under Moses towards the land of
rest (Exod. 14: 19; 23:20-23; 32:34; 33:2, 14; Is. 63:9).28
The Hebrew scriptures, especially in their Greek dress, thus became
for the early church a new book, a Christian book, a book primarily
designed to bear witness to Jesus. Not only so, but others who were
introduced to those writings through Christians were evidently
predisposed to read them from a Christian perspective.
‘One of the extraordinary features of the early Church’, it has been
said, ‘is the number of men who were converted by reading the Old
Testament’29-converted, that is to say, from paganism to
Christianity. It does not appear that those men had any antecedent
” See B. M. Metzger, A Textnai Cnmmentaty on the Greek Neu Testament (London/
New York, 197 l), pp.725f.
x C/-Letter of Barnabas 6:Bf.; Justin, Dialogue with Ttypbn, 113, 132; see J. R.
Harris, Te.rtimnie.r, II (Cambridge, 1920). pp.5 l-57.
” See especially Phil. 2:9- Il.
‘” Compare Justin’s interpretation of ‘my name is in him’ (Exod. 23:2 1) in Diulogue
Wlfh Trjpho, 75.
“) W. Barclay, Tbr Mdmg (4 the Bthle (London, 1961). p.41.
62
THE
OLD
TESTAMENT
BECOMES
A
NEW
BOOK
conviction of the authority of the Old Testament, but as they read it,
it ‘found’ them (in Coleridge’s sense of the word).” One wonders,
however, if they were completely ignorant of an interpretative
tradition which helped them to read the Christian gospel there. 3’
A good example is provided by Tatian in an autobiographical
section of his Address to the Greeks (c AD 170). After unsatisfying
experiences of Greek philosophical and legal literature and of mystery
religions, he says:
I withdrew myself and sought best how to discover the truth.
While I was earnestly employed in this matter, I happened to
light upon certain ‘barbaric’ [i.e. non-Greek] writings, too old
to be compared with the opinions of the Greeks and too divine
to be compared with their error. I found myself convinced by
these writings, because of the unpretentious cast of the language,
the unstudied character of the writers, the ready comprehension
of the making of the universe, the foreknowledge of things to
come, the excellence of the precepts and the placing ofall things
under the rule of one principle. My soul being thus taught by
God, I understood that the pagan writings led to condemnation,
whereas these put an end to the slavery that is in the world,
rescuing us from many rulers (arrhons), yes, from ten thousand
tyrants. These writings do not indeed give us something which
we had not received before but rather something which we had
indeed received but were prevented by error from making our
own.”
These last words suggest that Tatian’s reading of the Old Testament
was preceded or accompanied by some awareness of the line of interpretation which enabled him to understand it in a Christian sense.
A
SHARED
HERITAGE
But this Christian book, as it was to the church, comprised the holy
scriptures of the Jewish people. Even the Septuagint version, which
the Gentile church took to its heart, was in origin a Jewish translation.
” S. T. Coleridge, Confrssions (fun Inquirin~Spirit (London,’ 1849), pp. 11, 13.
3’ See E. Flesseman-van Leer, ‘Prinzipien der Sammlung und Ausscheidung bei der
Bildung des Kanons’, ZTK61(1964), p.407 with n. 14.
” Tatian, Address to thr Grrrk~., 2’) rfJustin, Dicrh~~~:/lr ujrth Try/h, 8. I ; Theophilus,
‘1.0 Adymr, 1. 14.
63
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
When the law and the prophets were read week by week in the
synagogue, whether in the Hebrew original or in the Greek translation, they were understood in a Jewish sense, according to the
‘tradition of the elders’. Jews and Christians had the same sacred book,
but that did not serve as a bond of unity between them.
As Jews heard the scriptures read, they learned that every male
child had to be circumcised when he was eight days old if he was to be
reckoned a member of the people of God. They learned that every
seventh day was to be observed as a rest day, and that certain other days
throughout the year were to be specially set aside for sacred purposes.
They learned, moreover, that the flesh of certain animals was not to be
eaten, because they were ‘unclean’, and that the flesh even of ‘clean’
animals might be eaten only under certain stringent conditions-for
example, both their fat and their blood were forbidden for food. These
restrictions were so binding that any infringement of them imperilled
one’s membership in the chosen people.
Christians-even, to an increasing degree, Christians who had
been brought up to observe these regulations-soon came to adopt a
relaxed attitude to them. In the new order inaugurated by Christ
circumcision was irrelevant. The keeping of the sabbath and other
sacred days was not obligatory but voluntary. As for food-restrictions,
Jesus was recorded as having once given a ruling which meant, in
effect, that all kinds of food were ‘clean’. 33
Yet the text of scripture had not changed: what had changed was
the Christians’ understanding of it in the light of their Master’s
teaching and achievement. It is easy to appreciate how Jews, who did
not share the Christians’ estimate of the person and work of Jesus,
found this playing fast and loose with the divine commandments an
incomprehensible and totally deplorable proceeding.
Christians, on the other hand, who found such luminous testimony
to Christ and the gospel in the same scriptures, wondered how Jews
could read them with such lack of comprehension. One explanation
was that a ‘judicial blinding’ prevented Jews from seeing what was so
plain to Christians. Paul uses the story of Moses’ face, which shone
with reflected glory after he had been in the presence ofGod, so that he
had to put a veil or mask on it (Exod. 34:29-35); in Paul’s application
of the story, the veil is somehow transferred from Moses’ face to the
minds of the synagogue congregation ‘whenever Moses is read’, so that
‘.I Mark 7: 19
64
T H E OLD TESTAMENT BECOMES A NEW BOOK
they cannot see ‘the glory of God in the face of Christ’ (2 Cor.
3:7-4:6).
Justin Martyr in his First Apology criticizes the Jewish belief that the i
one who introduced himself to Moses in the burning bush as ‘the God
of Abraham and the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob’ was ‘the Father
and Creator of the universe’. The Jews are wrong, says Justin (as the
spirit of prophecy says, ‘Israel does not know me, my people have not
understood me’);‘4 it was the Son of God who spoke to Moses from the
bush. 35 He bases his argument on the statement that ‘the angel of the
Lord appeared’ to Moses in the bush (Exod. 3:2), and it is the Son of
God, says Justin, ‘who is called both angel and apostle’. 36 But Justin is
wrong: he is contradicted by Jesus himself. When Jesus, in his dispute
I
with some Sadducees, based the truth of the resurrection on the
affirmation of Exodus 3:6, ‘I am the God of Abraham and the God of
Isaac and the God of Jacob’, he certainly identified the speaker with
‘the Father and Creator of the universe’. 37 But even the plain sense of
Jesus’ words (which were not unknown to Justin)38 could not dislodge
from his mind the force of the interpretative principle that, where ‘the
angel of the Lord’ is mentioned in the Old Testament narrative
(especially if the phrase alternates, as it does in the narrative of the
burning bush, with ‘God’ or ‘the Lord’), it is Christ before his
incarnation that is meant.
The inability of Jews and Gentiles to comprehend one another,
despite their common Bible, is well illustrated in Justin’s Dialogue ~
with Ttypbo. Trypho is a Jew who has escaped from the disaster which
befell the Jews of Palestine with the suppression of the second Jewish
revolt against Rome (AD 135); he and Justin meet in Ephesus and fall
into conversation. Justin tells Trypho how he was converted to
Christian faith from Greek philosophy; Trypho smilingly suggests
that it would have been better to stick to Plato than to desert him for
the opinons of men of no repute. This leads them to discuss the issues
between Christianity and Judaism: the two men are unprejudiced,
friendly and courteous in their language, but they achieve no meeting
of minds. Both appeal to the Old Testament, but they cannot agree on
its meaning, because they argue from incompatible principles of
interpretation. Quite often, indeed, the modern Christian reader is
” Justin, First Apology, 63.1 If.
LXX.
‘6 Justin, First Apology, 63.5.
” Mark 12:24-27 par. Matt. 22:29-32 and Luke 20:34-38.
3* Justin quotes Luke 20:35f. in Dialogue with Ttypbo, 81.4.
34 Is. I:3
65
.
THE
CANON
OF
bound to agree with Trypho’s interpretation against Justin’s.
For example, they discuss the incident of the burning bush, just
mentioned. After listening to Justin’s interpretation, Trypho says,
‘This is not what we understand from the words quoted: we understand
that, while it was an angel that appeared in a flame of fire, it was God
who spoke to Moses. ‘39 Here Trypho’s understanding is sounder than
J ustin’s.
On the same principle Justin argues that it was Christ who
announced Isaac’s birth to Abraham and Sarah (Gen. 18:1O),4o who
overthrew the cities of the plain (Gen. 19:23),4’ who spoke to Jacob in
his dreams at Bethel and Paddan-aram and wrestled with him at
Peniel (Gen. 28:13-15; 31:11-13; 32:24-30),42 who appeared to
Joshua as captain of the Lord’s host (Josh. 5: 13 - 1 5),43 and so forth.
All this Trypho finds quite unacceptable. Even more unacceptable to
him is Justin’s claim that Jewish rabbis have deliberately altered the
text of scripture so as to obscure clear references to Christ. For
instance, Justin’s Greek text of Psalm 96:lO (LXX 95:lO) read ‘the
Lord reigned from the tree’- to him a clear prediction of the crucifurion.
Trypho’s Bible did not contain these additional words (and neither
does ours). ‘Whether the rulers of our people’, said Trypho, ‘have
erased any portion of the scriptures, as you allege, God knows; but it
seems incredible. ‘44 Again, Trypho was right.
Trypho even comes to the point of agreeing that Justin is right in
saying that, according to the scriptures, the Messiah must suffer;45
but that, he insists, does not prove Jesus to be the Messiah. After two
days’ discussion the two men part as friends, but neither has begun to
convince the other.
Justin’s exploitation of the motif of the ‘real presence’ of Christ in the
Old Testament has passed into much traditional Christian theology,
but it goes far beyond the interpretative tradition of the New
Testament and indeed goes beyond the limits of the rational use of
language.
Quite apart from the differences between the Hebrew text and the
Septuagint, Jews and Christians could no longer be said to read the
same scriptures in any material sense, in view of the divergent traditions of interpretation which they followed. The accepted Christian
“) Diahp, 60. 1.
” D/aIqm 5 8.
” Diahgue, 90. 1.
THE OLD TESTAMENT BECOMES A NEW BOOK
SCRIPTURE
tradition ,became more sharply anti-Judaic, and the Jewish tradition
in turn became increasingly careful to exclude renderings or interpretations, previously quite acceptable, which now proved to lend
themselves all too readily to a Christian p~rpose.~~ So, in spite of the
shared heritage of the holy book, the two opposed traditions hardened.
Only in more recent times, with the acceptance on both sides of the
principles of grammatico-historical exegesis, have the hard outlines
softened, so that today Jews and Christians of varying traditions can
collaborate happily in the common task of biblical interpretation.47
46 Rabbi Aqiba’s colleagues were scandalized when he seemed to accept the
identification of the ‘one like a son of man’ of Dan. 7.: 13 with the Davidic Messiah (TB
wgigab
14a; Sanhedrn 38b). Seealsop.295 with n.37.
But this collaboration can scarcely be expected to extend to the ‘plenary sense’ of
the Old Testament as developed in Christian tradition; see pp.3 16-334.
”
“’ D~ahpe, 56.6-8.
” Diahpr, 56.18-2 1.
42 Diahp, 62.4f.
44 Dlalque, 7 3.
66
67
THE
CHRISTIAN
CANON-OLD
TESTAMENT:
THE EAST
THREE EARLY UNCIALS
The great uncial codices of the complete Greek Bible from the fourth
and fifth centuries AD tell us something of the books which were
acknowledged as having the status of holy scripture or at least being
not unworthy to be bound up along with books of holy scripture.
Here, for example, are the contents of the codices Sinaiticus (Aleph).
Vaticanus (B) and Alexandrinus (A)4, so far as their Old Testament part
is concerned:
CHAPTER FIVE
THE CHRISTIAN CANON
OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
A. IN THE EAST
Apart from a few fragments from pre-Christian generations, our
witnesses to the text of the Septuagint are exclusively Christian. At an
early date the Christians used the codex form and not the older scroll
form for their copies of the Septuagint. ’ The oldest surviving Christian
copies of the Septuagint have the form of codices. These are seven of
the Chester Beatty biblical papyri (a collection, now in the Chester
Beatty Museum and Library, Dublin, whose acquisition was first
announced in 193 1). As listed in the catalogue of Septuagint codices,
they are Codd. 961 (Genesis), 962 (another copy of Genesis), 963
(Numbers-Deuteronomy). 964 (Ecclesiasticus), 965 (Isaiah), 966
(Jeremiah), 967/8 (Ezekiel, Daniel, Esther). (Another codex in the
same collection contained the Greek text of 1 Enoch and the Paschal
Homily of Melito, Bishop of Sardis.‘) With three New Testament
codices, 3 these apparently made up the Bible of a Greek-speaking
church somewhere in Egypt. They were copied between the midsecond and late fourth centuries A D; they are all sadly defective but
some are in a better condition than others.
’ See C. H. Roberts and T. C. Skeat, ?-be Birth r4fhe Cdex (London, 1983).
z seep.70
1 P. P’“, P’ in the catalogue of New Testament manuscripts. See pp. 129, 130.
68
Sinaiticus
4th century:
Genesis. . . , Numbers . . . , Judges.. . , 1 & 2 Chronicles: 1 & 2
Esdras, Tobit, Judith, 1 & 4 Maccabees, Isaiah, Jeremiah,
Lamentations, the Twelve, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
Song of Songs, Wisdom, Sirach, Job. (Exodus, Leviticus and
Deuteronomy ate missing, as also are most of Joshua-4
Kingdoms; the text of the Twelve Prophets is incomplete.)
Vaticanus 4th century:
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua,6
Judges, Ruth, l-4 Kingdoms, I& 2 Chronicles, 1 & 2 Esdras,
Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Job, Wisdom,
Sirach, Esther, Judith, Tobit, the Twelve, Isaiah, Jeremiah,
Baruch, Lamentations, Letter of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel.
(The books of Maccabees are not included.)
Alexandrinus 5th centuvy:
Genesis, Exodus,
Judges, Ruth, l-4
Isaiah, Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, Daniel,
Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua,
Kingdoms, 1 & 2 Chronicles, the Twelve,
Baruch, Lamentations, Letter of Jeremiah,
Esther, Tobit, Judith, 1 & 2 Esdras, 1-4
4 The use of letters of the alphabet as short-hand labels for the chief uncial
manuscripts (manuscripts written in capital letters) was inadvertently begun by Brian
Walton, bishopofchester, who in his BibIiaSacra Polyglotta(London, 1655-57) used
A to designate CoJex A/exam&us. B was later used to designate Co& Vaticanus, and
so on. When Tischendorf discovered Co&x Sinaiticur, he did not wish to do it the
indignity of labelling it with a letter lower down the alphabet than A and B, so he
designated it by Aieph, the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
’ In this and all following lists of the Greek Old Testament books, ‘Chronicles’
translates Gk. Paraieipomena (see p.90, n.39.
’ In LXX the book of Joshua is regularly called f?~owt Ncnr? (LatinJuu Nata), i.e.
‘Joshua (the son of) Nun’, NauS being a form which NIUJ took through corruption in
the course of transmission.
69
THE
CANON
OF
THE
SCRIPTURE
CHRISTIAN
CANON-OLD
T E S T AM
E N T:
THE
EAST
Maccabees, Psalms, Job, proverbs, Ecclesiasces, Song of Songs,
names of the books, he tells us, during a visit to the east in which he
Wisdom, Sirach, [Psalms of Solomon]. (The Psalms of
Solomon, a collection of eighteen poems from the middle of the
first century B C, were probably never accepted as holy scripture.
The work is listed, at the end of all the biblical books, in the
catalogue of contents prefaced to Co&x Alexanclrinus, but its text
is not reproduced.)
‘reached the place where these things were preached and enacted’. So,
he says,
JUSTIN MARTYR
The story of the origin of the Septuagint, as told in the Letter of
AD 16O), who evidently
regards the Septuagint version as the only reliable text of the Old
Testament. Where it differs from the Hebrew text, as read and
interpreted by the Jews, the Jews (he says) have corrupted the text so as
to obscure the scriptures’ plain prophetic testimony to Jesus as the
Christ.’ He tells how the compositions of the prophets were read in
the weekly meetings of Christians along with the memoirs of the
apostles;’ the memoirs of the apostles indicated the lines along which
the prophets’ words were to be understood.
Avisteas, is summarized by Justin Martyr (c
MELITO OF SARDIS
Few of the early Christian writers had occasion to give a precise list of
the Old Testament books recognized and used in their own circles;
therefore, for our present purpose, special interest attaches to those
who do give such a list. One of these was Melito, bishop of Sardis
about AD 170. Melito’s use of the Old Testament is well illustrated by
his Paschal Homily,’ which is based on the reading of the Exodus
narrative; following the precedent set by Paul in 1 Cor. 5:7f.; 10: 1-4,
he expounds the narrative typologically with reference to Christ, but
takes it for granted that the gospel story itself is well enough known to
his hearers without its being necessary for him to appeal to any writing
of the Christian age.
His list of Old Testament books is given in the course ofa letter to a
friend of his named Onesimus. For its preservation we are indebted to
Eusebius, who has included in his Ecdesiastical History quotations from
so many writers of the first three centuries AD whose works are
otherwise lost (in whole or in part). Melito ascertained the number and
’ See p.66.
’ Frrsi APO&~, 67.3. Seep.
70
127.
9 See
p.68.
having learned accurately the books of the old covenant, I set
them down and have sent them to you. These are their names:
Five books of Moses-Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus,
Deuteronomy.
Joshua the son of Nun, Judges, Ruth, four books of
Kingdoms, two books of Chronicles.
The Psalms of David, the Proverbs of Solomon (also called
Wisdom), Ecclesiastes, the Song of Songs, Job.
The Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, the Twelve in a single book,
Daniel, Ezekiel, Esdras. lo
Melito’s list probably includes all the books of the Hebrew Bible
except Esther. Esdras will be Ezra-Nehemiah, reckoned as one book in
the Hebrew enumeration, as in the Septuagint (2 Esdras), and Lamentations may have been reckoned along with Jeremiah as a sort of
appendix to it. The order Numbers-Leviticus is no doubt a slip; the
order of the prophetical books was not fixed. It is uncertain if Esdras is
reckoned to be a prophet; if so, there is nothing surprising in that: any
inspired writer was ipso facto a prophet. None of the writings in the
‘Septuagintal plus’ is listed: the ‘Wisdom’ included is not the Greek
book of Wisdom but an alternative name for Proverbs. According to
Eusebius, Hegesippus and Irenaeus and many other writers of their
day called the Proverbs of Solomon ‘the all-virtuous Wisdom’. ”
Since Melito says that he ascertained the number and names of the
books in Palestine, it may be that he derived them from a Jewish
source. He is the first extant writer to describe them comprehensively
as ‘the books of the old covenant’ (or Old Testament). ‘* This does not
necessarily imply that he would have called the evangelic and apostolic
writings ‘the books of the new covenant’ (or New Testament); this
expression is first attested a decade or two later.
A BILINGUAL LIST
Of uncertain date, but perhaps not far removed in time from Melito’s
list, is a list contained in a Greek manuscript copied in AD 1056,
” In Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 4.26.12-14.
” Seep. 180.
71
‘I Hist. Ed. 4.22.9.
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
belonging to the library of the Greek patriarchate in Jerusalem,
discovered in 1875 and published in 1883.13 In this list the names of
Old Testament books are given both in Aramaic (transcribed into the
Greek alphabet) and in Greek. I4 Twenty-seven books are listed: Is
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Joshua, Deuteronomy, Numbers,
Ruth, Job, Judges, Psalms, 1 Samuel (= 1 Kingdoms), 2
Samuel (= 2 Kingdoms), 1 Kings (= 3 Kingdoms), 2 Kings (=
4 Kingdoms), 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles, Proverbs, Ecciesiastes, Song of Songs, Jeremiah, the Twelve, Isaiah, Ezekiel,
Daniel, 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras, Esther.
if 1 and 2 Esdras are Ezra and Nehemiah,“j and Lamentations was
included with Jeremiah as an appendix, then these twenty-seven
books are identical with the twenty-four of the Hebrew Bible, as
usually reckoned. It is difficult to account for the bizarre order in
which the books are listed. The list reappears, in a revised and tidier
form, in a treatise by Epiphanius, fourth-century bishop-of Salamis in
Cyprus. ”
ORIGEN
The next surviving Christian list of Old Testament books was drawn
up by Origen (AD 185-254), the greatest biblical scholar among the
Greek fathers. He spent the grkater part of his life in his native
Alexandria, where from an early age he was head of the catechetical
school in the church of that city; then, in AD 231, he moved to
Caesarea in Palestine, where he discharged a similar teaching ministry.
He was an indefatigable commentator on the books of the Bible: to
I3 MS 54, folio 76a, discovered and published by Ph. Bryennios. It was this
manuscript that first gave to the modem world the text of the DidzcbZ (‘Teaching of
the Twelve Apostles’).
I4 See J.-P. Audec, ‘A Hebrew-Aramaic List of Books of the Old Testament in
Greek Transcription’,JTS n.s. 1(1950), pp. 135- 154.
‘s The number twenty-seven may be intended to correspond to the twenty-two
letters of the Hebrew alphabet plus the special forms which five of these letters take at
the end ofa word. See pp.90, 213.
I6 As in Origen (see p.74) and in the Latin Vulgate and versions dependent on it
(see pp.90, 107).
” Epiphanius, On Weigh andMeasure.f, 23 (c/p.81). See also R. T. Beckwith, The
Oiz/ Testament Canon r//the New Testumnt Chun-b (London, 1985), pp. 188190, 224,
I
n. 15.
72
THE
CHRISTIAN
CANON-OLD
TESTAMENT:
THE EAST
this work he devoted his mastery of the long-established techniques of
Alexandrian scholarship. One feature of his work which makes it
difficult for students today to appreciate him as he deserves is his
proneness to allegorical interpretation, but this was part and parcel of
the intellectual tradition which he inherited, and indeed allegorization was the only means of extracting from large areas of the text a
meaning which he and his contemporaries would have found acceptable. ‘*
Origen’s chief contribution to Old Testament studies was the
compilation called the Hexapla (Greek for ‘sixfold’). This was an
edition of the Old Testament which exhibited side by side in six
vertical columns (1) the Hebrew text, (2) the Hebrew text transcribed
into Greek letters, (3) Aquila’s Greek version, (4) Symmachus’s Greek
version, (5) the Septuagint, (6) Theodotion’s Greek version. For
certain books two and even rhree other Greek versions were added in
further columns. I9 Origen paid special attention to the Septuagint
column; his aim was to present as accurate an edition of this version as
was possible. By means of critical signs, for example, he indicated
places where the Septuagint omitted something found in the Hebrew
text or added something absent from the Hebrew text. The Hexapla in
its entirety probably never existed but in its original manuscript, but
this was preserved at Caesarea for the use of scholars until the Arab
conquest of Palestine in the seventh century. Eusebius and Jerome
were among the students who made use of it.
Origen’s list of Old Testament books, like Melito’s, was preserved
by Eusebius . ‘O It comes in the course of his commentary on the first
Psalm. There he says:
We should not be ignorant that there are twenty-two books of
the [Old] Testament, according to the tradition of the Hebrews,
corresponding to the number of letters in their alphabet . . . . These are the twenty-two books according to the Hebrew:
That which among us is entitled Genesis, but among the
Hebrews, from the beginning of the book, &e&h, that is ‘in
” See R. P. C. Hanson, AlIegwy and Event: A Study ofthe Sources andSignificance of
Or&en’s Interpretation nf Scripture (London, 1959); M. F. Wiles, ‘Origen as Biblical
Scholar’, CHB I, pp.454-489. Seep. 195 Mow.
Iv Eusebius Hist. Ersi. 6.16 l- 17.1.
“’ In Hut. Ecci. 6.25.1, 2. On Origen’s treatment of the Old Testament scriptures
seeR. P. C. Hanson, OrigeniDoctrine~fTraditim(London, 1954), pp.133-137.
73
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
the beginning’. Exodus, We-elleh shemoth, that is, ‘these are the
names’. Leviticus, Wayyiqra, ‘and he called’. Numbers, Homesh
piqqudim2 ’ . Deuteronomy, Elleh haddebarim, ‘these are the
words’. Joshua the son of Nun, Yoha‘ben-Nun. Judges, and
Ruth therewith in one book, Shophetim. 1 and 2 Kingdoms, one
book with them, Samuel, ‘the called of God’.” 3 and 4
Kingdoms in one book, Wehammelekh Dawid, that is ‘the
kingdom of David’.23 1 and 2 Chronicles in one book, DibrF
yamim, that is ‘words of days’. 1 and 2 Esdras24 in one book,
Ezra, that is ‘helper’. The book of Psalms, Sephar tehilfim. The
Proverbs of Solomon, Me[sha)lotb. 25. Ecclesiastes, Qobeleth. Song
of Songs (not, as some suppose, Songs of Songs), Shir hash&rim.
Isaiah, Yesha’iah. Jeremiah with Lamentations and the Epistle
in one book, Yirmeyahu. Daniel, Daniyyd. Ezekiel, Hezeqi’t%
Job, Hiyyab. Esther, Estb&. Outside these are the books
of Maccabees, entitled Sar b&b sba-berie’d. 26
Origen lists the books according to their Greek and Hebrew names.
He excludes from his total of twenty-two the books of Maccabees (how
many they are, he does not say). But (apart from Maccabees) he has
listed only twenty-one books: one, namely the book of the Twelve
Prophets, has accidentally dropped out in the course of transmission.
His twenty-two books (when the book of the Twelve is restored to the
” Lit. ‘the fifth of the musters (censuses)‘. The five books of the Pentateuch were
sometimes called ‘the five fifths of the law’; each of them therefore was a ‘fifth’. This
name was given to Numbers (as was the WC name arithoi, ‘numbers’) becay of the
censuses of chapters 2 and 26. In the Hebrew Bible Numbers is designated B m&ur,
‘in the wilderness’, from its first distinctive phrase, like the other Hebrew names of
Pentateuchal books here reproduced by Origen.
” A reference perhaps to the etymology of (;etniZ0, ‘name of God”. In another
place Origen explains the name as meaning ‘There is God himself (;Z# ha’ ‘Z& see
Hanson, Allegory and Event, p. 170, n.6 (quoting Homily on 1 Sam. 1:5).
*’ These are the opening words of 1 Kings, but they mean ‘and King David’, not (as
Origen mistranslates them) ‘and the kingdom of David’.
*4 That is, Ezra-Nehemiah (as in Jerome’s Vulgate).
25 Eusebius’s text reads r~&h, from which something seems to have dropped out in
transmission. The form me%& is an unusual plural of m&/, ‘prcverb’ (the usual
plural being t,r%/S~~).
Lb This was presumably the title of 1 Maccabees, which (unlike the other books of
Maccabees) was originally written in Hebrew. It seems to mean ‘prince of the house of
the heroes’ (lit. ‘sons ofGod’), which may have been a designation ofJudas Maccabaeus,
the hero of the book. Another, but unnecessary, suggestion is that scar (‘prince’) has
been corrupted from s?/iy (‘book’).
74
THE
CHRISTIAN
CANON-OLD T E S T A M E N T :
THE
EAST
list) correspond to the twenty-four of the Hebrew Bible, except that he
includes the Letter ofJeremiah (an item in the ‘Septuagintal plus’) along
with Lamentations as part of Jeremiah.
In this same commentary on Psalm 1 Origen enlarges on the
appropriateness of the number twenty-two. ‘For’, he says, ‘as the
twenty-two letters appear to form an introduction to the wisdom and
the divine teachings which are written down for men and women in
these characters, so the twenty-two divinely-inspired books form an
ABC into the wisdom of God and an introduction to the knowledge of
all that is.’ ”
Origen’s care to confine the books listed to those found in the
Hebrew Bible (apart from his inclusion, perhaps by an oversight, of
the ‘Letter of Jeremiah’) is the more noteworthy because the evidence
suggests that the church of Alexandria, in which he was brought up,
did not draw the boundaries of holy scripture very sharply. Clement of
Alexandria, for example, quotes not only from the ‘Septuagintal plus’
but also from 4 Ezra, 1 Enoch and even from such an out-of-the-way
work as the Apocalypse of Zephaniah.*’ But when Origen moved to
Caesarea he not only found himself among Christians with a different
tradition from that of Alexandria but also had opportunity of contact
and discussion with Palestinian Jews.29 From them he acquired some
knowledge of the Hebrew language and Hebrew scriptures-enough
to enable him to complete his Hexapla project-and it was plain to
him that, when dealing with Jews, he could appeal to no authoritative
scriptures but those which they acknowledged as canonical.
Even so, Origen made free use of the ‘Septuagintal plus’ and did not
hesitate to refer to other works not even included in the Septuagint,
without implying that they were among the books which are indisputably recognized as divinely inspired. His attitude to some books
changed over the years. At one time, like Clement, he was happy to
quote 1 Enoch as the work of the antediluvian patriarch, but later he
doubted its authority.”
” This comes from a portion of his commentary on Psalm 1 preserved in Phi/or&z
‘s What remains of this pseudepigraphic work (to bedated in the 1st century BC or
1st century AD) is edited and translated by 0. S. Wintermute in The Oid Tesramenr
P~rndupi~rupbpha, ed. J. H. Charlesworth, I(GardenCity, N.Y., 1983). pp. 497-515.
” He had already profited by the instruction of Jewish teachers in Alexandria; see
N. R. M. deLange, Or&nandthrJrws(Cambridge 1976), pp.25.40.
“’ He quotes it as if it were holy scripture in On Firsf Prmczph 1.3.3; 4.1.35 (from
75
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
His attitude to the ‘Septuagintal plus’ is interestingly illustrated by
his letter to Julius Africanus. 31 Julius Africanus, born in Jerusalem,
was a contemporary and friend of Origen. About AD 238 he read a
controversial work by Origen in which appeal was made to the History
of Stlsanna, one of the Septuagintal additions to Daniel, as though it
were an integral part of Daniel. He spent some time considering this
matter and preparing relevant arguments; then he sent a respectful
letter to Origen in which he questioned the propriety of using the
History of Stlsanna as though it belonged to the authentic book of
Daniel. It was evident, he pointed out, that the History of Susanna was
originally written in Greek, because the crux of the story turned on a
double pun which was possible only in Greek. In the story Daniel
conducts a separate examination of each of the two false witnesses
against Susanna and asks under what kind of tree her alleged offence
was committed; he receives inconsistent answers and pronounces an
appropriate doom against each. To the one who specifies a mastic tree
(Gk schinos) he says, ‘God will cut you in two’ (schjzb);32 to the one
who specifies a holm-oak (Gk. prinos) he says, ‘God will saw you
asunder’ (Gk. prib). 33 At one time Origen himself had acknowledged
the force of this argument: according to Jerome, he expressed agreement with those in whose judgment this section was composed in
Greek. But in replying to Julius Africanus he points out that there are
many things in the Greek Bible which are not found in the Hebrew
text, and the church cannot be expected to give them all up.34 As for
the double pun, Origen had consulted several Jews but none of them
could give him the Hebrew names of the trees in question: he does not
rule out the possibility that there might be two Hebrew names of trees
which did lend themselves to such a play on words. He implies, too,
that the History of Sltlsanna is an excellent theme for rich allegorical
his Alexandrian period); later, in Against Ceh 5.54, he says, ‘the books superscribed
with Enoch’s name are by no means recognized in the churches as divine’ (similar
reservations are expressed in his Commentary on John 6:42; Homily on Num. 8:2). See
Hanson, Or&n’s Doctrine o/Tradition. p. 136; A. C. Sundberg, The OldTeJtamentin the
Early Chwt6 (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), pp. 165f.; R. M. Grant, The Formation o/the
Nru Testament (London, 1965), p. 170.
” Translated, with Africanus’s letter to which it is a reply, in ANF IV, pp.385392.
” Susanna 54f.
” Susanma 58f. The verb is that used in Heb. 1 I:37 (‘they were sawn in two’),
where Wigen (/,rrrrr 10 A/~~LIIINI, 9) sees a reference to the martyrdom of Isaiah.
‘4 CfJemme, Cmmrnkq on lhrrrr/. prologue; also on Dan. 13:54--59.
THE CHRISTIAN CANON-OLD T E S T A M E N T :
THE
EAST
interpretation. 35 One might get the impression that, where the relation
of the Hebrew Bible to the Septuagint is concerned, Origen is anxious
to eat his cake and have it. He is certainly unwilling to deviate from
the regular practice of the church.36
ATHANASIUS
Unfortunately, for the bulk of Origen’s work we are dependent on
Latin translations, especially the translation of Rufinus of Aquileia (c
345~410), carried out well over a century after Origen’s death.
Rufinus thought it proper to conform Origen’s language to the
orthodoxy and usage of a later age. For example, he represents Origen
as using the word ‘canon’ in the sense of ‘canon of scripture’, as we
understand the term.37 But it is a near-certainty that Origen never
used the Greek word kaniin in this sense. The first writer known to have
used it thus is Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria. In one of his works3’
Athanasius mentions the Shepherd of Hermas (a work which elsewhere
he calls ‘a most profitable book’)39 as ‘not belonging to the canon’.4o
More often he uses the verb kanonizb (‘canonize’) in the sense ‘include
in the canon’. This is so in his most important treatment of the
subject.
One of the minor decisions of the Council of Nicaea (AD 325) was
that, to guard against any disagreement about fixing the date of
Easter, the bishop of Alexandria should have the privilege, year by
year, of informing his brother bishops (well in advance) of the date of
the following Easter. Throughout his long tenure of that see (328373) Athanasius issued forty-five such ‘festal letters’. In each he took
the opportunity of dealing with some other matter of current
importance. In the thirty-ninth letter, announcing the date of Easter
in 367, he dealt with the canon of the Old and New Testaments.4’ He
” Letter to Africanu, 15.
36 In his Col,mrentary on Matthew (part 2, 61), he says that he quotes from the History
o/Susanna, although he knows that it is not in the Hebrew Bible, ‘because it is
received in the churches’. See Hanson, Origen’s Dwtrtrme ofTraditton, p. 134.
” In the Latin translation of his Homily on Joshua 2: 1 there is a reference to the
Assumption of MoJes, ‘although it is not received in the canon’, but the words (licet in
canone non habeatur) are those of Rufinus.
jLI On the Decrees (= D4em.e o/the Nicene Definition), 18.
” On thr Incarnation of the Divine Word, 3.
.a0 Gk. nrS on ek 10~ kanono~.
4’ An English translation ofthis letter is provided inNPCF, series 2, IV, pp. 55 If.
77
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
concerned about the introduction by some people of heretical or
spurious works (which he calls ‘apocryphal’) among the books of holy
scripture, and goes on, echoing the prologue to Luke’s gospel:
was
Inasmuch as some have taken in hand to draw up for themselves
an arrangement of the so-called apocryphal hooks and to intersperse them with the divinely inspired scripture, concerning
which we have been fully persuaded, even as those who from the
beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the word delivered it to the fathers: it has seemed good to me also, having
been stimulated thereto by true brethren, to set forth in order
the books which are included in the canon and have been
delivered to us with accreditation that they are divine. My
purpose is that each one who has been led astray may condemn
those who have led him astray and that those who have remained
untarnished may rejoice at having these things brought to
remembrance again.
The books of the Old Testament, then, are twenty-two in
number, for (as I have heard) this is the traditional number of
letters among the Hebrews.
He then lists them by name in order, after the following pattern:
1. Genesis
2. Exodus
3. Leviticus
4. Numbers
5. Deuteronomy
6. Joshua the son of Nun
7. Judges
8. Ruth
9. 1 and 2 Kingdoms
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
THE
CHRISTIAN
CANON-OLD
TESTAMENT:
THE EAST
18. The Twelve Prophets
19. Isaiah
20. Jeremiah, with Baruch, Lamentations and the Epistle
2 1. Ezekiel
22. Daniel
Athanasius’s total is the same as Origen’s, but he lists Ruth separately
from Judges and omits Esther.
Athanasius then lists the New Testament books.43 He follows with
some general comments on the unique value of holy scripture
(including the admonition: ‘Let no one add to these nor take anything
from them’),44 and continues:
But for the sake ofgreater accuracy I must needs, as I write, add
this: there are other books outside these, which are not indeed
included in the canon, but have been appointed from the time of
the fathers to be read to those who are recent converts to our
company and wish to be instructed in the word of true religion.
These are the Wisdom of Solomon, the Wisdom of Sirach,
Esther, Judith and Tobit4’. . . But while the former are included
in the canon and the latter are read [in church], no mention is to
be made of the apocryphal works. They are the invention of
heretics, who write according to their own will, and gratuitiously assign and add to them dates so that, offering them as
ancient writings, they may have an excuse for leading the simple
astray.
As Athanasius includes Baruch and the ‘Letter of Jeremiah’ in one
book with Jeremiah and Lamentations, so he probably includes the
Greek additions to Daniel in the canonical book of that name, and the
additions to Esther in the book of that name which he recommends for
reading in church. He makes no mention of the books of Maccabees.
Evidently Athanasius makes a distinction between those books
which are ‘included in the canon’ and others which are recommended
for their inspirational and edifying quality. Only those works which
3 and 4 Kingdoms
1 and 2 Chronicles
1 and 2 Esdra?
Psalms
proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Song of Songs
Job
43 See p.208.
44 See p.23. Compare Novatian, On the Trinity, 16: ‘But woe is pronounced on
those who add, as also on those who take away.’
45 He adds the Dida& and the Shepherd here; these bear the same relation to the
canonical books of the New Testament as the five just listed bear to those of the Old
Testament.
JL Ezra-Nehemiah.
7%
79
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
THE CHRISTIAN CANON-OLD T E S T A M E N T :
THE
EAST
belong to the Hebrew Bible (apart from Esther)46 are worthy of
inclusion in the canon (the additions to Jeremiah and Daniel make no
appreciable difference to this principle); other works belonging to the
‘Septuagintal plus’, however great their value, are relegated to a
second grade. The ‘apocryphal’ writings are not those which have been
called so since Jerome’s time (i.e., for the most part, the ‘Septuagintal
plus’), but heretical works: they are subversive and ought to be utterly
rejected.
In practice Athanasius appears to have paid little attention to the
formal distinction between those books which he listed in the canon
and those which were suitable for the instruction of new Christians.
He was familiar with the text of all, and quoted from them freely,
often with the same introductory formulae- ‘as it is written’, ‘as the
scripture says’, etc.
which follows Origen’s, except that Baruch is included in one book
with Jeremiah, as well as Lamentations and the ‘Letter ofJeremiah’.
Gregory of Naziantus (c 330-390) may have been the first of many
down the ages to produce a list of books of the Bible in verse, for easier
memorization. In order to accommodate the names of the books he
had to employ a variety of metres. Like Athanasius, he gives the total
of Old Testament books as twenty-two and omits Esther.4g Another
metrical canon was drawn up by Amphilochius, bishop of Iconium,
who died some time after 394. After listing the same Old Testament
books as Gregory, he adds a line: ‘Along with these some include
Esther. “O We have mentioned already that Epiphanius (c 3 15 -403)
adapts an earlier bilingual list which yields a total of twenty-seven Old
Testament books. ” In another place Epiphanius appends the Wisdom
of Solomon and Ben Sira to a list of New Testament books.”
CANONS OF LAODICEA
THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA AND OTHERS
Shortly before Athanasius issued his thirty-ninth festal letter, achurch
council was held at Laodicea in the Lycus valley (c AD 363). The
‘canons’ or rules promulgated by this council were acknowledged by
later church councils as a basis of canon law.47 Canon 59 lays it down
that ‘no psalms composed by private individuals or any uncanonical
(a&anonistu) books may be read in church, but only the canonical books
(&zonika) of the New and Old Testament’. Canon 60 (the last of the
series) then enumerates those canonical books. But the genuineness of
Canon 60 is open to doubt; it is probably indebted to the canon of
Athanasius and other lists. It follows Athanasius closely, except that
Ruth is attached to Judges as part of No. 7 and Esther follows
immediately as No. 8.
Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestia (modern Misis) in S. E. Cilicia from
392 to 428, is best known as the most illustrious exponent of the
exegetical school of Ant&h. Some of his views on the canonicity of
Old Testament books were regarded as dangerously radical. In his
commentary on Job he denies the ‘higher inspiration’ of Proverbs and
Ecclesiastes.53 Of the Song of Songs he had no great opinion at a11.54
He rejected the traditional titles to the Psalms and was suspected of
rejecting Job and Chronicles.”
LATER GREEK FATHERS
In the last two decades of the fourth century other Greek fathers drew
up Iists of the canonical books, to much the same effect as their
predecessors. Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem from 348 to 386, gives a list
4b He does not say in so many words why Esther is not included in the canon: he
may have inherited a tradition, going back possibly to a Jewish source, which denied
it canonical status; cjwhat is said below ofGregory Nazianzen and Amphilochius. See
further J. Ruwet, ‘Le canon alexandrin des Ccritures: Saint Athanase’, Bihlicu 33
(1952), pp. l - 2 9 .
” See NPNF, series 2, XIV, pp. 125-160; a translation of Canons 59 and 60
appears on pp. 158f.
80
48 See NPNF, series 2, VII, p.27 (Catecbetical Lecture, 4.35).
49 Gregory, Hymn 1.1.12.31, lines 11-29.
so Amphilochius, Zambics to Sefeucus, lines 25 l-288. He goes on to list the New
Testament books (see.p. 2 12), and concludes with rhe words: ‘This would be the most
unerring canon of the divinely inspired books.’ He is rhe next writer after Athanasius
to use ‘canon’ (GK. kan8n) in this sense.
s’ Seep.72 with n. 17.
s* E P iphanius Pan&on
76.5. Compare the mention of Wisdom in rhe Murarorian
>
list.
s3 The expression is H. B. Swete’s (DCB, IV, su ‘Theodorus of Mopsuestia’,
p.940). See also M. F. Wiles, ‘Theodore of Mopsuestia as Representative of the
Antiochene School’, CHB I, pp.489-5 10.
54 See Swete, ibid.
” Leontius of Byzantium, Against the Nestorians and Eutycbianr, 3.12- 16. See A.
C. Sundberg, The OkdTestanrent ofthr Ear/y Church, pp. 144f.; R. T. Beckwith, TbrOld
Testanrent Canon oftbe New Testament Cburcb, pp. 19Of., 225, n.22, 307-310, 333,
n. 138.
81
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
The earliest form of the Syriac Old Testament appears to have
lacked Esther, Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles. This might be because
their canonicity was doubted, or it might be a fortuitous consequence
of the fact that these books are the last in the traditional sequence of the
Hebrw scriptures. 56
The further history of the canon among eastern Christians will not
be surveyed here: suffice it to say that in 1642 and 1672 respectively
Orthodox synods at Jassy (Iasi) and Jerusalem confirmed as ‘genuine
parts of scripture’ the contents of the ‘Septuagintal plus’ (the canonicity
of which had been taken for granted), specifically: 1 Esdras (= Vulgate
3 Esdras), Tobit, Judith, 1, 2 and 3 Maccabees, Wisdom, Ben Sira
(Ecclesiasticus), Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah. The Septuagint
remains the ‘authorized version’ of the Old Testament in Greek
Orthodoxy, its deviations from the traditional Hebrew text being
ascribed to divine inspiration. Most Orthodox scholars today, however, follow Athanasius and others in placing the books of the
‘Septuagintal plus’ on a lower level of authority than the ‘protocanonical’ writings.”
56 In view of the fact that Theodore was Nestorius’s teacher, it is noteworthy that
the Nestorians also omitted Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs; see F. P. W. Buhl,
Canon and Text of the Old Testament, E. T. (Edinburgh, 1892), p.53; L. Rost, ‘Zur
Geschichte des Kanons bei den Nestorianern’, ZNW 27 (1928), pp. 103- 106; R. T.
Beckwith, The Old Testament Canon ofthe New Testament Chwch, pp. 191f., 195- 197.
” See T. [Kallistos] Ware, The Orthodox Church (Harmondsworth, 1963),
pp. 208f. ; also M. Jugie, Hisioire du canon d /An&n Testament d?ns PegliJe grerque et
I’1gltse u/w2 (Paris, 1909).
CHAPTER SIX
THE CHRISTIAN CANON
OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
B.
IN THE LATIN WEST
The Bible began to be translated into Latin, so far as can be ascertained,
in the latter half of the second century A D, in the Roman province of
Africa. The province of Africa was Latin-speaking, so far as official
usage is concerned; this was pre-eminently true of Roman Carthage,
refounded as a colony in 46 BC. The need for a Latin version of the
scriptures was realized here decades before a similar need was felt in
Rome itself. The Jewish community in Rome was largely Greekspeaking, and so was the church, from the first beginnings of Roman
Christianity in the 40s of the first century until the end of the second
century.
’ +
Until Jerome produced a new translation of the Old Testament
from the Hebrew text at the end of the fourth century, the Latin Old
Testament was a rendering of the Septuagint, including the ‘Septuagintal plus’. There was little if anything to indicate to readers of the
’ Victor, bishop of Rome towards the end of the second century, is said to have been
the first Roman bishop to write in Latin (Jerome, On Illt~striou Mm, 34). The first
Christian treatise in Latin to have survived is Novatian, On thr Trinity (written shortly
before AD 250). In this treatise all the christological proof-texts are drawn from the
Old Testament.
82
83
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Old Latin version that the ‘Septuagintal plus’ stood on a different
footing from the rest of the Old Testament.’
TERTULLIAN
Tertullian of Carthage is the first writer to be considered among the
Latin fathers: he flourished at the end of the second century and the
beginning of the third. He calls the two Testaments ‘instruments’
(Latin instrumenta), using the word in its legal sense. The Old
Testament is ‘the whole instrument of Jewish literature’;3 he gives the
impression that he knows exactly what it contains, although he
nowhere gives a list of its contents. His Old Testament was evidently
co-extensive with the Septuagint (including the ‘Septuagint plus’);
indeed, in one place he implies that it might justifiably be extended
beyond the limits of the Septuagint.4
It is not enough to locate and list quotations from various ‘fringe’
books, or allusions to them. A Christian writer may quote works to
which he would not dream of ascribing divine authority (as Paul, for
example, quotes Menander in 1 Cor. 15:33).’ The quotation or
allusion must be accompanied by words which show that the writer
did regard it as holy scripture. Thus, when Tertullian (Against Marcion,
4.11) quotes ‘Come, my bride, from Lebanon’ (Cant. 4:8), it is plain
that he acknowledges the Song of Songs as divinely inspired, for he
takes the words to be addressed by Christ to the church.
He regards Wisdom as a genuine work of Solomon,6 and the ‘Letter
of Jeremiah’ as authentically Jeremiah’s.’ The Song of the Three
Habrews’ and the story of Be1 and the Dragon’ are to him integral
parts of Daniel. On the other hand, we cannot prove that he regarded
Judith as canonical because he cites Judith (who remained unmarried
after her husband’s death) as an example of monogamy, or 1 Maccabees
* The ‘books’ in the possession of the Scillitan martyrs (c. AD 180) along with the
THE
CHRISTIAN
CANON-OLD
TESTAMENT:
LATIN
WEST
because he refers to the freedom fighters’ resolution to resist their
assailants even on the sabbath, to show that the weekly sabbath was
intended to be a temporary provision. lo But the probability is that he
did regard Judith and 1 Maccabees, with the rest of the ‘Septuagintal
plus’, as part of the ancient ‘instrument’.
The Apocalypse of Ezra (4 Ezra) was never included in the Septuagint
(for this reason its Greek text has not survived).” But Tertullian
knows and accepts its account of Ezra’s restoring the sacred scriptures
of Israel which had been destroyed at the time of the Babylonian
conquest. I2 Another work which found no place in the Septuagint was
the composite apocalyptic work called 1 Enoch13 (only about onethird of its Greek text has survived). The Ethiopic church is the only
part of Christendom to have canonized it (for this reason it is only in
the Ethiopic version that it is extant in its entirety). A number ofearly
Christian writers mention it with reservations,i4 but Tertullian
approved of it, and would have been willing to see it included in the
ancient instrmzentum. (He knew that he was incompetent to include it
on his own initiative; the canonization of religious writings is not an
individual responsibility.) One reason for his approval of it was the
fact that it was quoted, evidently as a genuine prophecy of the
antediluvian patriarch Enoch, by Jude, who calls himself ‘servant of
Jesus Christ and brother of James’ (Jude 1, 14f.). Is But that in itself
would not have been enough; others were disposed to exclude Jude
from the New Testament because of its quoting a work of doubtful
authenticity. There was the further, and quite potent reason that
Tertullian’s attitude to the subject of his treatise On Women’s Dress was
” Judith 8:4, in On Monogamy, 17; 1 Mace. 2:41, in Answer to the Jew, 4.
” Seep.47, n. 11. Its Christian prologue (chapters 1, 2) and epilogue(chapters 15,
16) are sometimes designated 5 and 6 E&as (Ezra) respectively. When God says in 4
v‘rlwrl~~l‘rm , 2
’ /&‘er o/Jrwui~rh 3 (Baruch 6:3) is ascribed to Jeremiah in Srr@on An/ihtr, 8.5.
‘See references to Dan. 3:49f. (LXX) in On Prqrr, 29.1, to Dan. 3:58-79 in
/\,qtl/)/~t !fer~/qr~n. 44.4, to Dan. 3:52-68 in Agum/ Marc~m, 5. I I 1.
‘I See references in ON lrl0l&q, 17f., in ON t:4Uirq, 7.
Ezra 7:28 that ‘my Son the Messiah’ will be revealed and then, after 400 years, die,
this is the expected Messiah ofDavid’s line (4 Ezra 12:32) but has nothing to do with
the Christian Messiah (even if the Latin version calls him ‘Jesus’ in 7:28).
‘* Seep.36.
‘s See p.5 1. Since Enoch (whose name in Hebrew may mean ‘initiated’) was
translated from earth to heaven (Gen. 5:24; cf. Heb. 11:5), he was envisaged as a
suitable recipient ofspecial revelations. Two other collections of Enoch literature are 2
Enoch (the Book of the Secrets of Em&l, composed in Greek but extant only in a Slavonic
version, and 3 Enoch (also called the ‘Hebrew Enoch’ or the Book of the Palaw), a work
of Jewish mysticism. All three are translated, with introductions, in J. H.
Charlesworth (ed.), The Oi(/ Testament Pxdepi~rapha, I (Garden City, N.Y., 1983),
pp.s--315.
I4 E.g. Clement of Alexandriaand Origen (see pp.75, 191).
Is Seep. 193.
84
85
letters of Paul may have been parts of the Old Testament; see pp. 183f.
t 4 See below, p.85 (on 1 Enoch).
’ 01) Wwrm ‘J Drr.r.r , 1 .3.
’ The line ‘Evil communications corrupt good manners’ (AV/KJV) comes from
Menander’s comedy Thrrrs; it had probably passed into general circulation as a
proverbtal saying (like so many lines from Shakespeare).
’ Wtsdom I:1 is ascribed to Solomon in Prrsr~r$ripliou, 7, and in Against the
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
reinforced by the statement in 1 Enoch 8: 1 that it was Azaz’el, leader
of the fallen angels,16 who first introduced women to ‘bracelets,
decorations, antimony (for eye-shadow), ornamentation, the
beautifying of the eyelids, all kinds ofprecious stones, and all colowing
tinctures’. ”
The second section of 1 Enoch, comprising chapters 37-71, is
commonly called the ‘Parables of Enoch’; it is of different authorship
from chapters l- 36 and probably of later date. In it God is repeatedly
called ‘the Lord of spirits’. Tertullian gives this title to God in his
work Against Marcion (5.11.8). Actually, he intends to quote 2
Corinthians 3: 18, ‘from the Lord who is the Spirit’ (lit. ‘from the Lord
the Spirit’), but he quotes it from memory, and his memory has been
influenced by this similar expression, which he may owe to acquaintance with the ‘Parables of Enoch’.
Since 1 Enoch is not included in the Hebrew Bible, nor yet in the
Septuagint (which was, of course, a Jewish translation), Tertullian
hazards the unworthy suspicion (of a kind which he was not alone
among early Christians in entertaining)” that it was rejected by Jews
because it spoke of Christ. He may have had in mind the figure of ‘the
Son of Man’ who appears here and there throughout the ‘Parables of
Enoch’; but that ‘Son ofMan’ is not Jesus-he turns out, in fact, to be
identified with Enoch himself. I9
A compilation to which Tertullian and other early Christian writers
assigned genuine prophetic authority was the Sibylline OracleJ. The
Sibylline Oracles which they knew were Jewish and Christian poems
composed in an oracular idiom at various times between 200 BC and
AD 250. 2o But those writers who quote them took them at face value as
the genuine prophecies of an ancient pagan prophetess-‘the Sibyl’,
says Tertullian, ‘who antedated all literature and was a true prophetess
of truth.‘*’ In an attack on idolatry he quotes from the third Sibylline
Oracle (written by Jews in Egypt about the middle of the second
century BC) to the effect that in the tenth generation after the flood
THE
CHRISTIAN
CANON-OLD
TESTAMENT:
LATIN
WEST
‘there reigned Kronos, Titan and Iapetos, the mighty children ofGaia
and Ouranos’ (Tertullian gives the Latin equivalents of those names:
‘Saturn, Titan and Iapetus, the mighty children of Terra and
Caelum’). 22 But it was not suggested that the Sibylline Oracles should
be included in the Jewish or Christian holy scriptures: to those who
took them at face value they constituted a parallel body of divine
prophecy, communicated and transmitted through Gentiles. Hence
the mediaeval hymn Dies Zrae speaks of
That day of wrath, that dreadful day,
When heaven and earth shall pass away,
As David and the Sibyl say. 23
David, representing Old Testament prophecy, stands here alongside
the Sibyl as foretelling the final dissolution of the created universe.
Tertullian may stand for all the Latin fathers before the time of
Jerome: the Bible which they used provided them with no means of
distinguishing those parts which belonged to the Hebrew canon from
those which were found only in the Septuagint. It appears that in
several of their copies Baruch was appended to Jeremiah rather than
distinguished as a separate book: Cyprian, Hilary and Ambrose all
quote from Baruch but ascribe the words quoted to Jeremiah. 24
JEROME
Eusebius Sofronius Hieronymus, to give Jerome his formal Latin
name, was born in AD 346 or 347 at Stridon in Dalmatia. His parents,
who were Christians, were able to give him an excellent education. He
came to Rome in his ‘teens to perfect his classical studies in the school
of Donatus, one of the most celebrated grammarians of his day.25 In
due course he became a master of Greek as well as Latin literature. As
the result of a nearly fatal illness at Antioch in 374 he resolved
” Azaz’el appears in Lxx. 16:8, 10, 26, as the being to whom the scapegoat was
dedicated on the annual day of atonement.
” Tertullian, On Wmm’s lhs, 1.3.
” Compare Justin Martyr’s charge (p.66).
” At the end of the Partrble~ o/Enocb Enoch is transported to ‘the heaven ofheavens’
and told by an angel, ‘You are that Son of Man’ (1 Enoch 7 1: 14).
“’ They are edited and translated by J. J, Collins in T’hr O/L/ T~IWWU l?!r~/Llrpt~r~~/k,
ed. Charlesworth, I, pp.317-472.
” ‘I’/, thr Nut//~n.l, 2. 12.
to Oracle 2.196-213, which describes the destruction of the universe in the final
conflagration (cf. 2 Pet. 3: lo- 12).
*4 Cyprian in Testinmnies against the Jews, 2.6 (quoting Baruch 3:35-37), Hilary,
On the Trinity, 4.42: 5.39 (quoting the same passage); Ambrose, On fhr Faifh, 1.3.28
(quoting the same passage), On Penitence, 1.9.43 (quoting Baruch 3:lf.j.
” Jerome, Apolqy apnd Rnfinm, 1.16, 30.
86
87
” Sibylhe Oracle, 3.108- 111.
23 The David reference may be to Ps. 102:26 (cf. Heb. 1: 1 If. ); the Sibyl reference is
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
thenceforth to devote himself to biblical, no longer to secular,
literature. 26 He spent the next four or five years leading the life of a
hermit in the desert east of Ant&h; he pursued sacred learning
unremittingly and began to study Hebrew with the aid of a Jewish
Christian. At the same time he familiarized himself with the Aramaic
vernacular of the country regions around him. After this period of
seclusion he returned to Antioch and was ordained to the presbyterate.
He was present in 381 at the Council of Constantinople and went
from there to Rome, perhaps to attend the Council held there in 382
to review the acts of the Constantinopolitan CounciL2’ In Rome he
was invited to stay on and give secretarial and other help to Pope
Damasus. Among the services which Damasus asked him to perform
was the revision of the existing Latin Bible-a necessary service,
because of the unsatisfactory condition of the text (according to
Jerome himself, there were almost as many different forms of text as
there were copies). 28 Between 382 and 384 he produced a new Latin
version of the four gospels and a revision of the Latin Psalter (for which
he had recourse not only to the best accessible manuscripts of the
Septuagint but also to Aquila’s Greek translation). 29 This revision of
the Psalter, the ‘Roman Psalter’ (as it is called to distinguish it from
his later ‘Gallican Psalter’ and ‘Hebrew Psalter’), is held by many to be
the version of the Psalter still used in St Peter’s basilica in Rome.
Damasus died in 384. Jerome may have been encouraged to think of
himself as a possible successor,3o but mercifully (for the church’s sake
and for his own) he was not elected, and soon afterwards he left Rome
for good. After two years’ pilgrim journeys in the Near East, he settled
in Bethlehem, where he established a monastery for himself and spent
the rest of his life in biblical study and other literary activity.
To begin with, he planned to continue revising the Latin Old
Testament by reference to the Septuagint. He produced a further
revision of the Psalms, for which he availed himself of Origen’s
Hexapfa at Caesarea (this ‘Gallican Psalter’, as it is called, is the version
of the Psalter reproduced to this day in editions of the Latin Vulgate).
But he soon became convinced that the only satisfactory way to
translate the Old Testament was to cut loose from the Septuagint and
” It was at this time that he had his vision of the day of judgment in which he was
charged with being a Ciceronian rather than a Christran (Epr.~!Ir 22.30).
” See p.97.
LX f$l,irt/r Pre/Aq to rhr Gojpprir (addressed to Damasus).
“) Ejude 32.1; 36.12.
‘(’ Epdr 4 5 (3.
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work from the original Hebrew- the ‘Hebrew verity’, as he called
it.3’ Accordingly, he gave himself to this task and completed the
translation of the Hebrew Bible into Latin in 405. This work included
a further version of the Psalter, the ‘Hebrew Psalter’, a rendering
direct from the original; religious conservatism, however, preferred to
go on using the more familiar wording based on the Septuagint . 32
For this work Jerome needed to perfect his knowledge of Hebrew,
and did not hesitate to rely qn the help of Jewish teachers. Of these he
mentions three: a Jew from Tiberias who helped him with the translation of Chronicles;33 one from Lydda, ‘reputed to be of the highest
standing among the Hebrews’, whom he hired to help him to understand the book of Job;34 and Bar Anina, who came to him by night at
Bethlehem ‘like another Nicodemus’ (fearing the disapproval of his
fellow-Jews if he were known to give this kind of assistance to a
Christian) to give him lessons in Hebrew.35 Jerome’s dependence on
Jewish instructors increased the suspicion of some of his Christian
critics who were put off in any case by such an innovation as a
translation of the sacred writings from Hebrew (with its implied
disparagement of the divinely-inspired Septuagint). 36
Jerome’s study of the Hebrew Bible quickly made him aware of the
question of the ‘Septuagintal plus’. The first books which he translated
from Hebrew were Samuel and Kings, and in his prologue to their
translation (the ‘Helmeted Prologue’, as he called it)37 he set out the
principles on which he proposed to work. He begins by enumerating
the books of the Hebrew Bible. He knows the Jewish reckoning of the
total as twenty-four (comparable, he says, with the twenty-four elders
” Epistle 106.9; Apology against Rujkus, 2.33.
” Similarly the Great Bible version of the Psalms (1539), naturally used in the
Edwardian editions ofthe Book ofCommon Prayer( 1549, 1552), was not replaced by
the superior AV/KJV rendering when the Prayer Book was repromulgated in 1662, but
remains in use to this day.
33 Prologue to Chronic/es (translation from the Septuagint).
” Prologue to Job.
j5 Epistle 84.3.
36 For example, Ruhnus, who had formerly been a friend of Jerome’s but ceased to
be so after Jerome’s criticisms of his translation of Origen, accused him of hiring help
from the ‘synagogue of Satan’; the authority of the Seventy, he said, inspired by the
Holy Spirit and confirmed by the apostles, cannot be overthrown by the authority of
one man ‘under the inspiration of Barabbas’ (Apology agarn~tJrrom, 2.30, 33).
” Proiogus galeatus, because it stood in front of his translation to defend the
principles on which he carried it out.
89
THE
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SCRIPTURE
of the Apocalypse),38 but he prefers to reckon them as twenty-two
(taking Ruth with Judges and Lamentations with Jeremiah), corresponding to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet.39 Or, if
allowance be made for the five letters which have special final forms,
the total could be reckoned as twenty-seven (Samuel, Kings,
Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah and Jeremiah-Lamentations being split
into two books each).
Then he goes on:
Whatever falls outside these must be set apart among the
Apocrypha. Therefore Wisdom, which is commonly entitled
Solomon’s, with the book of Jesus the son of Sirach,“’ Judith,
Tobiar?’ and the Shepherdare not in the canon. I have found the
first book of Maccabees in Hebrew;42 the second is in Greek, as
may be proved from the language itself.43
It is strange to find the Shepherd listed among the Old Testament
Apocrypha. 44 But Jerome’s use of the term ‘Apocrypha’ calls for
comment. Athanasius had distinguished three categories of books:
canonical, edifying (but not canonical) and apocryphal. The ‘edifying’
books (the Wisdom of Solomon and of Ben Sira, Esther, Judith and
Tobit, with the Didach? and the Shepherd from the New Testament
age) might be read in church; the ‘apocryphal’ books were to be
avoided altogether. This threefold distinction was maintained, among
the Latin fathers, by Rufinus of Aquileia (c. 345-410), who referred
to the second category as ‘ecclesiastical’ books.45 But those ‘ecclesias” So also in the prologue to Daniel he says: ‘I point out that, among the Hebrews,
Daniel is not included among the Prophets but among those who composed the
Hagiographa (sacred writings). By them all scripture is divided into three parts, the
Law, the Prophets and the Hagiographa-that is, into five plus eight plus eleven
books.’
39 In this reckoning the third division comprises nine, not eleven books, which
Jerome enumerates thus: Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Daniel,
Chronicles (for which the Latin Bible took over the Greek title Paruleipomena),
Ezra-Nehemiah (in the Latin Bible, 1 and 2 Esdras), Esther.
4” Jerome follows the Greek spelling Sirach (see p.3 1).
4’ In the Greek Bible Tobit is the father (after whom the book is named), Tobias is
the son. In the Latin Bible both father and son (and book) are commonly called Tobias.
” The Hebrew text has disappeared, but may occasionally be discerned behind the
translation-Greek. For rhe title of the Hebrew book see p.74 with n.26.
4’ See p.46. 44 See p. 166.
” Rufinus, On I/X Crrrrl, 38: ‘our fathers’, he says, ‘called them “ecclesiastical”.’ A
generation earlier, Hilary of Poitiers (c., 315-367) follows Origen’s list when
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tical’ books are designated ‘apocryphal’ by Jerome. This term originally
meant ‘hidden’; it was applicable, for example, to the seventy books
which Ezra is said to have copied along with the twenty-four ‘public’
books: the seventy were to be delivered in secret to the wise among the
people (4 Ezra 14:26, 46f.).46 But it is the usage of a word, not its
etymology, that determines its meaning. Origen indeed suggests in
his letter to Africanus that the story of Susanna had been ‘hidden
among the Hebrews at a remote date and preserved only by the more
learned and honest’; but he intends in no way to under-value Susanna.47
Indeed, he says, the Jewish authorities hid from the knowledge of the
people any passages which contained any scandal against elders, rulers
or judges, some of which have been preserved in ‘apocryphal’
writings.48 Tobit and Judith, he was informed by Jews, were not to be
found even among the Hebrew ‘apocryphal’ books, yet they were
valued and used in the church. 49
Jerome’s precise view on the function of the works which he
relegated as ‘apocryphal’ is made clear in his prologue to ‘the three
books of Solomon’ (Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs):
There circulates also the ‘all-virtuous’so Wisdom of Jesus the
son of Sira, together with a similar work, the pseudepigraph
entitled the Wisdom of Solomon.S’ The former of these I have
also found in Hebrew, entitled not ‘Ecclesiasticus’, as among
the Latins, but ‘Parables’.“. . . The latter is nowhere found
among the Hebrews: its very style smacks of Greek eloquence,
and several ancient writers affirm it to be the work of Philo the
Jew. 53 Therefore as the church indeed reads Judith, Tobit and
enumerating the Old Testamenr books (Tractares on the Psalm, introduction, 15) but
in his writings generally cites the ‘Septuagintal plus’ in much the same terms as the
books found in the Hebrew Bible.
46 See p.36.
” Letter to Africanus, 12 (see p.76).
‘s Letter to Africanus, 9.
” Letter to Africanus, 13. See R. T. Beckwith, The OLd Testament Canon of the Neu,
Teitament Church, p.325, n.30.
so This adjective (Gk. panaretos) was applied to the wisdom literature generally (see
p.7 I with n. 1 I).
5’ One should beware of translating Jerome’s words here as though they meant
‘another pseudepigraph entitled the Wisdom of Solomon’. Jerome must not be
suspected of supposing that Ben Sira’s wisdom book was ascribed to another than its
real author.
‘a A substantial part of the Hebrew text has survived.
’
53 Seep. 166 with n.23.
9’
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
the books of Maccabees, but does not receive them among the
canonical books, so let it also read these two volumes for the
edification of the people but not for establishing the authority of
ecclesiastical dogmas.
In this prologue to Jeremiah Jerome points out that he has not
included the book of Baruch in his version of the major prophet
because it is neither read nor recognized among the Hebrews; he is
prepared for the abuse which will be heaped on his failure to
acknowledge it. In the prologue to his version of Daniel he points out
that the current Greek form of that book is not the original work of the
Seventy but Theodotion’s version- ‘I do not know why’, he adds (but
if he had studied the original Septuagint version carefully and compared
it with the Hebrew and Aramaic text he would have discovered
why).54 ‘Among the Hebrews’, he says, the book of Daniel contains
‘neither the history of Susanna nor the hymn of the three young men
nor the fables of Be1 and the dragon’, but he has appended them to his
translation of the book, he adds, ‘lest among the uninstructed we
should seem to have lopped off a considerable part of the volume’.”
He knows the argument used by Africanus in his letter to Origen
about the history of Susanna, that the play on the names of the two
trees cannot have originated in Hebrew, and shows how an equally
telling play on their names can be made in Latin.56
He translated the book of Esther from Hebrew, but was content to
add the ‘Septuagintal plus’ of the book as it stood in the Old Latin. He
says that he translated Tobit and Judith from Aramaic;” the other
books of what he called the Apocrypha he left unrevised in their
existing Latin version.
What Jerome calls the Apocrypha corresponds to Athanasius’s
54 The original Septuagint version of Daniel is a free and interpretative rendering;
Theodotion’s version follows the Hebrew and Aramaic text more closely (see p.000).
About halfof Daniel (2:4b-7:28) is in Aramaic; the rest is in Hebrew. Other parts of
the Old Testament which have Aramaic, not Hebrew, as their original text are Ezra
4:8-6: 18; 7: 12-26; Jer. 10: 11.
55 He was charged with doing this very thing by Rufmus (Aprhgy apinst Jerome,
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second category of Old Testament books, called by Rufinus and others
‘ecclesiastical books’ (i.e. books for reading in church). It is, however,
a little confusing to find that Jerome sometimes uses the word
‘apocryphal’ in the sense given to it by Athanasius-of those books in
Athanasius’s third category which have no place in the church. Thus
he argues that in 1 Corinthians 2:9 (‘What no eye has seen, nor ear
heard.. .’) Paul is giving a free paraphrase of Isaiah 64:4, and refuses
to follow those writers who ‘run after the ravings of the apocryphal
books’ and find the origin of the words in the Apocalypse of Elijah.”
When, in prescribing a reading list for the young Paula, he says, ‘Let
her avoid all apocryphal writings’,59 it may be works of this category
that he has in mind.
But it is in no pejorative sense that Jerome has bequeathed the
designation ‘Apocrypha’ for the writings of the ‘Septuagintal plus’.
They are not in the canon properly speaking, he says, they may not be
used for the establishment of doctrine, but they retain great ethical
value which makes them suitable for reading in the course of Christian
worship. What authority he had for saying that ‘the church’ received
them for this purpose is not clear. But he was quite happy, not only in
his earlier works but in some of the latest, to quote from them with the
same introductory formulae as he used when quoting from the ‘Hebrew
verity’ or the New Testament books. He is capable of such obiter dicta
as: ‘Ruth, Esther and Judith have been given the great honour of
conferring their names on sacred volumes. ‘60
After completing his translation, Jerome continued his biblical
studies with a series of commentaries on Old Testament books; he also
(and less profitably) continued his activity as a bitter controversialist,
when he found a foeman worthy of his steel. He died in 420. He and
Origen stand alone among early church fathers for their expertise as
biblical scholars; of the two, Jerome has exercised the greater and more
long-lasting influence.6’
perish forthwith’ (iLo); ‘under a mastic tree’ (JUT Ientnta) could be countered with
‘may the angel crush you into seeds’ (IN /rr//rr~i.
” Portions of Tobit in both Aramaic and Hebrew have been identified among the
fragments from Qumran Cave 4. The Semitic original ofJudith is no longer extant.
ss No doubt he has Origen in mind, though he does not name him; Origen gives
this as the source of the quotation in his Commentary on Matthu (on 27:9). See also
p. 162 with nn. 8,9.
s’ Epide 107.12.
” Epistle 65.1.
6’ On Jerome see P. W. Skehan, St Jerome and the Canon of the Holy Scriptures’
in A Monument o/St Jerme, ed. F. X. Murphy (New York, 1952); also E. F. Succliffe,
‘St Jerome’s Pronunciation of Hebrew’, B&h 29 (1948), pp. 112- 125; ‘St Jerome’s
Hebrew Manuscripts’, Bibha 29 (1948), pp. 195-204; Jerome’, CHB II (Cambridge,
92
93
2.33).
56 Thus the reply ‘under a holm-oak (I& I/K~) could meet with the riposte ‘you will
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
AUGUSTINE
Jerome’s younger contemporary Augustine (354-430), bishop of
Hippo Regius in North Africa (modern Bona in Algeria) from 395
until his death, ‘the greatest man that ever wrote Latin’,62 was strong
where Jerome was weak (in his power as a theological thinker) and
weak where Jerome was strong (in linguistic training). He appreciated
many aspects of Jerome’s work, but lacked his sensitivity for the
‘Hebrew verity’ (having no Hebrew himself). The two men maintained
a friendly correspondence with each other. In one letter (sent in 403)
Augustine expresses a strong desire that Jerome would provide a (new)
Latin translation of the Septuagint rather than of the Hebrew text, for
if his translation from the Hebrew is adopted by the Latin-speaking
churches, discrepancies will arise between their usage and that of the
Greek churches, in which the Septuagint will naturally continue to be
read. 63 He adds that even in Latin-speaking churches too much
innovation in rendering may cause disorder: a riot broke out in one
North African church, he says, when the bishop, reading Jonah 4:6,
called the plant which shaded Jonah from the sun an ‘ivy’ (Lat. he&~),
in accordance with Jerome’s new version, and not a ‘gourd’ (cucwbita),
the term to which they were accustomed. The bishop was forced to
change the rendering so as not to lose his congregation. Jerome replied
at length, defending his practice and his interpretation with regard to
this and other scriptures. 64
Nevertheless Augustine acknowledged that an acquaintance with
both Hebrew and Greek was necessary in order to understand the
scriptures properly, and especially (where the Old Testament was
concerned) an acquaintance with Hebrew. Translations from Hebrew
are few, but translations from Greek are two-a-penny. ‘For, in the
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earliest days of the faith, when a Greek manuscript came into anyone’s
hands and he thought he possessed a little facility in both languages
[i.e. Greek and Latin), he ventured to make a translation.@”
Augustine himself has left an explicit statement on the limits of the
canon of scripture. It is contained, he says, in the following books:
Five books of Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
Deuteronomy.
One book of Joshua the son of Nun, one of Judges, one short
book called Ruth, which seems rather to belong to the beginning
of Kings; next, four books of Kings and two of Chroniclesthese last not following consecutively but running parallel, so
to speak, and covering the same ground. . .
There are other books which appear to follow no regular
order, being connected neither with the order of the preceding
books nor with one another, such as Job, Tobias, Esther and
Judith, the two books of Maccabees and the two of Esdras [i.e.
Ezra and Nehemiah): these last seem to be rather a sequel to the
continuous regular history which ends with the books of Kings
and Chronicles.
Next come the prophets, in which there is one book of the
Psalms of David; and three books of Solomon-Proverbs, Song
of Songs and Ecclesiastes. Two books indeed, one called Wisdom
and the other Ecclesiasticus, are ascribed to Solomon because of
a certain resemblance of style, but the most probable opinion is
that they were written by Jesus the son of Sirach. 66 Still, they are
to be numbered among the prophetical books, since they have
won recognition as being authoritative.
The remainder are the books which are strictly called the
Prophets. There are twelve separate books of the prophets which
are joined to one another and, having never been disjoined, are
reckoned as one book; the names of these prophets are Hosea,
Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk,
Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechatiah and Malachi. Then there are the
four major prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel. The
authority of the Old Testament 67 is contained within the limits
of these forty-four books.
1969), pp.80- 101; W. H. Semple, ‘St Jerome as a Biblical Translator’, BJRL 48
(1965-(X), pp.227-243; J. Barr, ‘St Jerome’s Appreciation of Hebrew’, BJRL 49
(1966-67), pp.281-302; J. Barr, ‘St Jerome and the Sounds of Hebrew’, Journal of
Seruitlr. Str&s 12 (1967), pp. l-36; H. F. D. Sparks, ‘Jerome as Biblical Scholar’,
CHB I (Cambridge, 1970), pp.5 10-541; J. N. D. Kelly, Jemme (London, 1975).
h2 A. Souter, The E&test Latrn Cunmmtaries on IJX Epistles ofSt Paul (Oxford, 1927),
p. 139; ‘For me, at least’, said Souter in the same sentence, ‘he is thegreatest Christian
since New Testament times.’
” Augustine, Epistle 71 = Jerome, Epide 104. Augustine had made the same
request to Jerome eight or nine years previously (Epr.rtle 28.2 = Jerome, Epr.rrie 56.2).
Cf. Augustine, t@tlr X 1.M.
” Jerome, Epr.~t/e 112 = Augustine, Epdr 75.
author of Wisdom.
” In his Kefra&zfion.~ 2.3 Augustine acknowledges that this customary use of’Old
Testament’ has no apostolic authority; the one biblical instance of the expression (2
Cor. 3: 14) refers to the covenant at Sinai.
94
95
es On Christicrn Lruming, 2.16.
n6 In his Retm~tutions 2.2 Augustine withdraws his mention of Jesus Ben Sira as
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Then he enumerates twenty-seven books of the New Testament as
they had been enumerated by Athanasius. ‘a
It may or may not be a coincidence that the total of forty-four Old
Testament books is twice the traditional twenty-two. This larger total
is reached by counting the twelve Minor Prophets separately (even if,
as he says, they were traditionqlly ‘reckoned as one book’) and adding
the ‘apocryphal’ books (as Jerome called them). The additions to
Esther and Daniel are included in the books to which they are
attached. Lamentations, Baruch and the Letter ofJeremiah (which in the
Latin Bible is counted as the sixth chapter of Baruch) are included with
Jeremiah.
Augustine’s classification of the books is interesting; so are some of
his comments on individual books, such as his remark that Ruth is
rather a prologue to the four books of Kings (i.e. Samuel-Kings) than
an appendix to Judges (this, no doubt, because it gives the ancestry of
King David).
Augustine did not ignore completely the differences between the
Hebrew text and the Septuagint. The latter, he had no doubt, was
produced by seventy wise men, as the legend said, and as each of these
was divinely inspired their united witness must be reckoned weightier
than that of one man, even if that one man were so learned as Jerome.
When there were differences between the two forms of text, whether
additions, omissions or changes of wording, the student should
consider their significance.69 Thus, according to the Hebrew text,
Jonah proclaimed in Nineveh, ‘Yet forty days, and Nineveh shall be
overthrown’ Uon. 3:4); according to the Septuagint, he said, ‘Yet
three days. . .‘. Augustine supposed that Jonah actually said ‘forty
days’ (which might make the reader think of the forty days’ appearances
of the risen Christ, according to Acts 1:3); the seventy translators,
equally by the Spirit of God, said ‘three days’, in which the sensitive
reader will recognize an allusion to Christ’s resurrection on the third
day. As, then, the apostles themselves drew their prophetic testimonies
from the Hebrew and the Septuagint alike, so Augustine concludes
that ‘both sources should be employed as authoritative, since both are
one, and both are inspired by God’.”
OX On Chrisrirrn Leurmng.
2.13.
” City cfGod, 18.42, 43.
“I City /(God, 18.44. A similar argument appears in his Exposition of Ps. 87:lO
(KSV 88: 1 I), where the Hebrew reads ‘Do the shades (translated ‘giants’ in Jerome’s
Hebrew Psalter) rise up to praise thee.2’ but the Septuagint rendering (followed in
Jerome’s Gallican Psalter) is ‘Will physicians raise them up and give thee thanks?’
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CHURCH COUNCILS
Augustine’s ruling supplied a powerful precedent for the western
church from his own day to the Reformation and beyond.
In 393 a church council held in Augustine’s see of Hippo laid down
the limits of the canonical books along the lines approved by Augustine
himself. The proceedings of this council have been lost but they were
summarized in the proceedings of the Third Council of Carthage
(397), a provincial council.” These appear to have been the first
church councils to make a formal pronouncement on the canon.
When they did so, they did not impose any innovation on the
churches; they simply endorsed what had become the general consensus
of the churches of the west and of the greater part of the east. In 405
Pope Innocent I embodied a list of canonical books in a letter addressed
to Exsuperius, bishop of Toulouse; it too included the Apocrypha.”
The Sixth Council of Carthage (4 19) re-enacted the ruling of the Third
Council, again with the inclusion of the apocryphal books.
What is commonly called the Gelasian decree on books which are to
be received and not received takes its name from Pope Gelasius
(492-496). It gives a list of biblical books as they appeared in the
Vulgate, with the Apocrypha interspersed among the others. In some
manuscripts, indeed, it is attributed to Pope Damasus, as though it
had been promulgated by him at the Council of Rome in 382. But
actually it appears to have been a private compilation drawn up
somewhere in Italy in the early sixth century. 73
Augustine’s exposition combines the ‘giants’ and the ‘physicians’. On Augustine see
further S. J. Schultz, ‘Augustine and the Old Testament Canon’, EQ 28 (1956),
pp.93- 100; A. -M. LaBonnarditre(ed.), SaintAugustinet/a Bible (Paris.
1986). and
.
,_~I.
(more generally) P. R. L. Brown, Augustine ofHippo: A Biography (London, 1967), and
Religion and Society in the Age of Saint Augustine (London, 19171
,
7i See NPNF, series 2, XIV, pp.45yf.
” Innocent, Epistle 6.7. His order is unusual: after the four books of ‘Kingdoms’ he
continues with Ruth, the Prophets (four major and twelve minor), five books of
Solomon (including Wisdom and Ben Sira), Psalms, Job, Tobit, Esther, Judith, 1
and 2 Maccabees, 1 and 2 Esdras (= Ezra-Nehemiah), 1 and 2 Chronicles.
73 A c r i t i c a l e d i t i o n w a s i s s u e d b y E . van Dobschiicz, Das Derretum
Ge/asianum. = TU 38.4 (Leipzig, 1912). See also C. H. Turner, ‘Latin Lists of the
Canonical Books, I: The Roman Council under Damasus, AD 382’, JTS 1 (18991900), pp.554-560; J. Chapman, ‘On the Decretr/m Gehianunl “De Libris recipiendis
et non recipiendis”‘, Rewe Bbkdictine 30 (1913), pp.187-207, 3 1 5 - 3 5 3 ; E .
Schwartz, ‘Zum Decretum Gelasianum’, ZNW 29 (1930), pp. 161-168.
-,.
97
B E F O R E A N D A F T E R THE
CHAPTER SEVEN
BEFORE AND AFTER
THE REFORMATION
JEROME TO THE REFORMATION
Jerome’s Latin Bible made its way slowly but surely in the western
church, gradually ousting the Old Latin version. If even an enlightened
reader like Augustine was a little disconcerted by what seemed to be
Jerome’s ruthless rejection of the Septuagint as a basis for the Old
Testament translator, it may well be imagined what resistance was
offered by the rank and file to Jerome’s innovations. They were not at
all impressed by the argument that the new translation was much
more accurate than the old: then, as now, accuracy was a matter of
concern only to a minority. Nevertheless, the sheer merit of Jerome’s
version won the day, until it came to be known as the ‘Vulgate’ or
‘common’ edition-a designation previously used of the version that
Jerome’s work superseded.
So far as the Old Testament canon was concerned, this too was a
matter of interest only to a minority. For purposes of devotion or
edification, why make any distinction between Esther and Judith, or
between Proverbs and Wisdom?
It became customary to add to copies of the Latin Bible a few books
which Jerome had not even included among those which were to be
read ‘for the edification of the people’, notably 3 and 4 Esdras and the
Prayer of Manasseh. Of these, 3 Esdras (or the ‘Greek Ezra’) is the 1
Esdras of the Septuagint (and of the common English Apocrypha); 4
98
REFORMATION
Esdras (the ‘Apocalypse of Ezra’), frequently referred to as 4 Ezra, is
the 2 Esdras of the common English Apocrypha (it had never been
included in the Septuagint)‘; the Prayer of Manasseh, composed to
give substance to the allusion to that king’s prayer in 2 Chron.
33: 12f., 18f., may belong to the first or second century BC but first
appears in extant literature in a manual of church order called the
Doctrine of the Apostles (early 4th century AD). It is a beautiful prayer of
penitence (but, like 4 Esdras, had never belonged to the Septuagint).
Throughout the following centuries most users of the Bible made
no distinction between the apocryphal books and the others: all alike
were handed down as part of the Vulgate. But the vast majority of
western European Christians, clerical as well as lay, in those centuries
could not be described as ‘users’ of the Bible. They were familiar with
certain parts of the Bible which were repeated in church services, and
with the well-known Bible stories, but the idea of well defined limits
to the sacred books was something that would not have occurred to
them. Even among the most literate Christians a lack of concern on
such matters sometimes manifests itself. Thus, of some of the Old
English translators of the Bible it has been pointed out that, while
‘Bede, Aldhelm, Aelfric all protest against the widespread popular
use’ of some completely uncanonical writings, ‘all three themselves
use others’ of the same kind. *
With the revival of serious biblical study in the early Middle Ages,
fresh attention was paid to questions of canonicity. Nowhere was this
revival more marked than in the Abbey of St Victor at Paris in the
twelfth century. In the school attached to the abbey Hebrew sources
were explored and a new emphasis was placed on the literal sense of
scripture. Hugh of St Victor, who was prior of the abbey and director
of its school from 1133 until his death in 114 1, enumerates the books
of the Hebrew Bible in a chapter ‘On the number of books in holy writ’
and goes on to say: ‘There are also in the Old Testament certain other
books which are indeed read [in church] but are not inscribed in the
body of the text or in the canon of authority: such are the books of
Tobit, Judith and the Maccabees, the so-called Wisdom of Solomon
and Ecclesiasticus.’ Here, of course, the influence of Jerome can be
’ On the Esdras literature see also pp.47 with n. 11, 85 with n. Il.
’ G. Shepherd, in ‘English Versions of the Scriptures before Wyclif, CHB II,
p.364.
’ Hugh of% Victor, On theSacranrenr~, I, Prologue, 7 (PL 176, ~01s. 185- 186D).
‘A continuous succession of the more learned Fathers in the West maintained the
99
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
discerned: for mediaeval students of the Bible in the Latin church there
was no master to be compared with him.
For those who were more concerned with the spiritual than with the
literal sense the distinction between first and second grades of canonicity was unimportant: the apocryphal books could be allegorized as
easily as those which were stamped with ‘Hebrew verity’ and could be
made to yield the same meaning.
There is evidence of some reaction on the part of mediaeval Jewish
scholars to the Christian treatment of the Old Testament canon. E. I.
J. Rosenthal has shown how Isaac Abravanel (1437- 1509) applied
Aristotelian categories to prove that the Jewish division of the sacred
books into Law, Prophets and Writings was superior to the fourfold
Christian division into legal, historical, poetical with wisdom, and
prophetical books.4 On the other hand, it has been shown that more
than two centuries earlier Moses Nachmanides (1194-c 1270) read
the book of Wisdom in an Aramaic text.’
The two Wycliffite versions of the complete Bible in English
(1384, 1395) included the apocryphal books as a matter of course;
they were part of the Vulgate, on which those versions were based.
The ‘General Prologue’ to the second version (John Purvey’s) contains
a strong commendation of ‘the book of Tobias’ (Tobit) because of the
encouragement it provides to those who are persecuted for righteousness’ sake, teaching them ‘to be true to God in prosperity and
adversity, and. . . to be patient in tribulation; and go never away from
the dread and love of God’. There is a recognition of the distinction
drawn by Jerome between those books which might be used for the
confirmation of doctrine and those which were profitable for their
ethical lessons: ‘Though the book of Tobias is not of belief, it is a full
devout story, and profitable to the simple people, to make them keep
patience and God’s hests’ (i.e. behests).6
BEFORE AND AFTER THE REFORMATION
THE REFORMERS
OLD
TESTAMENT
AND
THE
CANON
With the sixteenth-century Reformation the issue came more sharply
to the fore. When Luther, in his controversy with Johann Maier von
Eck, maintained the authority of scripture alone (sola scr$tura) over
against that of the church, this quickly raised the question of what
precisely constituted ‘scripture alone’. It was Luther’s protest against
the abuse of the indulgence system (especially in the hands of Johann
Tetzel) that led him ultimately to break with Rome. But the indulgence system was bound up with belief in purgatory and the practice
of prayers for the dead, and these too were given up by Luther. When
Luther was challenged to abide by his principle of ‘scripture alone’ and
concede that scriptural authority for praying for the dead was found in
2 Mace. 12:45f. (where praying for the dead, ‘that they might be
delivered from their sin’, is said to be ‘a holy and pious thought’), he
found a ready reply in Jerome’s ruling that 2 Maccabees did not belong
to the books to be used ‘for establishing the authority of ecclesiastical
dogmas’. ’
(It may have been for this reason that Luther manifested a special
animus against 2 Maccabees: he is reported as saying, ‘I hate Esther
and 2 Maccabees so much that I wish they did not exist; they contain
too much Judaism and no little heathen vice.‘8 It is noteworthy that he
shows his exercise of private judgement here by including Esther
under the same condemnation as 2 Maccabees: Esther is one of the
books which Jerome acknowledged as acceptable for the establishing
of doctrine- though to be sure it is difficult to imagine what doctrine
of Jewish or Christian faith could be established by the book of
Esther.)’
distinctive authority of the Hebrew Canon up to the period of the Reformation’ (B. F.
Westcott, ‘Canon of Scripture, The’, Smith’s DB I, p.507; he gives a list from
Primasius to Cardinal Cajetan). See more generally B. Smalley, TheStudy o/the Biblein
rhe Midrllr Ages (Oxford, * 1952).
A CHB II, p.273 (‘The Study of the Bible in Medieval Judaism’).
’ A. Marx, ‘An Aramaic Fragment of the Wisdom of Solomon’, JBL 40 (192 l),
pp.57-69.
’ M. Deanesly, The Lolhrd Brbh (Cambridge, 119201 1960), p.256.
’ Luther’s Wirtenberg colleague A. R. Bodenstein von Karlstadt defended Jerome’s
position in De canoniciJ wipturis Iibelh (1520), but within the Apocrypha he gave a
higher status to Wisdom, Ben Sira, Judith, Tobit, and 1 and 2 Maccabees than to the
other books.
a Tischreu’en (Weimar edition 1, p.208): too much weight should not be laid on
many of the obiter dicta in Luther’s collected Tabfe Talk.
9 It might be said that Esther bears witness to the operation of divine providence,
but that is not a distinctively Jewish or Christian doctrine (it was a central feature of
Stoic belief). A powerful imagination can see what is otherwise invisible, as when W.
Vischer could see the cross of Christ in Haman’s gallows (‘The Book of Esther’, EQ 11
[ 19391, pp.3-21, especially pp. 11- 17). One still comes across allegorizations of the
story in which Esther corresponds to the church (the bride ofchrist), Mordecai to the
Holy Spirit, and King Ahasuerus (believe it or not) to Christ.
IO0
IO1
BEFORE AND AFTER THE REFORMATION
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Luther showed his acceptance of Jerome’s distinction between the
two categories of Old Testament books by gathering the Apocrypha
together in his German Bible as a sort of appendix to the Old
Testament (1534), instead of leaving them as they stood in the
Vulgate. They were largely translated by various helpers, while he
himself composed the prefaces. The section containing them was
entitled: ‘The Apocrypha: Books which are not to be held equal to holy
scripture, but are useful and good to read.’ In Zwingli’s Zurich Bible
( 15 24 - 29) the apocryphal books had already been separated from the
rest of the Old Testament and published as avolume by itself. Luther’s
friend George Spalatin had translated the Prayer of Mana&eh into
German in 15 19; another translation was included in the complete
German Bible of 1534. As for 3 and 4 Esdras and 3 Maccabees, they
were not included in Luther’s Bible; they were added to later editions
from about 15 70 onward.
Luther had little regard for the Apocrypha in general, but his
guidance in matters of the canon was derived not from tradition but
from the gospel. In both Testaments ‘what preaches Christ’ was for
him the dominant principle; in the Old Testament Genesis, Psalms
and Isaiah preached Christ with special clarity, he found.
Erasmus took a humanist rather than an evangelical attitude to such
questions. In his treatise on The Free&n of the Will, for example, he
based an argument on Ben Sira’s wisdom book (Ecclesiasticus): ‘I
cannot see’, he said, ‘why the Hebrews left this book out when they
included Solomon’s Parables and the amatory Canticles’.” The
Erasmian attitude was expressed also by Calvin’s convert Sebastian
Castellio (15 15 -63), translator of the Bible into both Latin and
French, whom the Reformed authorities in Geneva refused to ordain
because he would not spiritualize the Song of Songs but held it to be a
poem in celebration of human love. I’
Tyndale did not live to complete the translation of the Old Testament; had he done so, he would probably have followed Luther’s
precedent (as he did in other respects’*) by segregating the apocryphal
books in a section of their own. In an appendix to his 1534 revision of
the New Testament he translated those Old Testament passages which
were prescribed to be read in church as Epistles on certain days
according
of
to the use
Sarum. A kw of these are from the Apocrypha;
they appear6 narutally, in their liturgical sequence. I3
Coverdafe’s English Bible of 1535 followed the example of its
continental predecessors by separating the apocryphal books (and
parts of books) from the rest of the Old Testament and placing them
after MaIachi, with a separate title-page: ‘Apocripha: the bokes and
treatises which amonge the fithers of old are not rekened to be of like
authorice with the other bokes of the byble, nether are they founde in
the Canon of Hebrue.’ Then come their titles, beginning with 3 and 4
E&as. But one apocryphal work was left in situ, as a note at the foot of
the title-page explains: ‘Vnto these also belongeth Baruc, whom we
haue set amonge the prophetes next vnto Jeremy, because he was his
scrybe, and in his tyme.’ (In a 1537 edition of Coverdale, however,
Baruch was removed from its position among the protocanonical
books and placed after Tobit.) The next page has an introduction
indicating the inferior authority of these books.
Thomas Matthew’s Bible of 1537 (actually edited by John Rogers)
reproduced Coverdale’s Apocrypha, but added the Prayer of Manasseh.
This was the first appearance of the Prayer of Manasseh in English; for
Matthew’s Bible it was translated from the French version in Olivetan’s
Bible (1535). Richard Taverner’s Bible of 1539, a revision of
Matthew’s Bible, omits the introduction to the Apocrypha found in
Coverdale and Matthew. Taverner’s Bible was revised in turn by
Edmund Becke (1549-5 1); Becke added a translation of 3 Maccabees,
which now appeared for the first time in an English dress. He also
provided a completely new translation of 1 E&as, Tobit and Judith,
and in an introduction of his own to the apocryphal books justified
their separation from the protocanonical works but commended their
reading ‘for example of life’.
The Great Bible, first published in 1539, was edited by Coverdale
but used Matthew’s Bible as its basis (and that meant Tyndale’s Bible,
so fat as Tyndale’s work extended). I4 The first edition reproduced
Coverdale’s introduction to the Apocrypha but called the books
Hagiographa, not Apocrypha. (Hagiograpba, ‘holy writings’, was
originally the Greek equivalent of Hebrew K$@m, the ‘Writings’,
p.6.
I’ See B. Hall, C H B III, pp.7lf. (‘Biblical Scholarship: Editions and
Commentaries’).
” See p.246.
I3 E.g. Sir. 15.1-6 for St John the Evangelist’s Day (December 27), Wisdom
5: l-5 for St Philip and St James’ Day (May 1).
I4 Of the Old Testament books in English Tyndale published only the Pentateuch
and Jonah, but he left in manuscript the translation of the historical books from
Joshua to 2 Chronicles; this was published in Matthew’s Bible.
102
‘03
‘” Erasmus, Thr Frmfonr o/the WiN (1524), quoted by R. H. Bainton, CHB III,
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
the third division of the Hebrew Bible.) The fifth edition of the Great
Bible (154 1) omitted the introduction and supplied a new title-page
in which the list of apocryphal books was preceded by the words: ‘The
fourth part of the Bible, containing these bokes. ’ This form of words
was plainly calculated to play down the distinction between the
Apocrypha and the protocanonical books.
THE COUNCIL OF TRENT
Meanwhile the Counter-Reformation concerned itself with the canon
of scripture as well as with many other issues which the Reformers had
put in question. The Council of Trent, convened in 1545, had to
consider the relation of scripture and unwritten tradition in the
transmission of Christian doctrine; it made pronouncements, among
other things, on the text, interpretation and canon of scripture. These
subjects were dealt with during the fourth session (April, 1546): it
was decreed that among various forms of the biblical text it was to the
‘ancient and Vulgate edition’ that ultimate appeal should be made, and
that this edition comprised what we call the protocanonical and
deuterocanonical books without distinction. It was decided not to
enter into the question of difference in status between one group of
books and another. Thus Jerome’s distinction between the books
certified by the ‘Hebrew verity’ and the books which were to be read
only ‘for the edification of the people’ was in effect set aside.
This was probably the first occasion on which a ruling on the canon
of scripture was given by a general (or ecumenical) council of the
church, as opposed to a local or provincial council. A similar list had
indeed been promulgated by the Council of Florence over a hundred
years before, but there was some doubt whether this particular
Florentine decree carried full conciliar authority. The decree of Trent
(like its companion decrees) was fortified by an anathema pronounced
against all dissentients. I5
The ruling that the ‘ancient and Vulgate edition’ (the Latin Vulgate)
be treated as the authoritative text of holy scripture required the
provision of an accurate edition of this text. After the abortive attempt
to make this provision in the Sixtine edition of 1590, the need was
adequately met (for the next three centuries, at least) by the Clemen” Sessio IV: Decrrtc/nr de canonh ~cvipt~~ris. See F. J. Crehan, CHB III, pp. 199-202
(‘The Bible in the Roman Catholic Church from Trent to the Present Day’).
‘04
BEFORE
AND
AFTER
THE
REFORMATION
tine Vulgate of 1592. In this edition 3 and 4 Esdras and the Prayer of
Manasseh were added as an appendix: they formed no part of the canon
of Trent and were not included in the Sixtine Vulgate. It was the
Clementine edition of the Old Testament that formed the basis of the
English Douay version of 1609- 10.
The decree of Trent was repromulgated by the first Vatican Council
of 1869-70, which explained further that the biblical books were not
acknowledged as canonical because they had first been produced by
human intelligence and then canonized by the church’s authority, but
rather because they had God for their author, being inspired by the
Holy Spirit and then entrusted to the church. I6 As for the status of the
books which Jerome called apocryphal, there is general agreement
among Roman Catholic scholars today (as among their colleagues of
other Christian traditions) to call them ‘deuterocanonical’ (a term first
used, it appears, in the sixteenth century);” Jerome’s distinction is
thus maintained in practice, even if it does not enjoy conciliar support.
THE ELIZABETHAN SETTLEMENT
The Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, which have been (in theory at
least) authoritative for the doctrine and discipline of the Church of
England since 1562/63’*, were in essence a repromulgation of the
Forty-Two Articles of 1553 (issued seven weeks before the death of
Edward VI). The doctrine of scripture is dealt with in Article VI of the
Thirty-Nine, which corresponds to Article V of the Forty-Two.
Unlike the earlier Article, however, which simply affirmed the sufficiency of the scriptures for ‘all things necessary to Salvation’, Article
VI includes a precise statement of the contents of the Old Testament
scriptures. Headed ‘Of the sufficiency of the holy Scriptures for
salvation’, it proceeds:
Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation: so
that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby,
” DoKtt~afir.Constitt/tion on the Catho& Faith, ch.2 (‘Of Revelation’).
” According to F. J. Cr$an (CHB III, p.206), the word ‘deuterocanonical’ was
first used in this way by a converted Jew, Sixtus of Siena (1520- 1569).
‘s All thirty-nine were approved by Convocation at that time, but Article 29 (‘Of
the Wicked which eat not the Body of Christ in the use of the Lord’s Supper’) was held
over (probably at Queen Elizabeth’s instance) and did not receive legal ratification
until 1571.
‘05
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
is not to be required of any man, that it should be believed as an
article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to
salvation. In the name of the holy Scripture we do understand
those Canonical Books of the Old and New Testament, ofwhose
authority was never any doubt in the Church.
Of the Names and Number of the Canonical Books
Genesis; Exodus; L.eviticus; Numbers; Deuteronomy; Joshua;
Judges; Ruth; The First Book of Samuel; The Second Book of
Samuel; the First Book of Kings; The Second Book of Kings; the
First Book of Chronicles; The Second Book of Chronich; The
First Book of Esdras; The Second Book of Esdras; The Book of
Esther; The Book ofJob; The Psalms; The Proverbs; Ecclesiastes, or Preacher; Cantica, or Songs of Solomon; Four Prophets
the greater; Twelve Prophets the less.
And the other Books (as Hierome saith) the Church doth read
for example of life and instruction of manners; but yet doth it
not apply them to establish any doctrine; such are these
following:
The Third Book of Esdras; The Fourth Book of Esdras; The
Book of Tobias; The Book ofJudith; The rest of the Book of
Esther; The Book of Wisdom; Jesus the Son of Siracb; Barucb
the Prophet; The Song of the Three Children; The Story of
Susanna; Of Beland the Dragon; The Prayer of Manasses; The
First Book of Maccabees; The Second Book of Maccabees . . . . ’
A certain naivete may be noted in the remark about books ‘of whose
authority was never any doubt in the Church’. The First and Second
Books of Esdras, as in the Vulgate, are the books of Ezra and
Nehemiah. The book of Lamentations has not been lost: it is tacitly
included, as an appendix to Jeremiah, in ‘Four Prophets the greater’.
The distinction made by ‘Hierome’ (Jerome) between the books
belonging to the Hebrew Bible and the others is reaffirmed. The Third
and Fourth Books of Esdras and the Prayer of Manasses (Manasseh) are
placed on the same level of deuterocanonicity as the Apocrypha in
general.
In accordance with the recognition of the apocryphal books as
profitable ‘for example of life and instruction of manners’, readings
from them are included in the Anglican lectionary, especially among
the ‘lessons proper for holy-days’ (e.g. on All Saints’ Day, Wisdom
3: 1 - 10 is the Old Testament lesson for Mattins and Wisdom 5: 1- 17
106
BEFORE
AND
AFTER
T H E REFbRMATION
for Evensong). In the Book of Homilies, the reading of which is
commended in Article XXXV, the apocryphal books are frequently
quoted, and are even referred to as the Word of God. I9
Two distinct tendencies in English Protestantism in the Elizabethan
age are represented by the two new versions of the English Bible
published under Elizabeth- the Geneva Bible (1560) and the Bishops’
Bible (1568). The Geneva Bible was produced by English Protestants
who sought refuge at Geneva during the reign of Mary Tudor ( 15 5 3 58); it was issued with a dedication to Elizabeth. It included the
apocryphal books in a section following the Old Testament (except
that the Prayer of Manasseh is printed as an appendix to 2 Chronicles);
they are introduced by this ‘argument’:
These bokes that follow in order after the Prophetes vnto the
New testament, are called Apocrypha, that is bokes, which
were not receiued by a commune consent to be red and
expounded publikely in the Church, nether yet serued to proue
any point of Christian religion, saue in asmuche as they had the
consent of the other Scriptures called Canonical to confirme the
same, or rather whereon they were grounded: but as bokes
proceding from godlie men, were receiued to be red for the
aduancement and furtherance of the knowledge of the historie,
and for the instruction of godlie maners: which bokes declare
that at all times God had an especial care of his Church and left
them not vtterly destitute of teachers and meanes to con&me
them in the hope of the promised Messiah, and also witnesse
that those calamities that Cod sent to his Church, were according
to his prouidence, who had bothe so threatened by his Prophetes,
and so broght it to passe for the destruction of their enemies,
and for the tryal of his children.“’
Coming from the Geneva of Calvin and Beta, this is a moderate and
reasonable repetition and expansion of Jerome’s position: the apocryphal books are not to be used for the confirmation of doctrine
(except in so far as they are based on the teaching of the canonical
I’ In the Second Book of Homilies (1563), homily 10 (‘Of the reverend estimation of
God’s Word’), the book of Wisdom is commended as the ‘infallible and undeceivable
word of God’.
‘” In the Geneva Bible list ofapocryphal books 3 and 4 Esdras, as they are called in
the Vulgate, appear as 1 and 2 Esdras and have so been called in the ‘Protestant’
Apocr)pha ever since. (When the two canonical ‘Esdras’ books are called Ezra and
Nehemiah, as in the Geneva B;ble, the risk ofconfusion is avoided.)
‘07
BEFORE AND AFTER THE REFORMATION
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
It is added that
books) but serve ‘for the instruction ofgodly
_ manners’
. __
they provide valuable source-material for the history of the intertestamental period, and illustrate the principles of God’s providential
dealings with his people, as he prepared them for the fulfilment of his
promise in the coming of Christ. The heirs of the Geneva Reformers
would have been well advised had they maintained this balanced
attitude to the Apocrypha.
Some of the users of the Geneva Bible, however, had little time for
the Apocrypha. To cater for them, some copies of this version printed
in 1599, both on the Continent and in London, were bound up
without the section containing the Apocrypha. The omission of the
section is obvious because the page-numbering ran consecutively
throughout the volume, and there is a hiatus in the numbering
between the two Testaments; moreover, the apocryphal books are
listed in the preliminary table of contents. An edition of the Geneva
Bible published at Amsterdam in 1640 omitted the Apocrypha as a
matter of policy: a defence of the omission was printed between the
Testaments.*’
The Bishops’ Bible, first published at London in 1568, was the
work of men committed to the Elizabethan settlement: in it the
section containing the Apocrypha was equipped with a special title
but nothing was said to indicate any distinction in status between its
contents and the other books.
SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
The Authorized (King James) Version of 1611 was formally a revision
of the last (1602) edition of the Bishops’ Bible; it included a version of
the Apocrypha as a matter of course. Four years later, the Archbishop
of Canterbury, George Abbot, a firm Calvinist in theology, forbade
the binding or selling of Bibles without the Apocrypha on penalty of a
year’s imprisonment. 22 This measure seemed to be necessary because
of the increasingly vocal Puritan objection to the inclusion of the
Apocrypha among the canonical books. In 1589 an attack on their
‘I But the Prayer of Manasseh, being appended to 2 Chronicles, was retained.
” In those days the authority of the Archbishop of Canterbury was reinforced by
sanctions: in 163 I the King’s Printers were fined 5300 by Archbishop Laud for their
negligence in omitting the vital word ‘not ’ from the commandment ‘Thou shalt nor
commit adultery’ (a misprint which secured for that edition the sobriquet of ‘The
Wicked Bible’).
108
inclusion by John Penry (‘Martin Marprelate’) had called forth a
spirited reply from an earlier Archbishop, John Whitgift. Now,
despite the penalty enacted by Archbishop Abbot, copies of the
AV/KJV without the Apocrypha began to be produced in the years from
1626 onward.
The tide was running in the Puritan &vour in those years: in 1644
the Long Piirliament ordained that the Apccrypha should cease to be
read in services of the Church of England. Three years later the
Assembly of Divines at Westminster introduced their historic
Confession of Faith with a chapter ‘Of the Holy Scripture’. In order to
make it plain precisely which books were comprised in the holy
scripture, the second paragraph of this chapter ran:
II. Under the name of the Holy Scripture, or the Word of God
written, are now contained all the Books of the Old and New
Testaments, which are these:
OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
I. Kings
Ecclesiastes
Exodus
Leviticus
NIX&IS
Deuteronomy
Joshua
judges
Ruth
I. Samuel
II. Samuel
II. Kings
I. Chronicles
II. Chronicles
EZIY3
Nehemiah
Esther
The Song of
Songs
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Lamentations
Ezekiel
Job
Daniel
Psalms
Proverbs
;z
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkllk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
The Gospels
according to
Matthew
Mark
Luke
John
The Acts of
the Apostles
Paul’s Epistles
to the Remans
Corinthians I
Corinthians II
Galatians
Ephesians
Philippians
Colossians
Thessalonians I
Thessalonians II
To Timothy I
To Timothy II
To Titus
To Philemon
The Epistle to
the Hebrews
The Epistle of
James
The first and
second Epistles of
Peter
The first, second
and third Epistles
of John
The Epistle of Jude
The Revelation
All of which are given by inspiration of God, to be the rule of
faith and life.
109
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
BEFORE
The third paragraph follows with the uncompromising declaration:
casting my eye upon the Apocrypha books, I found it in Ecclesiasticus, chap. 2:lO. This at first did somewhat daunt me,
because it was not in those texts that we call holy and canonical;
yet as this sentence was the sum and substance of many of the
promises, it was my duty to take the comfort of it. And I bless
God for that word, for it was ofgood to me. That word doth still
oft-times shine before my face. ‘23
Bunyan shows his robust commonsense here: despite being initially
somewhat ‘daunted’ by the realization that he had found divine
comfort in an apocryphal text, he appropriated it as a genuine word of
God because it summarized so many biblical promises of Cod’s
faithfulness to his people.
After the Restoration of 1660 the readings from the Apocrypha
reappeared in the Anglican lectionary. The exclusion of these books,
” Grurr Ahding, 6 2 - 6 5 . It1s implied that his Bible contained the ‘Apocrypha
books’ but that he did not habitually read them as he read the rest of the volume,
having been taught that they were not ‘holy and canonical’.
I IO
AFTER
THE
REFORMATION
however, became increasingly popular in English nonconformity. It
may be indicative of the Puritan or nonconformist influence in
American Christianity that the first edition of the English Bible to be
printed in America (Philadelphia, 1782) lacked the Apocrypha.24
(The first edition of the Bible in any European language to be printed
in America was a German Bible of 1743; it did include the
Apocrypha.)”
III. The Books commonly called Apocrypha, not being ofdivine
inspiration, are no part of the canon of the scripture; and
therefore are of no authority in the Church of God, nor to be any
otherwise approved, or made use of, than other human writings.
This went considerably beyond the position approved by the translators of the Geneva Bible. Naturally churches which adopted the
Westminster Confession as their chief subordinate standard- notably
the Church of Scotland and other Presbyterian churches- preferred
to use copies of the Bible which did not include the Apocrypha.
An interesting sidelight on the general Puritan attitude in England
under the Commonwealth is provided by a piece of spiritual autobiography by John Bunyan in Grace Abounding. About 1652, he
relates, during a time of deep depression, he found comfort in a text
which came to his mind: ‘Look at the generations of old, and see: did
ever any trust in the Lord and was confounded?’ He could not
remember where it came from, could not find it in his Bible, and
received no help from others whom he asked for guidance in his quest.
Then, after the lapse of a year, he writes:
AND
BIBLE SOCIETIES AND COMMON BIBLE
.
Early in the nineteenth century the canon of the Old Testament
excited more widespread interest both in Britain and on the Continent
than is usual for such a question. In 1804 the British and Foreign Bible
Society was formed to promote the production and circulation of the
scriptures, together with their translation into languages in which
they were not available. Its committee consisted of laymen, drawn in
equal numbers from the Church of England and the Free Churches.
Later in the same year a German Bible Society was formed, followed in
18 12 by the Russian Bible Society and in 18 16 by the American Bible
Society.
In view of the interdenominational character of the British Society,
it was provided from the outset that editions of the Bible which it
sponsored should have neither note nor comment. But before long it
was realized that some editions handled by the Society contained
something more objectionable in the eyes of many of its supporters
than any note or comment could be-the apocryphal books, which
(according to the Westminster Confession), ‘not being of divine
inspiration, are no part of the canon of the scripture’. To begin with,
the Society had taken little thought for the Apocrypha, one way or the
other: one of its most famous relics, the ‘Mary Jones Bible’, included
the Welsh version of those books and actually shows Mary’s signature
at the end of Maccabees. 26
The Free Churchmen on the committee, and most of the Anglicans
(in. view of their evangelical orientation), had no interest in circulating
24 Before the Declaration of Independence American Christians were debarred by
British copyright regulations from printing the English Bible. The first Bible printed
in America was John Eliot’s Algonquin version (NT 1661, OT 1663).
‘s It included the seventy verses 2 Esdras (4 Ezra) 7:36- 105, which were missing
from the AV/KJV Apocrypha.
” E. Fenn, CHB III, p.391 (‘The Bible and the Missionary’).
I I I
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
the Apocrypha. But the Society supported similar groups on the
European Continent which did circulate editions containing the
Apocrypha, especially fi>r areas in which Bibles without the Asoaypha
would not have been acceptable. In the 1820s objections were voiced
to such support, and a dispute broke out which lasted for tive years.
The Society’s Scottish Auxiliaries in particular opposed the use of the
Society’s money, however indirectly, for the distribution of Bibles
containing the Apocrypha. The protagonist on the Scottish side was
Robert Haldane, an able lay theologian (best known otherwise as the
author of a distinguished commentary on Paul’s letter to the
Roman& 27 The Society in 1826 adopted the policy of neither
circulating itself, nor aiding others in circulating, Bibles containing
the Apocrypha- but not before the Scottish Auxiliaries had constituted themselves as the separate National Bible Society of Scotland.
The formation of this new Society, however, expanded rather than
hindered the work of Bible distribution (and the same can be said of
the Trinitarian Bible Society, which began its separate existence on
another issue in 183 1). 28
When the British and Foreign Bible Society began to distribute
exclusively editions lacking the Apocrypha, the Bible-buying public
seemed quite content with such editions. That being so, other Bible
publishers saw no reason why they should continue producing Bibles
with the Apocrypha. For a century and a half now it has been
practically impossible to buy over the counter in any ordinary bookshop in Britain or America a copy of the Authorized (King James)
Version containing the Apocrypha. Or, in the words of Principal John
Macleod, a wholehearted subscriber to the Westminster Confession,
‘the issue of the long and painful conflict was that the Englishspeaking world was furnished with the unadulterated Protestant
Canon of Scripture as its everyday possession, a thing that was by no
means universally the case before; and for over a century it is with such
a Canon that it is familiar.‘29
When the British and Foreign Bible Society undertook to provide
” The English edition of this commentary (Edinburgh, 1835-39), the expansion
ofan earlier French work, was reprinted by the Banner ofTruth Trust (London, 1958).
Mote germane to the Apocrypha controversy was his The Books o/the Old and New
Tntcrnw~t.~ pror~td /II hr Crrnomrrl (Edtnbutgh, 1845, ’ 1877).
‘” Mote recently the British and Foreign Btble Society has been able to surmount
the problem which it faced in the 1820s.
“) J, Macleod, Scr,/ri~h T/X&~ (Edinburgh, 1941), pp.226f.
II2
B E F O R E AND A F T E R T H E R E F O R M A T I O N
the copy of the Bible for presentation to King Edward VII at his
coronation in 1902, the Archbishop of Canterbury (Frederick Temple)
ruled that a ‘mutilated Bible’ (one lacking the Apocrypha) was unacceptable f&r the purpose, and as the Society was prevented by its
constitution Tom providing an ‘unmutilated’ edition, a suitable copy
had to be procured at short notice from another source.
A controversy broke out in Germany later in the nineteenth century
over suggestions that the apocryphal books, because of their theological defects, should no longer be printed as part of the Bible. The
case for retaining them was persuasively argued by some of the leading
conservatives among Protestant theologians, and the controversy
stimulated more intensive critical study of these books and of the
arguments for excluding or retaining them.30
The British Revised Version of the Bible included a revision of the
Apocrypha, published in 1895 (the New Testament had been issued in
1881, the complete Bible, apart from the Apocrypha, in 1885). The
parallel American revision, the American Standard Version of 1901,
never included the Apocrypha. The Apocrypha did, however, appear
in the Revised Standard Version (in 1957, five years after the rest of
the work). They also appeared as part of the New English Bible when
the complete work was published together in 1970.
Roman Catholic versions of the Bible, like the Jerusalem Bible of
1966 (and the New Jerusalem Bible of 1985) and the New American
Bible of 1970 included the Apocrypha as an integral part of the Old
Testament. But an ecumenical milestone was reached in 1973 with
the appearance of the Common Bible, an edition of the RSV with the
Apocrypha/Deuterocanonical Books printed between the Testaments
in a form which received the blessing not only of Catholic and
Protestant church leaders but also of the Archbishop of Thyateira and
Great Britain, the leader of the Greek Orthodox community in
Britain.3’ This does not mean that there is now universal agreement
on the Old Testament canon. There are some Protestants who still
regard the Apocrypha as a perquisite of the Church of Rome, like a
reviewer who greeted the New English Bible with the words: ‘The
Apocrypha part of the Bible! This is certainly a New Bible indeed.
Rome can rightly rejoice that at last her view of the canon of Scripture
” See B. M. Metzger, An Introduction to theApmy,bha (Oxford, 1957), pp.202f.
” The commendation of the Greek Orthodox Archbishop is the mote telling
because the OT part of the work is not based on the Septuagint, which is the
authoritative text for the Orthodox Church (see p.82).
“ 3
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
has displaced that of the Apostolic Church.‘32 Again, we shall not see
the New International Version of 1978 (a most praiseworthy enterprise) expanded by the inclusion of the Apocrypha. 33 But the greater
availability of these books means that there is a better appreciation of
their character, and of the issues involved in delimiting the canon of
the Old Testament.
AZ I R K. Paisley, The NW Enghh Bible: Version or Pew&on? (Belfast, 1961),
p.3. The reviewer cannot have been unaware that the Apocrypha were included in
every major Protestant version of the English Bible from Coverdale to the Revised
Standard Version.
M The New International Version was sponsored by the New York International
Bible Society, a more conservative body than the American Bible Society. On the
other hand, while the Good News Bible of 1979, sponsored by the American Bible
Society and the British and Foreign Bible Society, was first published without the
Apocrypha, it is planned to complete it with a translation of these books into ‘today’s
English’.
PART THREE
NEW TESTAMENT
CHAPTER EIGHT
WRITINGS OF THE
NEW ERA
If the church of early days found the Hebrew scriptures in their Greek
dress to be such an effective Bible, why (it may be asked) was it felt
necessary to augment them with what later came to be called the New
Testament writings?
THE LORD AND THE APOSTLES
Jesus wrote no book: he taught by word of mouth and personal
example. But some of his followers taught in writing as well as orally.
Often, indeed, their writing was a second-best substitute for the
spoken word. In Galatians 4:20, for example, Paul wishes that he
could be with his friends in Galatia and speak to them directly so that
they could catch his tone of voice as well as his actual words but, as he
could not visit them just then, a letter had to suffice. The letter to the
Hebrews has many of the features of a synagogue homily, based on
some of the scripture lessons prescribed for the season of Pentecost, ’
and there are indications towards the end that the writer would have
preferred to deliver it face to face had he been free to visit the
recipients.’ We in our day may be glad, for our own sakes, that
’ And possibly on one of the ‘proper psalms’ for the day (Ps. 110); see A. E.
Guilding, The Fourth GospelandJtwish Word+ (Oxford, 1960), pp.72, 100.
’ Cf.Heb. 13:18-23.
“ 7
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
WRITINGS OF THE NEW ERA
therefore, in practice, as binding as those writings themselves.
Was their teaching as authoritative as that which came from the Lord’s
own lips? Probably a difference was felt, except possibly when a
prophet gave voice to an utterance in the Lord’s name. Paul can claim
that Christ speaks in him (2 Cor. 13:3), but when answering the
Corinthians’ detailed questions about marriage and divorce he makes a
careful distinction between a ruling given by the Lord in person,
which is binding without question, and his own judgment, which his
converts may accept or not as they choose-he thinks they will be
wise if they accept it, but he cannot impose it (1 Cor. 7: lOf., 12-40).
A ruling from the Lord is even more binding than an Old Testament
commandment. Paul quotes Deuteronomy 25:4 (‘You shall not muzzle
an ox when it is treading out the grain’) to demonstrate that the
preacher of the gospel is entitled to get his living by the gospel, but his
final argument for this principle is that the Lord himself has so
commanded (1 Cor. 9:8- 14).
In a later letter in the Pauline collection this argument is repeated:
the same Old Testament commandment is quoted and coupled this
time with an express saying of Jesus: ‘for the scripture says, “You shall
not muzzle an ox when it is treading out the grain”, and, “The
labourer deserves his wages” ’ (1 Tim. 5: 18). What is striking here is
that a saying of Jesus known to us from Luke 10:7 is linked with an
Old Testament text under the common rubric: ‘the scripture says.’ It
has to be considered whether ‘the scripture’ refers strictly to the
commandment from Deuteronomy, or also to a written collection of
sayings of Jesus which may have served as a source for the Third
Evangelist, or even to the Gospel of Luke itself. (Here the comparative
dating of 1 Timothy and Luke would have to be taken into account. )
In what is usually regarded as the latest of the New Testament
documents, reference is made to one of the writings of Paul, who is
said to speak to the same effect ‘in all his letters. There are some things
in them hard to understand [the writer goes on), which the ignorant
and unstable twist to their own destruction, as they do the other
scriptures’ (2 Pet. 3:lSf.). Here Paul’s letters seem to form a
recognizable collection, and to be given the status of scripture, since
they are associated with ‘the other scriptures’. If the date of 2 Peter
were more certainly known, it would provide an important landmark
in the history of the canonization of the New Testament documents.
On the other hand, if the Pauline letters are here reckoned along with
‘the other scriptures’, this might in itself imply their addition to the
Old Testament writings, perhaps in a kind of appendix, rather than
the emergence of a new and distinct collection of ‘scriptures’.
Clement of Rome, in his letter to the Corinthian church (c AD 96),
quotes the words of Jesus as being at least on a level of authority with
those of the prophets. ‘The Holy Spirit says’, he states, introducing a
conflated quotation from Jeremiah 9:23f. and 1 Samuel 2: 10 (‘Let not
the wise man boast in his wisdom nor the strong man in his strength
nor the rich man in his riches, but let him who boasts boast in the
Lord, to seek him out and to practise judgment and righteousness’),
and then he goes on: ‘especially remembering the words of the Lord
J esus, “Be merciful, so that you may obtain mercy. . .“’ (with further
quotations from the Sermon on the Mount). lo
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch (c llO), refers to some people who
refuse to believe anything that is not recorded ‘in the archives’ (or ‘in
the charters’, meaning presumably the Old Testament scriptures),
even if it is armed ‘in the gospel’. When Ignatius replies ‘It is
written’ or ‘scripture says’ (presumably meaning a gospel writing),
they retort, ‘That is the question’-in other words, ‘Is the gospel
scripture?’ Ignatius responds with a rhetorical outburst, in which he
affirms that his ultimate authority is Jesus Christ: whatever authority
the ‘archives’ (or ‘charters’) have is summed up and brought to
perfection in his passion and resurrection-in short, in the Christian
faith. ’ ’
Further references to the gospel writings as ‘scripture’ are made in
the second-century homily conventionally called the Second Epistle of
Clement. In one place Isaiah 54: 1 (‘Rejoice, 0 barren one. . .‘) is
quoted and the author goes on: ‘And another scripture says, “I came
not to call the righteous, but sinners”’ (cf Mt. 9:13). ‘* Later the
was
120
” 1 Clem. 13: If. In 1 Clem. 46:7f. a plea for unity, fortified by various quotations,
is concluded with ‘Remember the words of the Lord Jesus’, followed by a warning
against leading Christ’s elect ones into sin, resembling such sayings as those of Mt.
26:24 and Luke 1712 (perhaps quoted from oral tradition rather than from a written
text). Cf. Acts 20:35.
” Ignatius, To the PhifadeLpbians 8.2. Another possibility is that Ignatius’s ‘It is
written’ refers to Old Testament texts which were invoked as ‘testimonies’ to Christ;
his opponents’ retort ‘That is the question’ (Gk. prokeitaz) would then mean: ‘Do these
Old Testament texts in fact refer to Christ?’ See B. M. Metzger, The Canon o/the NEW
Tutammf (Oxford, 1987), p.48.
‘* 2 Clem. 2: l-4. This homily has usually been dated in the mid-second cenrury,
but acase for dating it DAD 100 has been argued by K. P. Donfried, ThrSrttingofSe~~ond
Clrmnt in Early Christianity. NovT Sup 38 (Leiden, 1974).
-.
121
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
WRITINGS OF THE NEW ERA
dominical saying, ‘Whoever has confessed me before men, I will
confess him before my Father’ (cf. Mt. 10:32), is followed by ‘And he
says also in Isaiah, “This people honours me with their lips, but their
heart is far from me”’ (Is. 29:13),13 while in yet another place it is
declared that ‘the books and the apostles say that the church is not of
present-day origin but has existed fmm the beginning’. I4 The apostles’
authority is evidently not less than that of ‘the books’ (the Old
Testament writings); their Lord’s authority is a fortiori on a par with
that of the lawand the prophets.
Rather earlier than this homily is the Letter of Barnabas (perhaps the
work of an Alexandrian Christian), which uses the clause ‘as it is
written’ to introduce the quotation ‘Many are called, but few are
chosen’- words found nowhere in the Bible apart from the gospel of
Matthew (Mt 22: 14). ” Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, writing to the
church of Philippi between AD 110 and 120, reminds his readers, who
(perhaps by their own testimony) were ‘well versed in the sacred
letters’, that ‘it is said in these scriptures, “Be angry and sin not” and
“Do not let the sun go down on your anger” ‘. I6 The former injunction
comes from Psalm 4:4, but it is quoted in Ephesians 4:26, where it is
followed by the second injunction. We cannot be completely sure of
Polycarp’s wording, as this part of his letter is extant only in a Latin
version of the Greek original, but he appears definitely to ascribe
scriptural status to a New Testament writing.
So does the gnostic leader Basilides, a younger contemporary of
Polycarp; he was well acquainted with several of the documents which
came to be included in the New Testament. For example, he introduces
a quotation from Romans 8: 19, 22 with the phrase ‘as it is written”’
and says that the events of our Lord’s life took place ‘as it is written in
the gospels’. I8 He quotes 1 Corinthians 2: 13 as an expression used in
‘the scripture’. I9
Dionysius, bishop of Corinth about 170, complains that letters he
has written have been falsified by omissions and interpolations; of
those responsible for this misdemeanour he says, ‘the woe is laid up in
store for them’ (having in mind perhaps the warning pronounced in
Rev. 22: 18f. against any one who alters the words of the Apocalypse
by addition or subtraction). ‘Therefore it is not surprising’, he goes
on, ‘that some have dared to falsify even the dominical scriptures,
when they have plotted against writings so inferior to these.‘*’ The
‘dominical scriptures’ could be gospels or other New Testament
writings, but they might conceivably be the Old Testament writings,
especially those passages which were used as ‘testimonies’ concerning
Christ.
About the same time the Palestinian Christian Hegesippus could
report after his journeys among the Mediterranean churches that ‘in
every [episcopal) succession and in every city the preaching of the law
and the prophets and of the Lord is faithfully followed’. *’
These quotations do not amount to evidence for a New Testament
canon; they do show that the authority of the Lord and his apostles was
reckoned to be not inferior to that of the law and the prophets.
Authority precedes canonicity; had the words of the Lord and his
apostles not been accorded supreme authority, the written record of
their words would never have been canonized.
It has at times been suggested that the replacement of oral tradition
in the church by a written collection is in some ways regrettable. The
author of a volume entitled Is ‘Holy Scripture’ Christian? (a title which
he concedes is ‘perhaps foolish’) quotes G. Widengren, a Swedish
scholar, to the effect that ‘the reduction to writing of an oral tradition
is always a sign of loss of nerve’ and mentions a remark ascribed by
Oxford oral tradition to R. H. Lightfoot ‘that the writing of the
gospels was an early manifestation of the operation of original sin in
the church’. 22 But, in a society like the Graeco-Roman world of the
early Christian centuries, where writing was the regular means of
preserving and transmitting material deemed worthy of remembrance,
the idea of relying on oral tradition for the recording of the deeds and
words of Jesus and the apostles would not have generally commended
itself (whatever Papias and some others might think).
In the first half of the second century, then, collections of Christian
” 2 Clem. 3:2-5. (Is. 29: 13 is quoted in Mk. 7:6.)
I4 2 Clem. 14:2
’ 6 Polycarp, To the Phdippians 12 : 1.
‘* Barnabas 4: 14.
” Quoted by Hippolytus, Refutation ofAIi Heresies, 7.25.2.
‘* Quoted by Hippolytus, Refutation, 7.27.8.
Iv Quoted by Hippolytus, Refutation, 7.26.3.
122
LO Quoted by Eusebius, Hisf. Ed. 4.23.12.
” Quoted by Eusebius, Hist. Errs’. 4.22.3.
” C. F. Evans, Is ‘Holy S@btrue’ Christian? (London, 197 l), pp.bf. The Widengren
quotation (not specifically referring to the New Testament) comes from ‘Literary and
Psychological Aspects of the Hebrew Prophets’, Uppsalcr Uniwrsitefs A rsskr$t, 1948,
No. 10, p.9; Widengren speaks of a ‘crisis of credit’ and acknowledges indebtedness
to H. S. Nyberg. This title of Evans’s book is borrowed from the title of one of his
essays reproduced as a chapter in it; it is at the end of this essay that he speaks of ‘the
chapter’s perhaps foolish title’ (p.36).
123
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
writings which were due one day to be given canonical status were
already taking shape- notably the fourfold gospel and the corpus of
Pauline letters.
THE FOURFOLD GOSPEL
Before the term ‘gospel’ (Gk. euangelion) came to be given to any single
one of the four gospels (or to one of the many other works of the same
literary genre), it meant (1) the good news of the kingdom of God
preached by Jesus, (2) the good news about Jesus preached by his
followers after the first Easter and Pentecost, (3) the written record of
the good news current in a particular locality, (4) the fourfold gospel.
When Ignatius used the term ‘gospel’, in which sense did he use it?
In his letter to the church of Smyrna, he speaks of heretics who have
thus far been persuaded ‘neither by the prophecies not by the law of
Moses nor by the gospel’,23 and says that the best defence against false
teaching is ‘to pay heed to the prophets and especially to the gospel, in
which the passion has been revealed to us and the resurrection has been
accomplished’. 24 If he was referring to one written gospel, it was most
probably Matthew’s. Roughly contemporary with Ignatius’s letters
(or perhaps a decade or so earlier) is the manual of church order called
the Didach (superscribed ‘The Lord’s teaching to the Gentiles through
the twelve apostles’), proceeding possibly from the neighbourhood of
Antioch, where ‘the gospel’ is clearly the gospel of Matthew (the form
of the Lord’s Prayer found in Mt. 6:9-- 13 is prescribed for regular use
‘as the Lord commanded in his gospel’).”
Evidence of another kind comes from Pap&. How many gospel
writings Papias knew is uncertain: Eusebius preserves comments
which he made on two, thinking that they contained information that
was worth quoting. One of the comments Papias claims to have
derived from someone whom he calls ‘the elder’: it relates to Mark’s
record:
Mark became Peter’s interpreter and wrote down accurately all
that he remembered, whether the sayings or the doings of the
Lord, but not in order-for he had neither heard the Lord nor
followed him, but followed Peter later on, as I said. Peter was
WRITINGS OF THE NEW ERA
accustomed to teach as occasion required, but not as though he
were making a compilation of the dominical oracles. So Mark
made no mistake in writing down certain things as he called
them to mind; for he paid attention to one thing: to omit none
of the things he had heard and to make no false statements in any
of them. 26
Eusebius then quotes a sentence from Pap& on Matthew:
Matthew compiled the oracles in the Hebrew speech, and each
one interpreted them as best he could.”
Papias says nothing (so far as is known) of a gospel collection; it is not
even certain that the two pieces of information just quoted came from
the same context in his work; their juxtaposition may be due to
Eusebius.
On Mark’s record Papias speaks somewhat defensively, as though
he knew of criticisms that had been voiced against it, especially on the
ground that its order was defective. To this Papias replies that Mark
did not set out to write an orderly account: his aim was to record in
writing whatever Peter had to tell of the works and words ofJesus; and
Peter simply mentioned from time to time those things which the
circumstances of the moment required. In what he wrote down Mark
made no mistake: in order, as in matter, he adhered to what Peter said.
(In fact, Papias does less than justice to the literary unity of Mark’s
gospel: whatever Mark’s sources were, he wove them into the fabric of
his work with the skill of an independent author.)28
But if Mark was criticized for his defective order, it is implied that
the critics had in mind some other record which served as a standard
from which Mark deviated. This record might have been Matthew’s:
when Papias says that Mark did not make a compilation of the
dominical oracles, he indicates that Mark was not concerned to do
what Matthew (according to his account) actually did. Certainly in the
earlier part of Mark’s record his order differs from Matthew’s. But
another possibility is that the standard from which Mark allegedly
deviated was the gospel of John, which was produced in Papias’s own
province of Asia. Certainly the differences in order between John’s
LJ To rhr Slllyrrirrrdn.! 7 : 2.
L ’ 7.0 the sll/yuI‘Lwm 5 : I
” I>nLl~h? 8.2. So too the baptismal formula prescribed (‘into the name of the
Father and
the Son and of the Holy Spirit’) is that of Mt. 28: 19 (Dzdcrch? 7. 1).
” Eusebius, Hut. E~rf., 3.39. 16.
” Eusebius, Hirt. Ed. 3.39.15.)
‘” See F. F. Bruce, ‘The date and character of Mark’, injrsw rrnJ the Polirz~x /J/ hiJ
DUJ. ed. E. Bammel and C. F. D. Moule (Cambridge, 1984). pp.69-89.
124
125
of
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
WRITINGS OF THE NEW ERA
gospel and the three synoptic accounts taken together are plain
enough. Although no express evidence survives of Papias’s acquaintance with John’s gospel, Eusebius’s statement that he used
‘testimonies’ from John’s first epistle suggests that he must have
known his gospel too.*’ But so far as references to John in Papias’s
surviving fragments go, we should gather that he was more interested
in ascertaining what John said than in reading what he wrote.
Papias’s account of Mark was derived from someone whom he calls
‘the elder’ or ‘the presbyter’-presumably someone who in his earlier
life had known one or more of the apostles. It is not clear that his
account of Matthew was derived from such an authority.” The
‘oracles’ which Matthew compiled are doubtless the oracles of the
Lord, on which Papias himself wrote his Exegesis or explanation in five
volumes (scrolls). His statement that Matthew compiled them ‘in the
Hebrew speech”’ has been taken to show that the reference is not to
our Gospel of Matthew, which bears all the signs of being an original
Greek composition. But Papias, or any informant on whom he relied
here, may not have been able to recognize translation-Greek or
distinguish it from untranslated Greek.
A generation after Papias, Justin Martyr, a native of Palestine who
had become a Christian while resident in the province of Asia but was
now living in Rome, shows his knowledge of a gospel collection. If
Justin’s work Against Marcion (known to Irenaeus and Eusebius)‘* had
survived, it would probably have told us more about the status of the
New Testament documents in Justin’s circle than his works which do
survive- his Dialogue with Ttypbo and his two Apologies, defences of
Christianity addressed respectively to the Emperor Antoninus Pius
(138- 161) and to the Roman senate (between I44 and 160). In his
Dialogue Justin speaks of the ‘memoirs’ (memorabilia) of Peter (possibly
the gospel of Mark)” and in his First Apology he refers to the ‘memoirs
of the apostles’. These memoirs, he says, are called gospels, and they
are read in church along with the ‘compositions of the prophets’. 34
We are on firmer ground when we come to Justin’s disciple Tatian.
After Justin’s martyrdom ( AD I65), Tatian went back to his native
Assyria, and there introduced what was to be for centuries a very
influential edition of the gospels, his Diatessaron. This word is a
musical term, meaning ‘harmony of four’; it indicates clearly what this
edition was. It was a continuous gospel narrative, produced by
unstitching the units of the four individual gospels and restitching
them together in what was taken to be their chronological order. The
gospel of John provided the framework into which material from the
gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke was fitted. The Diatessaron began
with John 1: l-5, after which, instead of John 1:6 (‘There was a man
sent from God, whose name was John’), it reproduced Luke’s account
of the birth of John (Luke 1: 5 -80). But John’s order was not followed
slavishly: the cleansing of the temple, for example, was located in
Holy Week, where the synoptic account places it (Mark 11:15-17
and parallels), and not at the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, where it
appears in John 2:13-22.”
Tatian was an Encratite,36 member of an ascetic group which
believed that vegetarianism was an essential element in the gospel: it
was perhaps on this account that the Diatessaron changed John the
Baptist’s diet from ‘locusts and wild honey’ (Mark 1:6 and parallels) to
‘milk and honey’. It is possible that here and there he amplified his
” Eusebius, Hist. Eccl., 3.39.17. See J. B. Lightfoot, Essays on *Supernatural
Rr/i@on’, pp. 186-207; R. M. Grant, The Formation of the New Testament (London,
1965), pp.69-72.
” In view of Eusebius’s poor estimate of Papias’s intelligence (ffist. EccI., 3.39.13),
T. W. Manson argued that he would not have troubled to record Papias’s private
opinion on a matter of this importance: ‘we are justified in supposing that Eusebius
regarded this fragment as a piece of earlier tradition preserved by Pap&’ (Studies in the
Gospels and Epistles {Manchester, 19621, p.70. Manson went on to argue that the
‘oracles’ said to have been compiled by Matthew were utterances of Jesus, no less
authoritative in the eyes of the church than the oracles of the Hebrew prophets.
” ‘Hebrew’ might mean ‘Aramaic’, as sometimes in the New Testament (e.g. Jn.
19:13, 17).
‘* C/Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 4.6.2, where an extract from this work of Justin
shows the latter’s knowledge of, and dependence on, the Gospel of John; also
Eusebius, Hut. Ecc-I. 4. 11.8f.
126
33 Dialogue, 106.3; #100.4, etc., for the ‘memoirs of the apostles’. Justin uses the
Greek word apotnn~moneumata, familiar in classical literature, as in Xenophon’s
Memorabilia of Socrates.
” FirIt Apology, 66.3; 67.3. R. G. Heard suggests that Justin took over Papias’s
phraseology (‘The upor~~nrtt~onrt~~~~ata in Papias, Justin and Irenaeus’, NTS 1 [ 1954551, pp. 122-129).
‘s On Tatian and the Diateuaron see R. M. Grant, The EarlirJt L&J ~~J~JILJ (London,
1961), pp.22-28; B. M. Metzger, The Early Versions ofthe Neu Testament (Oxford,
1977), pp. 10-36.
” From Gk. mbrat~~. ‘continent’; the Encratites may have taken their designation
from the one occurrence of this adjective in the New Testament: Tit. I:8 (AV/KJV
‘temperate’, RSV ‘self-controlled’). Tatian is said to have rejected some Pauline
epistles, but to have accepted Titus (Jerome, Comr~/rntq on ‘Fltm. preface).
127
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
WRITINGS OF THE NEW ERA
narrative with information from a fifth ‘gospel’; his reference to a light
which shone around at Jesus’ baptism, for example, may have been
taken from the Gospel according to the Hebrews. ” But this does not affect
the fact that the Diatessaron is essentially an integrated edition of the
four gospels which we know as canonical. These four evidemly &red
a status on their own, not only in Tatian’s idiosyncratic mind but in
the circles to which he belonged, both in Rome and in Northern
Mesopotamia.
The Diatessaron circulated at an early date not only in Syriac (the
language of Tatian’s native territory) but also in Greek our earliest
surviving relic of it is a vellum fragment in Greek from the third
century, found among the ruins of a Roman fort at Dura-Europos on
the Euphrates. 3* It was in its Syriac form that it really took root: it was
the preferred edition of the gospels in many’syriac-speaking churches
for over two hundred years, and they were most reluctant to give it up
in the early fifth century, under episcopal pressure, for a new version of
the ‘separated’ gospels (part of the Peshitta). Ephrem, one of the
greatest of the Syriac hthers (c 306-373), wrote a commentary on the
Diatessaron, which is still extant. 39
Of the four gospels, John’s took longer to win universal acceptance
among catholic Christians than the others because (almost from its
first publication) some gnostic schools treated it as though it supported
their positions.40 The earliest known quotation from John comes in
the gnostic writer Basilides (c 130);41 the earliest known commentary
on John was written by the gnostic Heracleon (c 180).42 But those,
like Justin Martyr,43 who read it more carefully found that it supplied
more effective anti-gnostic ammunition than any other New
Testament book.”
The popularization of the codex form of book among Christians of
the period covered in this chapter made it practicable to bind all four
gospel writings together. The nearly simultaneous popularization of
the codex and publication of the fourfold gospel may have been purely
coincidental: on the other hand, one of the two processes may have had
some influence on the other.4s The fragment of John 18 in the Rylands
collection, Manchester (P5*), dated c AD 130, came from a codex, but
it is naturally impossible to say whether it was a codex of John’s gospel
only or of the fourfold gospel. The manuscript P” in the Bodmer
collection, from the late second or early third century, was probably,
when complete, a codex of the fourfold gospel rather than a codex of
Luke and John only. The earliest surviving codex which still contains
portions of all four gospels is P“’ in the Chester Beatty collection, from
the early third century. It contains Acts as well as the fourfold
gospel - an exceptional collocation, for in the early textual history of
the New Testament Acts was more often included in a codex with the
catholic epistles.
” See G. Quispel, Tatian and the Gospel of Thomas (Leiden, 1975).
THE PAULINE CORPUS
We do hot know by whom or in what place the first edition of Paul’s
collected letters was produced. C. F. D. Moule has suggested that it
was Luke’s doing: ‘it is entirely in keeping with his historian’s
temperament to collect them.‘46 As for the place, Ephesus, Corinth
‘s First edited by C. H. Kraeling, A Greek Fragment of Tatian’s Diatessaron fiotn
Dura = Studies and Downents, 3 (London, 1935). The fragment combines Mt.
27:56f. with the parallel passages in the other three gospels (Mk. 15:4Of.; Lk.
23:49-51; Jn. 19:38).
39 E P hrem’s commentary is extant in its entirety in an Armenian translation,
published in 1836 by the Mechitarists in Venice; a Latin version of the Armenian,
completed in 184 1 by J. -B. Aucher, was published at Venice in 1876. But in 1957 a
considerable portion (about two-thirds) of Ephrem’s Syriac original was identified in a
parchment manuscript of the Chester Beatty collection: this was edited and translated
into Latin by L. Leloir, O.S.B., in the series Chester Beatty Monographs, 8 (Dublin,
1963).
4o It may be, indeed, that 1 Jn. took issue with people who were perverting the
teaching of the Fourth Gospel in this way.
4’ According to Hippolytus, Basilides quoted Jn. 1:9 (Rejhtation, 7.22) and Jn.
2:4, ‘my hour has not yet come’ (Refi,tcttion, 7.27).
42 Heracleon’s work is copiously quoted in Origen’s Comnrentary on John.
43 Justin’s identification of Christ with the Iogos (‘Word’) is probably dependent on
Jn. l:l-14, although Justin develops it along lines of his own (First Apology.
46.1-6); again, the words, ‘Christ also said, “Unless you are born again, you will not
enter into the kingdom of heaven”’ (Fint Apology, 61.4), can scarcely be anything
other than aquotation from memory ofJohn 3:3, 5. See alsop. 175, n.32.
44 Justin says nothing about the authorship of the Fourth Gospel. He names the
apostle John as author of the Apocalypse (Dialogue, 81.4). The first known writer to
call the evangelist John is Theophilus, bishop of Antioch c AD 180 (To AI&YCUJ,
2.22). See more generally M. F. Wiles, TheSpiritualGospel(Cambridge, 1960).
45 See the negative conclusions on such influencedrawn by C. H. Roberts and T. C.
Skeat, The Birth oftbe Codex (London, 1983). pp.62-66.
46 C. F. D. Moule, The Birth of the New Trrtarnent (London, ’ 198 I), p.264.
128
129
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
WRITINGS OF THE NEW ERA
and Alexandria have been suggested.47 The suggestion of Alexandria
has been supported by the consideration that the editorial care devoted
to the forming and publishing of the collection is entirely in line with
the traditions of Alexandrian scholarship; on the other hand,
Alexandria lay right outside the sphere of Pauline Christianity.
What is important is this: from the early second century onward
Paul’s letters circulated not singly, but as a collection.48 It was as a
collection that Christians of the second century and later knew them,
both orthodox and heterodox. The codex into which the letters were
copied by their first editor constituted a master-copy on which all
subsequent copies of the letters were based. There are relatively few
variant readings in the textual tradition of Paul’s letters which may go
back to a time earlier than the formation of the Pauline corpus-the
time when the letters still circulated singly.49
The oldest surviving copy of the Pauline corpus is the Chester
Beatty manuscript P4’j, written about AD 200. Of this codex 86 folios
are extant out of an original 104. It evidently did not include the three
Pastoral Epistles (1 and 2 Timothy and Titus); on the other hand, it
did include Hebrews, which comes second in its sequence of letters,
between Romans and 1 Corinthians. The sequence was probably based
on descending order of length (like the present sequence of the Pauline
letters)..” although 1 Corinthians is longer than Hebrews, it may have
been placed after it to avoid its separation from 2 Corinthians.”
The Chester Beatty codex of Paul’s letters, with p5 and the other
biblical papyri in the same collection, seems to have formed part of the
Bible of a Greek-speaking country church in Egypt. A Pauline codex
of the same date emanating from Rome would not have included
Hebrews (the Roman church didnot recognize Hebrews as Pauline
until the fourth century). s2 Marcion’s edition of Paul’s letters (his
Apostle), published about 144, was most probably based on a Pauline
codex known to him, which (like Marcion’s own edition) included
neither Hebrews nor the Pastoral Epistles.53 The most natural inference
from such evidence as we have suggests that the original edition of the
Pauline corpus contained ten letters only.
Before the production of this collected edition, a beginning had
already been made with gathering some of Paul’s letters together. He
himself encouraged the churches of Colossae and Laodicea, two
neighbouring cities in the Lycus valley of Phrygia, to exchange letters
which they had received from him (Col. 4:16). His letter to the
churches of Galatia was evidently sent in one copy, with the final
paragraph written in his own hand (Gal. 6: 11); this copy would have
been taken from one church to another, but some churches may have
made a transcript of it before passing it on (others may have been eager
to get rid of it and forget its contents as soon as possible). There are
indications that the letter to the Romans circulated in a shorter form
among other churches than Rome, for which it was primarily written;
this could even have been done on Paul’s own initiative.54 The letter to
the Ephesians bears some marks which indicate that it was designed as
an encyclical, not directed to one particular church (one ingenious,
but not very convincing, theory is that it was composed as an
introduction to the first collected edition of Paul’s letters).55
It might be expected that local collections of letters would be made
47 Ephesus by E. J. Goodspeed, TheMeaningofEpheslans (Chicago, 1933); J. Knox,
March andthe NW Testament (Chicago, 1942), pp 174f.; C. L. Mitton, The Formation
n/the Patdine Corpus of Lztters (London, 1955), pp.45-49; Corinth by A. Harnack, Die
Briefsanmhng ah Aposteh Paulus (Leipzig, 1926), pp.8f.; W. Schmithals, Paulandthe
Gnostics, E.T. (Nashville/New York, 1972), p.263; Alexandria by G. Zuntz, T h e
Text of the Epistles (London, 1954), p.278.
48 The earliest reference to a collection of his letters is in 2 Pet. 3: 15f. Seep. 120.
4y See G. Zuntz, The Text of the Episties, pp. 14-17, 269-283; also, more generally,
L. Mowry, ‘The Early Circulation of Paul’s Letters’,jBL 63 (1944), pp.73-86.
so In most present-day editions of the New Testament Paul’s letters to churches
appear in descending order of length (except that Galatians is actually rather shorter
than Ephesians); his letters to individuals follow, also in descending order of length.
51 See W. H. p. Hatch, ‘The Position of Hebrews in the Canon of the New
Testament’, HTR 29 (1936). pp. 133-135; C. P. Anderson, ‘The Epistle to the
Hebrews and the Pauline Letter Collection’, HTR 59 (1966), pp.429-438.
” Under the influence of Athanasius; see p. 22 1.
” Seep. 138.
s4 See T. W. Manson, ‘St. Paul’s Letter to the Romans-and Others’, BJRL 31
(1948). pp.224-240, reprinted in his Strrdies in the Gospels and Epistles (Manchester,
1962), pp.225-241, and in The Rowam Debate, ed. K. P. Donfried (Minneapolis,
1977), pp. 1-16; also H. Gamble, The Textmzl Histovy of the Letter to the
Rottmzs = Sttrdies and Docwnents, 42 (Grand Rapids, 1977).
ss See E. J. Goodspeed, The Formation ofthe New Testament (Chicago, 1926). p.28;
The Meaning of Ephesians (Chicago, 1933); The Key to Ephesians (Chicago, 1956); J.
Knox, Philemon Among the Letters nfP& (London, ‘1960), pp.85-92 (Knoxelaborates
Goodspeed’s thesis by supposing that the first collector of Paul’s letters and the author
of Ephesians was Paul’s convert Onesimus, known to Ignatius as bishop of Ephesus).
G. Zuntz shows good reason to conclude that ‘whoever wrote Ephrsians, it was not the
editor of the torpns (The Text o/the Eptstles, pp.276f.). In the original text ofEphesians,
no destination is specified; the words ‘at Ephesus’(Eph. 1: 1) are a later editorial addition.
(Seep. 139, n. 15.)
‘30
‘3’
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
at an early stage- the letters to the churches of Macedonia
(Thessalonica and Philippi), for example, or those to Christians in the
Lycus valley (Colossians, Philemon and Ephesians).
When Clement of Rome sent his ‘godly admonition’ to the church
of Corinth about AD 96, he plainly had access to a copy of 1 Corinthians,
and probably to copies of some other Pauline letters. He was able to
remind the Corinthian Christians of Paul’s warning against partyspirit, addressed to their church forty years back (1 Cor. 1: 11;
11: 18).56 (He also had access to a copy of Hebrews, which is not
surprising if that letter was originally sent to a house-church in
Rome.)57 It has even been surmised that Clement’s letter, with its
evident interest in Paul’s correspondence, stimulated members of the
Corinthian church to seek out and collect scattered pieces of that
correspondence which were still to be found in their archives. Such
informal copying, circulating and collecting of Paul’s letters preceded
the publication of a definitive collection.
At what time the Pastoral Epistles were first included in the Pauline
corpus is uncertain. In the absence of specific evidence it may be
thought that their inclusion was part of the catholic church’s response
to the promulgation of Marcion’s ‘canon’ (which is the subject of the
f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e‘*r sBut
) . ,as p6 shows, in some places the Pauline
collection continued to be copied without the Pastorals, even where
(as in Egypt) it was amplified by the inclusion of Hebrews.
WRITINGS OF THE NEW ERA
Apostles, which had been severed from its natural companion, the
Gospel of Luke, when that gospel was incorporated in the fourfold
collection. Acts had thereafter to play a part of its own, and an
important part it proved to be.‘9 ‘A canon which comprised only the
four Gospels and the Pauline Epistles’, said Harnack, ‘would have
been at best an edifice of two wings without the central structure, and
therefore incomplete and uninhabitable.‘60
s9 see pp. 15 If.
6o A Harnack, History ofDog~na, E.T., II (London, 1896), p.48, n.2
FROM TWO COLLECTIONS TO ONE
\
The gospel collection was authoritative because it preserved the words
of Jesus, than whom the church knew no higher authority. The
Pauline collection was authoritative because it preserved the teaching
of one whose authority as the apostle of Jesus Christ to the Gentiles
was acknowledged (except by those who refused to recognize his
commission) as second only to the Lord’s. The bringing together of
these two collections into something approximating the New
Testament as we know it was facilitated by another document which
linked the one to the other. This document was the Acts of the
” 1 Clem. 47: l-4.
57 1 Clem. 17: 1; 70: l-6, etc. Clement gives no title to the epistle nor does he drop
any hint about its authorship (which he may very well have known).
sn seep.151.
132
‘33
MARCION
’ CHAPTER NINE
MARCION
MARCION A N D H I S T E A C H I N G
Marcion is the first person known to us who published a fixed
collection of what we should call New Testament books. Others may
have done so before him; if so, we have no knowledge of them. He
rejected the Old Testament, as having no relevance or authority for
Christians; his collection was therefore designed to be a complete
Bible.
Marcion was born about AD 100 at Sinope, a seaport on the Black
Sea coast of Asia Minor. His father was a leader in the church of that
city, and Marcion was brought up in the apostolic faith. Of all the
apostles, the one who appealed to him most strongly was Paul, to
whom he became passionately devoted, concluding ultimately that he
was the only apostle who preserved the teaching of Jesus in its purity.
He embraced with intelligence and ardour Paul’s gospel of justification
by divine grace, apart from legal works. Adolf von Harnack did not
really exaggerate when he called Marcion ‘the only man in the early
church who understood Paul’, although he had to add, ‘and even in his
understanding he misunderstood him.” Paul’s refusal to allow any
element of law-keeping in the message of salvation was taken by
Marcion to imply that not only the Old Testament law, but the Old
Testament itself, had been superseded by the gospel. The gospel, he
believed, was an entirely new teaching brought to earth by Christ.
The law and the prophets made no sort of preparation for it, and if
some passages in Paul’s correspondence suggested that they did, those
passages must have been interpolated by others- by the kind of
judaizers against whom Paul polemicized in Galatians and other
letters. *
Marcion appears to have remained in communion with the catholic
church so long as he lived in Asia Minor. There is some reason to think
that he shared his radical thoughts with leading churchmen of the
region, such as Polycarp of Smyrna and Papias of Hierapolis, but
found them unresponsive. 3
Perhaps it was in the hope of finding a more positive response from
the more enlightened churchmen of Rome that he made his way to the
imperial capital early in the principate ofAntoninus Pius (who became
emperor in AD 138). On his arrival in Rome he made a handsome
donation of money to the church (he is said to have been a shipowner
and was probably quite well ~ff).~ His understanding of the gospel and
its implications was so self-evidently right to his own way of thinking
that he could not believe that it would fail to be equally self-evident to
any unprejudiced mind. But the Roman churchmen were so disturbed
by his doctrine that they not only rejected it but even returned the
money he had presented to the church.
Not only did Marcion regard Paul as the only faithful apostle of
Christ; he maintained that the original apostles had corrupted their
Master’s teaching with an admixture of legalism. Not only did he
reject the Old Testament; he distinguished the God of the Old
Testament from the God of the New. This distinction of two deities,
each with his independent existence, betrays the influence of gnos-
’ A. von Harnack, Hzrtovy of Dogma, E. T., (London, 1894), p.89 (where the
translation is slightly different from that given above).
’ On Marcion and teaching see above all A. von Harnack, Marcion: Das Evangelium
vom fremden Gort (Leipzig, 192 1, ’ 1924), with its supplement Neue Studien zu Marcion
(Leipzig, 1923); also R. S. Wilson, Marcion: A Study of a Second-Century Heretic
(London, 1932); J. Knox, Marcion and the New Testament (Chicago, 1942); E. C.
Blackman, Marcion and his Influence (London, 1948).
3 Some contact with Polycarp may be implied in the story ofMarcion’s seeking an
interview with him (perhaps in Rome, when Polycarp visited the city in AD 154) and
asking him if he recognized him, only to receive the discouraging reply: ‘I recognize
-the firstborn of Satan!’ (Irenaeus, Agaimr Heresies 3.3.4). For a contact with Papias
seep. 157.
4 Tertullian, Against Marcion, 4.4, 9; Presrription, 30.
‘34
‘35
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
ticism on Marcion’s thought. The God who created the material
universe, the God of Israel, was (he held) a totally different being from
the Father of whom Jesus spoke. The Father was the good and merciful
God of whom none had ever heard until Jesus came to reveal him. As
in the teaching of most gnostic schools, the God who made the
material world was an inferior deity-inferior in status and morality
alike - t o the supreme God who was pure spirit. The gnostic
depreciation of the material order finds an echo in Marcion’s refusal to
believe that Jesus entered human life by being ‘born of a woman’ (Cal.
4:4).
Enlightened and unprejudiced the church leaders in Rome might
be, yet they understandably found this teaching unacceptable. So
Marcion, despairing of being able to convince the catholic church
anywhere of the truth of his message, withdrew from the catholic
fellowship and established a church of his own. This church survived
for several generations-surprisingly, when it is considered that its
membership was maintained solely through conversion. It could not
keep its numbers up by incorporating the children of existing
members, for celibacy was obligatory on all its membership. At the
same time, Marcion was a faithful enough Paulinist to allow no
discrimination against female members of his church in matters of
privilege or function: for him, as for Paul, there was ‘neither male nor
female’ (Gal. 3:28).
ANTITHESES, GOSPEL AND APOSTLE
He provided his followers with an edition of the holy scriptures, to
which he prefaced a series of Antitheses, setting out the incompatability
of law and gospel, of the Creator-Judge of the Old Testament and the
merciful Father of the New Testament (who had nothing to do with
either creation or judgment). The Antitheses opened up with a lyrical
celebration of divine grace, which should arouse a sympathetic echo in
every evangelical heart: ‘0 wealth of riches! Ecstasy, power and
astonishment! Nothing can be said about it, nor yet imagined about
it; neither can it be compared to anything!”
The holy scriptures to which the Antitheses served as an introduction
inevitably included no part of the Old Testament; they consisted of an
5 See F. C. Burkitt, ‘The Exordium of Marcion’s Antitheses’, JTS 30 (1929),
pp.279f.
136
MARCION
edition of the Greek New Testament. Marcion did not call it the New
Testament, so far as we know; indeed, he may not have given any one
title to the edition as a whole. He referred to it by the titles which he
gave to its two component parts: Gospel and Apostle. 6 Our main source
of information about it is Tertullian’s treatise Against Marcion, written
over half a century later, when Marcion had been dead for some
decades. ‘Hostile and vituperative as Tertullian’s treatment is, his
factual data appear to be reliable.
Marcion’s Gospel was an edition of the Gospel of Luke. Why he
should have chosen Luke’s gospel is a matter of speculation: perhaps in
his native environment it had already come to be associated in a special
way with Paul.’ He nowhere mentioned Luke’s name in connexion
with it; it was presented simply as the gospel of Christ. Its text was
purged of those elements which were inconsistent with Marcion’s
understanding of the truth and which therefore, on his principles,
must have been interpolated by judaizing scribes. The birth of John
the Baptist was omitted; it implied a connexion between Jesus and
something that went before. The birth of Jesus himself was omitted:
Jesus entered the world not by birth but by a descent as supernatural as
was his later ascension. (Marcion found the whole idea of conception
and childbirth disgusting.)
It is possible that the text of Luke which Marcion used as the basis
for his Go@ was not identical with the text that has come down to us;
it may have been an earlier edition, lacking the first two chapters-a
sort of ‘Proto-Luke’.* Even so, Marcion’s Gospel cannot be equated
with any ‘Proto-Luke’ recovered by modern methods of source
criticism.’ But even if the text which lay before Marcion did lack the
first two chapters, it began at latest with Luke 3:1, ‘In the fifteenth
year of Tiberius Caesar’, and those are the words with which Marcion’s
Gospel began. But the material which follows immediately on that
6 In Greek: Eaangelion and Apostolikon.
’ Seepp.161, 174.
* P. L. Couchoud argued that the canonical Luke was an expansion of Marcion’s
gospel, and indeed that all the synoptic gospels were later than Marcion’s canon (‘Is
Marcion’s Gospel one of the Synoptics? HibbevtJournal34 [1935-361, pp.265-277;
see also A. Loisy’s rebuttal, ‘Marcion’s Gospel: A Reply’, in the same volume,
pp. 378-387). J. Knox leant to a modification of this theory, envisaging the canonical
Luke-Acts as a reaction to Marcion’s Gospel-Apostle compilation (Marcion andthe New
Tutarwzt, pp. 106167; ‘Acts and the Pauline Letter Corpus’, in Studies in Lwke-Acts,
ed. L. E. Keck and J. L. Martyn [Nashville/New York, 19661, pp.279287).
’ See B. H. Streeter, Tix Four Gospel (London, 1924), pp. 199-222; V. Taylor,
Behind tbr Third Go.@ (Oxford, 1926).
I37
MARCION
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
time-note was unacceptable to him. The account of John the Baptist’s
ministry and his baptism of Jesus implies some continuity between
Jesus and the old order. So does the genealogy of Luke 3:23-38,
tracing Jesus’ ancestry back to Adam through David and Abraham.
The temptation narrative (Luke 4:1-13) represents Jesus quoting
from Deuteronomy three times, as though it had authority in his
eyes-an impossibility, according to Marcion’s principles. Equally
impossible, for Marcion, was the idea that Jesus, preaching in the
synagogue at Nazareth (Luke 4: 16-30), should have claimed that his
ministry was the fulfilment of Old Testament prophecy. So, having
begun his edition of the Gospel with the time-note of Luke 3: 1, ‘In the
fifteenth year of Tiberius’, Marcion went straight on to Luke 4:3 1 and
continued: ‘Jesus came down to Capernaum’-as though he came
down there and then from heaven, fully grown. lo
In place of ‘Thy kingdom come’ in his version of the Lord’s Prayer
(Luke 11:2), Marcion’s Gospel had the interesting variant: ‘Let thy
Holy Spirit come on us and cleanse us.’ He may have found this in the
copy of Luke which served as the basis for his edition, or it may have
been his own emendation; in the latter case, it is interesting that it
should have found its way into the textual tradition of ‘orthodox’
Christians: it is cited by the church fathers Gregory of Nyssa” and
Maximus of Turin,‘* and is the reading of one or two Greek
manuscripts of the gospels. I3
‘The old is good’ (Luke 5:39) is omitted because it might be taken
to imply approval of the Old Testament order. The reference to Jesus’
mother and brothers could not be retained in Luke 8:19 (Jesus
belonged to no human family) and the description of Zacchaeus as a
son of Abraham in Luke 19:9 had to go. There are other peculiarities of
Marcion’s Gospel which can be explained with equal ease, but there are
some which do not appear to have arisen from his presuppositions and
which probably bear witness to the second-century text which he
used.
Marcion’s Apostle was an edition of ten letters of Paul. The three
Pastoral Epistles (1 and 2 Timothy and Titus) are not included: this
could be the result of his deliberately leaving them out, but more
probably the copy of the Pauline corpus which he used as the basis of
“’ Tertullian, Aguin~t Marcion, 4.7.1.
” Early 5th century A D.
I3 See I. H. Marshall, Thr Gospd
p.458.
of
’ ’ Bishop of Nyssa,
AD
37 l-394.
Luke, NIGTC (Exeter/Grand Rapids, 1978),
I38
his edition lacked them, as the Chester Beatty codex of Paul’s letters
(p6) evidently did. I4
At the head of his Apode Marcion placed the letter to the Galatians.
We do not know if it occupied this position in any other copy of Paul’s
letters, but there was a special appropriateness in this position to
Marcion’s way of thinking, for here the antithesis between Paul and
the Jerusalem apostles (as he read the letter) was expressed most
sharply. To Marcion the letter mounted a direct attack on the Jerusalem
apostles, for it was at their instance, or at least by their agents, that the
attempt was being made to win Paul’s Gentile converts in Galatia over
to a judaistic perversion of Christianity. The Jerusalem leaders might
have reached an agreement with Paul at the conference described in
Galatians 2: l-10, but they had broken that agreement by their effort
to subvert the pure faith of the Galatian churches.
The remaining letters were arranged in descending order of length,
the two letters to the Corinthians being reckoned together as one
composite letter and the two letters to the Thessalonians being treated
in the same way. The Marcionite order of Paul’s letters was accordingly:
Galatians, Corinthians (1 and 2), Romans, Thessalonians (1 and 2),
‘Laodiceans’ (which was the name Marcion gave to Ephesians), Colossians, Philippians, Philemon. The letter to the Ephesians appears in
some ancient copies without the words ‘in Ephesus’ in Ephesians 1: 1,
and the copy which lay before Marcion probably lacked them. ” What
was he to call the letter, then? He found a clue in Colossians 4:16,
where Paul gives directions for the exchange of his letter to the
Colossians with one from Laodicea. This Laodicean letter could not be
otherwise identified: why should it not be this letter which lacked
internal evidence of its addressees?‘6
Marcion dealt with the text of Paul’s letters in the same way as with
the text of Luke’s gospel: anything which appeared inconsistent with
what he believed to be authentic Pauline teaching was regarded as a
corruption proceeding from an alien hand and was removed. Even
Galatians had been subjected to such corruption here and there, he
I4 It is most unlikely, however, that the reference in 1 Tim. 6:20 to the ‘contradictions (anti&m) of what is falsely called knowledge (gn%si.r)’ is a reference to Marcion’s
Anrithrse~, as has sometimes been supposed.
‘s The words are absent from the oldest known copy of Paul’s letters (P4”), from the
Sinaitic and Vatican codices (first hand), and from some other manuscripts.
I6 For a later attempt to supply the supposedly missing letter to the Iaodiceans see
pp.238-240.
‘39
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
MARCION
found. The mention of Abraham as the prototype of all who are
justified by faith (Gal. 3:6-9) could not be left standing and the
tracing of any kind of relationship between law and gospel (as in Gal.
3 : 15 - 25) was equally unacceptable.
Marcion’s edition of Romans lacked Romans 1: 19-2:l; 3:214:25; all of Romans 9-11 except lO:l-4 and 11:33-36, and’
everything after Romans 14:23. The idea of establishing the law
through faith (Rom. 3:3 l), the application of the story of Abraham in
chapter 4, the grappling with the mystery of Israel’s unbelief in
chapters 9- 11 (with their concentration of proof-texts from the Old
Testament), were all incompatible with Paul’s gospel as Marcion
understood it. As for chapter 15, its opening section includes a general
endorsement of the Christian value of the Old Testament scriptures
(verse 4) and a string of quotations designed to show that the Gentile
mission was foreseen and validated by Old Testament writers (verses
8 - 12), while its closing paragraph (verses 25 - 33) bears witness to a
concern on Paul’s part for the church of Jerusalem which Marcion
must have found incredible, given his understanding of the relation
between Paul and that church.
Marcion’s edition of Romans seems to have affected the textual
history of that epistle far beyond the frontiers of his own community.
There is a whole group of manuscripts and versions of the Pauline
letters in which Romans 14:23 is followed immediately by the
doxology which appears in our editions as Romans 16:25-27; this
bears witness to a state of the text in which the epistle ended with
chapter 14. Marcion does not appear to have known the doxology.”
Moreover, the edition of Romans which he used may have lacked the
whole of chapter 16, with its long series of personal greetings. If,
because of its general interest and importance, this epistle was
circulated at an early stage among other churches than that to which it
was primarily sent (whether on Paul’s own initiative or on someone
else’s), the greetings might well have been omitted from the circular
form, since they were manifestly intended for one group of recipients
only. I8
An example of a change reflecting Marcion’s doctrine of God comes
in Ephesians 3:9. The gospel is there described as ‘the mystery hidden
for ages in God who created all things’ (hidden, that is to say, in the
divine mind and not revealed until the fulness of the time had come).
But to Marcion the ‘God who created all things’ had nothing to do
with the gospel; he was a different being from the God and Father of
our Lord Jesus Christ. So, by a very small change, Marcion made this
text refer to ‘the mystery hidden for ages from the God who created all
things’. l9
I’ Harnack thought that the doxology, in its original form, was composed by
disciples of Marcion. See F. F. Bruce, The Letter I$ Pad to the Ronun~, TNTC
(Leicester, ‘1985), pp.267-269.
‘” P4’, which places the doxology at the end of chapter 15 (the only known
manuscript to do so), bears witness to a text of the letter which lacked chapter 16. See
p. 131, n.54.
140
THE SO-CALLED MARCIONITE PROLOGUES
The Pauline letters in Marcion’s Apostle were later supplied with
prologues sufficiently objective in character to have been subsequently
taken over and reproduced in ‘orthodox’ copies of the Latin New
Testament, although they were originally composed by followers of
Marcion. It has indeed been asserted more recently that, despite their
traditional designation as ‘Marcionite’ prologues, there is nothing
specifically Marcionite about them. “Before this can be discussed, it is
best to reproduce them. Here they are, in Marcion’s sequence of the
letters:
Galatians
The Galatians are Greeks. They first received the word of truth
from the apostle, but after his departure were tempted by false
apostles to turn to law and circumcision. The apostle calls them
back to belief in the truth, writing to them from Ephesus.
Corinthians (1 and2)
The Corinthians are Achaeans. They likewise had heard the
word of truth from apostles but had been subverted in various
ways by false apostles-some led away by the wordy rhetoric of
philosophy, others by the party of the Jewish law. The apostles
call them back to the true wisdom of the gospel, writing to
them from Ephesus.
I9 In the Greek text Marcion removed the preposition en, leaving the simple dative
case of ‘God’ (tij her?).
” See J. Regul, Die antir,rarcionitischen Ewqelienprdqe (Freiburg, 1969), pp. 13,
85188-94.
‘4’
MARCION
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
have no knowledge of it at an earlier time. *I But ‘they emphasize,
to the exclusion of any mention of the really important contents of the
epistles, the relation of Paul to the recipients of the letter, and whether
he had to vindicate himself against false apostles in it, and use such
phrases as “the true evangelical faith”, “the word of truth”.‘** Moreover, they detect anti-judaiting polemic in letters where it can scarcely
be traced. Romans, for example, is one of the least polemical of Paul’s
letters; yet the prologue says that it was sent to the Roman Christians
because they had been hoodwinked by false apostles claiming the
authority of Christ and persuaded to submit to ‘the law and the
prophets’. The addition of ‘the prophets’ to ‘the law’ seems designed to
exclude the Old Testament writings from any part in the gospel
economy. Paul denies that any one can be justified by ‘works of law’
(Rom. 3:20) but when he uses ‘the law’ in the sense of the Old
Testament writings, in whole or in part, he speaks of it with the
highest respect; and as for ‘the law and the prophets’ taken together,
he affirms that they bear witness to God’s way of righteousness
through faith in Christ, ‘apart from law’ (Rom. 3:2 1, a text omitted
from Marcion’s edition). No one but a Marcionite could have misrepresented the message of Romans as this prologue does. When we
consider this set ofprologues as a whole, it is difficult not to agree with
F. C. Burkitt’s conclusion: ‘They are the work of one who was as much
obsessed by the opposition of Paulinism to Judaizing Christianity as
was Baur himself.‘23 The Muratorian list, at which we shall look
shortly,24 appears to be acquainted with these prologues, ‘and it is
certainly possible that its intention was to counter them directly with
we
Romuns
The Romans are in a region of Italy. They had been overtaken by
false apostles, under pretext of the name of our Lord Jesus
Christ, and led on into an acceptance of the law and the
prophets. The apostle calls them back to the true evangelical
faith, writing to them from Athens.
Tbessalonians ( 1 and 2 )
The Thessalonians are Macedonians in Christ Jesus. Having
received the word of truth they persevered in the faith, even
under persecution by their fellow-citizens; moreover, they did
not accept what was said by false apostles. The apostle commends
them, writing to them from Athens.
‘Laodiceans’ (= Ephesians)
The Iaodiceans are Asians. Having received the word of truth,
they persevered in the faith. The apostle commends them,
writing to them from prison in Rome.
Colossians
The Colossians also are, like the Laodiceans, Asians. They also
had been overtaken by false apostles. The apostle did not visit
them himself, but puts them right by means of a letter. They
had heard the word from Archippus, who indeed received a
commission to minister to them. Therefore the apostle, now in
chains, writes to them from Ephesus.
Philippians
The Philippians are Macedonians. Having received the word of
truth they persevered in the faith, and did not accept false
apostles. The apostle commends them, writing to them from
prison in Rome.
*’ See N. A. Dahl, ‘The Origin of the Earliest Prologues to the Pauline Letters’,
Semeia 12 (1978), pp.233-277; H. Y. Gamble, The New Testament Canon (Phila-
.
Philemon
To Philemon he composes a personal letter on behalf of his slave
Onesimus. He writes to him from prison in Rome.
These prologues are most fully intelligible when they are read in the
same order as the epistles, as arranged in Marcion’s Apostle. This in
itself does not conclusively prove their Marcionite origin, for Marcion’s
order was conceivably derived by him from an earlier edition, although
142
delphia, 1985), pp.4lf.
” R. P. C. Hanson, Tradition in the Ear/y Church (London, 1962), p. 188.
” F C Burkitt, The Gospel History and its Transmission (London, 21907), p.354.
Ferdinand Christian Baur (1792-1860), Professor in the University ofTiibingen, in a
series of publications from ‘Die Christuspartei in der korinthischen Gemeinde’,
TiihingerZeitm5rtftfiir TheoLogie 5 (183 1). Heft 4, pp.bl-206 (reprinted in Ausgew2bltr
We&r tn Einzefausgaben, ed. K. Scholder, I [Stuttgart, 19631, pp. l-76) to his Chrrrcb
H i s t o r y o f the First Three Cmtwies (1853), E. T., I (London, 1878), pp.44-98,
propounded the view that the first generation of church history was dominated by a
conflict between Paul and his law-free gospel on the one side and the Jerusalem
leaders, with their law-related gospel, on the other.
” See pp. 158- 169.
‘43
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
its own sound catholic observations’. 25
It was probably when the Marcionite origin of the prologues was
forgotten that they were taken over into catholic copies of the Pauline
epistles. In due course they were supplemented by catholic additions,
including a new prologue to Ephesians and prologues to 2 Corinthians
and 2 Thessalonians (which did not appear as separate letters in
Marcion’s edition) and to each of the three Pastoral Epistles2’j
The widespread view that Marcion provided the church with its
precedent for establishing a canon of New Testament books has been
expressed, among others, by Hans von Campenhausen: ‘the idea and
the reality of a Christian Bible were the work of Marcion, and the
Church which rejected his work, so far from being ahead of him in this
field, from a formal point of view simply followed his example.‘27 But
this view is probably wrong. Theodor von Zahn, in an earlier generation, was prone to overstate his case, but on this point his judgement
stands: ‘Marcion formed his Bible in declared opposition to the holy
scriptures of the church from which he had separated; it was in
opposition to his criticism that the church in its turn first became
rightly conscious of its heritage of apostolic writings.‘28
” H. von Campenhausen, The Formation of the Christian Bible, E. T. (London,
1972), p.246. A similar judgment, but in exaggerated terms, had been expressed by
A. von Harnack, ‘Die Marcionitischen Prologe zu den Paulusbriefen, eine Quelle des
Muratorischen Fragments’, ZNW 25 (1926), pp. 160-163.
26 On the Marcionite prologues see also D. de Bruyne, ‘Prologues bibliques
d’origine marcionite’, Revue Bhidictine 24 (1907), pp.l-16; P. Corssen, ‘Zur
Uberlieferungsgeschichte des Riimerbriefes’, ZNW 10 (1909), pp. l-45, 97-102
(especially pp.37-39); A. von Hamack, ‘Der Marcionitische Ursprung der iiitesten
Vulgata-Prologe der Paulusbriefen,’ ZNW 24 (1925), pp.204-218; K. T. Schafer,
‘Marius Victorinus und die Marcionitischen Prologe zu den Paulusbriefen’, Revue
Bhdictine 80 (1970), pp.7-16.
” The Formation of the Christian Bible, p. 148. The same view had already been
expressed by Harnack, Die Briefsammlung des Apostels Paths (Leipzig, 1926), p. 2 1.
” T. von Zahn, Gescbichte&s neutestamentlicben Kanons, I (Erlangen/Leipzig, 1888),
p. 586.
CHAPTER
TEN
VALENTINUS AND HIS
SCHOOL
While Marcion is the first person known to us who published a well
defined collection of what later came to be called New Testament
books, the question remains open whether he was actually the first to
do so or something of the sort was already in existence.
VALENTINUS
AND
THE
NEW
TESTAMENT
Some light may be thrown on the question by a remark of Tertullian’s.
There are two ways, he says, of nullifying the scriptures. One is
Marcion’s way: he used the knife to excise from the scriptures whatever
did not conform with his own opinion. Valentinus, on the other hand,
‘seems to use the entire instrumentwn' (which here means the New
Testament), but perverts its meaning by misinterpreting it. ’
Valentinus was contemporary with Marcion: he came from
Alexandria in Egypt and lived in Rome from about AD 135 to 160.
Like Marcion, he was in communion with the church of Rome when
first he came to the city-indeed, if Tertullian is to be believed, he
had at one time reason to expect that he would become bishop of Rome
(this would have been at the time when Pius was actually elected).’ He
’ Tertullian, Prescription, 38.
’ Tertullian, Against Valentinians, 4. Since before the episcopate of Pius the Roman
church appears to have been administered by a college of presbyters or bishops,
Valentinus may possibly have aspired to be admitted to this college.
144
‘45
VALENTINUS
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
probably owed to his Alexandrian training a love for allegorical
interpretation, but his thinking developed along mystical and gnostic
lines to a point where he broke with the church and became the
founder of a gnostic school whose members were called, after him,
Valentinians.
When Tertullian said that Valentinus ‘seems to use the entire
instramentum’, Tertullian himself had quite a clear idea of the contents
of the in.strumentzlm. 3 But did Valentinus, sixty years before Tertullian
wrote, have a clear idea? He would not have spoken of an instrumenturn,
for his language was Greek, not Latin. But would he have envisaged
such a collection at all?
VALENTINIAN
LITERATURE
Since 1945 we have been in a better position to say something positive
about Valentinus’s use of scripture than had been possible for over a
thousand years. In that year the discovery was made in Upper Egypt of
what are now called the Nag Hammadi documents, from the name of
the town near which they were found. These documents, fifty-two in
all, were collected together in thirteen leather-bound papyrus codices
They were written in Coptic, but most of them were translations from
a Greek original; they probably belonged to the library of a gnostic
monastery, which was put into safe hiding in the fourth century A D.
They include some Valentinian treatises; one or two of these (in the
Greek original) may even have been the work of Valentinus himself.
This is particularly so with one of the most famous of them, called
The Gospel of Truth. 5 This title does not imply that the treatise is a rival
3 Seep. 18 1. There is a good discussion of the force of the juristic term insfr~mentum
in Tertullian in Harnack’s Origin of the Nero Testament, pp.209-217; Tertullian, he
says, calls the two Testaments insrrrlnrenta because they are for the Church the decisive
documents for the exposition and the proofofher doctrine’ (p.212).
4 Most of them are now available in an English translation in The Nag Hammadi
Library, ed. J. M. Robinson (Leiden, 1977). A facsimile edition, in twelve volumes,
is being published at Leiden (1972-l under the auspices of the Department of
Antiquities of the Arab Republic of Egypt, in conjunction with UNESCO; another
series in eleven volumes, The Co@ Gnostic Lihravy (Leiden, 1975-), contains transcriptions, translations, introductions, notes and indices.
’ First published in E~,~Y&INI)/ Venfatu. ed. M. Malinine, H.-C. Puech, G.
Quispel (Zurich, 1956). with facsimile, transcription, French, German and English
translations, notes and vocabularies. A good annotated translation was produced by
K. Grobel, ‘l’hr Go~prlo/ ‘/‘r//th (Nashville/London, 1960). Another translation, by G.
W. MacRae, appears in 7’br Ncrl: H~ru~~~tcrch Ldwq, pp. 37-49.
‘46
AND
HIS
SCHOOL
gospel; it indicates rather that the treatise presents a meditation on the
true gospel of Christ. Some of the Christian fathers refer to the Gospel of
Truth as a manifesto of the Valentinian school.6 Now that it is
available for study, its character can be clearly recognized. What
concerns us here is the witness that it bears to the New Testament
writings. This witness may not entitle us to say, with W. C. van
Unnik, that ‘round about AD 140-150 a collection of writings was
known at Rome and accepted as authoritative which was virtually
identical with our New Testament’.’ But the treatise alludes to
Matthew and Luke (possibly with Acts), the gospel and first letter of
John, the Pauline letters (except the Pastorals), Hebrews and Revelation-and not only alludes to them but cites them in terms which
presuppose that they are authoritative. Allegorical interpretation such
as is found in the Gospel of Truth implies not only authority but some
degree of inspiration in the texts so interpreted, whether the lessons
derived by such allegorization are acceptable to later readers or not.’
Another Valentinian treatise in the Nag Hammadi collection is the
Epistle to Rheginus on Resurrection which, like the Gospel of Truth,
antedates the developed system of Valentinianism and may also be the
work of Valentinus himself.9 It presents an interpretation of Paul’s
teaching on resurrection and immortality in 1 Corinthians 15 (although
scarcely an interpretation of which Paul would have approved). ‘O To
6 E.g. Irenaeus, AguinstHeresies3.11.9.
’ W. C. van Unnik, ‘The “Gospel of Truth” and the New Testament’, in Thejung
Co&x, ed. F. L. Cross (London, 1955), p. 124; cfhis Newly DiscweredGnostic Writings,
E.T. (London, 1960), pp.58-68. But if van Unnik exaggerates somewhat, H. von
Campenhausen goes to the other extreme in criticizing him in The Formation of the
Christian Bible, E.T. (London, 1972), p. 140, n. 171.
s There is a famous allegorical interpretation of the parable of the lost sheep (Mt.
18:12f. par. Luke 15:4-6) in TheGospeiofTruth, 31.35-32.17, known to Irenaeus
(Against Hwesies, 2.24.6), where the sheep symbolizes humanity’s wandering in
ignorance of the true knowledge and even the number ninety-nine receives unsuspected
significance. In The Gospei of Truth, 3 .40-34.20, there is an interesting discussion of
the divine aroma (‘the sons of the Father are his aroma’) which seem to develops Paul’s
thought in 2 Cor. 2: 14-16.
9 First published in DeResurredone, ed. M. Malinine, H.-C. Puech, G. Quispel,
W. Till (Zurich, 1963), with facsimile, transcription, French, German and English
translations, notes and vocabularies. A translation with introduction, analysis and
exposition was produced by M. L. Peel, The Epist(eroRhrginos(London, 1969). Dr PeeI
has also translated it (‘The Treatise on Resurrection’) for The Nag Hammadz Lhmy,
pp.50-53.
” It bears a close resemblance to the view of Hymenaeus and Philetus, denounced
in 2 Tim. 2: 17f.
‘47
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
its author Paul is ‘the apostle’; his words carry authority. Echoes are
discernible in the treatise of other Pauline letters-Romans, 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians and Colossians-and the author shows
acquaintance with synoptic and Johannine gospel traditions.
Neither in the Gospel of Truth nor in the Epistle to Rheginus is there
any mention of a recognizable collection of New Testament writings.
There is indeed in the Gospel of Twtb a fascinating account of what is
called ‘the living book of the living’, the ‘testament’ (diuthh)” of
Jesus which he appears to have both received from his Father (CfRev.
5 :7) and fastened to his cross (cf Col. 2: 14). ” But this is a spiritual
book, written in the Father’s heart before the world’s foundation and
now revealed in the hearts of those who accept the divine knowledge.
Kendrick Grobel indeed thought that the writer’s language might
mark ‘the transition from thinking of the pre-existent, unearthly
Book to thinking (also) of an earthly embodiment of it: one of the
Gospels, all the Gospels, or the NT as a whole’;” but this possibility is
too slender for any weight to be laid on it. It is not improbable,
however, that the two treatises presuppose some conception of a
category of early Christian writings produced by special inspiration
and vested with special authority- the fourfold gospel, perhaps, with
the Pauline corpus-but this cannot be proved in the absence of
express evidence.
But let this be said: in the light of such treatises from Nag
Hammadi it can be argued with some show of reason that Marcion’s
‘canon’ was his revision of an existing collection of New Testament
writings-in particular, that his Apostle was his revision of an existing
copy of the Pauline letters.
VALENTINUS
AND
SCHOOL
to say, in accordance with the presuppositions of Valentinianism. I4
Those writings were ‘supremely authoritative because they contained
the apostolic tradition which came from the Saviour Jesus’.l’ The
most orthodox churchman could hardly state the essence of the case
more aptly. Indeed, Ptolemy is the first person known to us by name
who criticized Marcionism. l6 This he did in his Letter to Flora” in
which, over against Marcion’s rejection of the Old Testament, he
showed how the Mosaic law, when rightly understood (i.e. understood
according to Valentinian principles) retained its value in the Christian
order. ”
I4 This insistence on proper interpretation is found equally in those who argue that
the Mew Testament (and indeed the whole Bible) is authoritative when interpreted in
accordance with the teaching preserved in its purity by the apostolic churches. See
pp. 151, 269.
‘s R. M. Grant, The Formation oftbe New TeJtanmt (London, 1965), p. 127.
I6 See H. von Campenhausen, The Formation of the Chrihzn Bible, pp. 165f.
” This letter is preserved in Epiphanius, Punarion, 33.3-7; an English translation
is conveniently accessible in R. M. Grant (ed.), GnostiLw~: An Anthology (London,
1961), pp. 184- 190. ‘Flora’, like ‘the elect lady’ of 2 John, is conceivably the
personification of some church (the church of Rome ?).
I8 More or less contemporary with the earlier Valentinian treatises is the antignostic document called the Epistle of the Apodes, allegedly sent by the eleven to
acquaint their fellow-believers throughout the world with a dialogue between rhem
and the Lord after his resurrection: it makes free use of the Gospels of Matthew, Luke
and John as well as of some apocryphal writings, like the Infamy Gospel of Thonus. See
Hennecke-Schneemelcher-Wilson, Neuf Testammr Apoctypba I, pp. 189-227.
PTOLEMY
Ptolemy, the principal disciple of Valentinus and probably his
successor as recognized leader of the Valentinian school, acknowledged
the supreme authority of the New Testament writings (in effect, those
which were acknowledged in the Gospel of Truth and the Epistle to
Rheginw), when they were properly interpreted-interpreted, that is
‘I The Greek word cliafh& appears untranslated in the Coptic text. See pp. 19,
181.
” TheGo~pe~ofTrurh. 19.35-20.30; 21.3-7; 22.35-23.30.
” K. Grobel, The Go.@ ofTruth, p.89.
148
HIS
‘49
THE CATHOLIC RESPONSE
CHAPTER ELEVEN
THE CATHOLIC RESPONSE
A
CATHOLIC
COLLECTION
Both Marcion and Valentinus presented a challenge to the catholic
church- that is, to those Christians who adhered to what they
believed to be the apostolic teaching. The communities to which
many of those Christians belonged claimed to have been founded by
apostles, and there had been no ascertainable shift in their teaching
since the time of their foundation. The distinctive features of Marcionitism and Valentinianism had this at least in common- they
were recognized as innovations. This, the leaders of the catholic
church knew, was not what they had heard from the beginning. ’ But
their followers had to be shown where those new movements were
wrong: if the teachings of Marcion and Valentinus were unsound,
what was the sound teaching, and how could it be defended?
In the catholic response to this twofold challenge, what came to be
called ‘the rule of faith’ played a crucial part. The ‘rule of faith’ was a
summary of the tenets held in common by the churches of apostolic
foundation: it is closely related to what is called ‘apostolic tradition’.
R. P. C. Hanson describes it as ‘a graph of the interpretation of the
Bible by the Church of the second and third centuries’.* In the
’ C/ 1 John 2:24. ‘Let what you heard from the beginning abide in you.’
’ ‘l‘mrlrtiorr IN rhr &r/y Chi/nh (London, 1962), p, 127.
150
establishment and defence of the rule of faith the appeal to the Bible
was basic. In debate with the Valentinians and others of similar
outlook, the interpretation of the Bible was the point at issue; in
debate with the Marcionites, the identity of the Bible had to be
defined. Where the interpretation of the Bible was at issue, there was a
tendency to maintain that only the catholic church had the right to
interpret it, because the Bible was the church’s book;3 but in the
Marcionite controversy an answer had to, be given to the more fimdamental question: What is the Bible?
Marcion had answered that fundamental question quite unambiguously. The Bible consisted of the Gospel and the Apostle which he
promulgated. Was his answer right, or was it wrong? The leaders of
the Roman church (and other churches that shared the same faith) had
no doubt that his answer was wrong. What, then, was the right
answer? If they had not given much thought to the limits of holy writ
previously, rhey had to pay serious attention to the question now. And
sooner rather than later they declared their mind on the matter.
We do not reject the Old Testament scriptures, as Marcion does,
they said; we accept them, as did Jesus and the apostles (both the
original apostles and Paul). As for the scriptures of the new order, we
accept not one gospel writing only, but four (including the complete
text of Marcion’s mutilated GospeL). We accept not only ten letters of
Paul, but thirteen (that is, including the three addressed to Timothy
and Titus). We accept not the letters of Paul only, but letters of other
apostles too. And we accept the Acts of the Apostles, a work which
links the gospels and the apostolic letters, providing the sequel to the
former and the background to the latter. 4 Tertullian argues that it was
quite illogical for those who maintained the exclusive apostleship of
Paul (like the Marcionites) to reject the one book which presented
independent testimony to the genuineness of the apostolic claim
which Paul repeatedly makes for himself. 5 (The trouble was, especially
for the Marcionites, that Acts presents independent testimony also to
3 This is the thesis of Tertullian’s work On the Prescription of Heretics (in which
praescviptio is a legal term meaning an ‘objection’ by the opposing party to the use of
scripture by heretics).
’ Nowadays this assessment of the importance of Acts in the New Testament would
be contested by those who see it as departing from the perspective of Paul and the
gospels alike and as providing a foundation for Catholicism (not merely for catholicity).
See also pp. 132f.
’ Prescription, 22f.
151
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
the genuine apostleship of those whom Marcion condemned as apostates . >
The scriptures acknowledged by the catholic church formed, appropriately, a catholic collection. They represented a variety of perspectives
in the early church. Marcion’s list, on the other hand, was a sectarian
one: it represented one viewpoint only-not so much Paul’s as
Marcion’s own. As Marcion maintained the exclusive apostleship of
Paul, there were other sectarians, at the opposite end of the spectrum,
who regarded James of Jerusalem as the apostle par excellence, and
deplored Paul as the ‘enemy’ of Jesus’ parable who sowed the tares of
error among the good wheat of the gospel (Mt. 13:25, 28).6 But the
catholic church, and the catholic scriptures, made room for both Paul
and James and for other varieties as well. Ernst K&emann can write of
the New Testament canon as bearing witness to the disunity, not to the
unity, of the first-century church;’ more properly, it bears witness to
the more comprehensive unity which transcends all the diversities and
proclaims the one who is simultaneously the Jesus of history and the
exalted Lord. There was farseeing wisdom in the decision ‘to accept all
that was thought to be truly apostolic, and to see it as mediating
through human diversity, the one divine event’.’
In this regard Acts played a crucial part: it is indeed the hinge of the
New Testament collection, giving it its ‘organic structure’.9 It is a
truly catholic work, the keystone of a truly catholic canon. Peter, Paul
and James are all honoured in it, together with such leaders of the
Hellenistic advance as Stephen and Philip. Such a work could not have
been countenanced by those who rejected all strands of apostolic
Christianity but one, but it was admirably suited to the purpose of
catholic churchmen.
The same catholic spirit is evident in the fourfold gospel. To begin
with, each gospel was doubtless the gospel in the communities in
which it circulated, but they were all greatly enriched when to the
6 Clementine Recognitions, 1.70; Epzstle of Peter to Jmm, 2. Those who took this line
were Ebionites and other representatives of that Jewish-Christian tradition which
finds expression in the third-century Clementine Recognitions and Homilies.
’ ‘The Canon of the New Testament and the Unity of the Church’, E.T. in Essuy~ nn
NW Testament Themes (London, 1964), pp.95- 107; see p.272 below.
” C. F. D. Mottle, The Birth o/the New Testament (London, “1981), p.255.
9 A. van Harnack, The Origin ofthe New Testament, E.T. (London, 1925). p.67. See
pp. 132f. above.
152
THE CATHOLIC RESPONSE
of their own gospel there was added the witness of the others.
Some scrupulous readers might feel that the inconcinnities of the four
called for harmonizing activity, but others rejoiced in the plurality of
testimony that was now available, recognizing with the compiler of
the Muratorian list (an outstanding document of the catholic response)
that the variation among the four writings ‘makes no difference to the
faith of believers, since in all of them everything has been declared by
one primary Spirit’. ‘O If only one of the four had received canonical
status, if Marcion’s precedent (for example) had been generally
followed, the path of the gospel critic might have been smoother, but
we should all have been gravely impoverished. The four were not
originally composed in order that readers might have a fourfold
perspective on the ministry of Jesus, but in the event their collocation
has provided just that.
It is noteworthy too that Matthew’s contribution, which became
pre-eminently the church’s gospel and stood at the head of the fourfold
collection, is self-evidently a catholic work. Even if the other synoptic
gospels were not available for comparison with it, it would be possible
to discern a variety of strands in its record of Jesus’ teaching- the
particularist strand, ‘Go nowhere among theGentiles’ (Mt. 10:5), and
the more comprehensive strand, ‘many will come from east and
west. . . ’ (Mt. 8: 1 l), transcended in the post-resurrection commission
to ‘make disciples of all the nations’ (Mt. 28:19). The fact that this
catholic work stands at the head of the New Testament points to the
catholicity of the canon as a whole and not only of the gospel
collection. i ’
In the apostolic generation separate spheres of public ministry were
carefully demarcated, as is amply attested from Paul’s letters (see Gal.
2:7-g; Rom. 15:20). But in the post-apostolic age the necessity of
recognizing such separate spheres disappeared. While sectarian tendencies manifested themselves, the church as a whole paid heed to
Paul’s exhortation to recognize that all the apostles and teachers whom
the Lord had sent, ‘whether Paul or Apollos or Cephas’ (1 Cor. 3:22),
belonged to them all. It would be difficult to envisage, in the apostolic
age, one and the same church claiming Peter and Paul together as
joint-founders. It was historical/y ludicrous for Dionysius, bishop of
witness
lo See pp. 159, 160.
” CfHarnack, The Date oftheArts and oftbeSynopticGospels,
pp. 133-135.
‘53
E.T. (London, 191 l),
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Corinth about AD 170, to make this claim for his own church’*- Paul
might have turned in his grave at the thought of Peter’s sharing in
what was SO totally his own foundation (1 Cot. 3: lo-15)-but there
was a certain theologiral fitness in the claim, in so far as it expressed a
resolve to appropriate the entire apostolic heritage. It is this resolve
that is expressed in the New Testament canon, where every document
that could reasonably be claimed as apostolic in origin and teaching
found its place in due course.
THE SO-CALLED
ANTI-MARCIONITE PROLOGUES
One expression of the catholic response to Marcion’s Gospel has been
recognized in some gospel prologues which appear in certain Latin
codices. At one time it was maintained by leading scholars that these
belonged to a set of four gospel prologues drawn up in opposition to
Marcionism shortly before Irenaeus began his literary career (c A D
1 SO). I3 The tide has more recently turned against this opinion, I4 but
two of the prologues, those to Luke and John, whether they originally
belonged together or not, reflect an anti-Marcionite reaction.
The prologue to Luke (which is also extant in its Greek original in
two codices of the tenth and eleventh centuries respectively) ends with
a note on the authorship of Acts and of the Johannine apocalypse and
gospel:
Luke was a native ofSyrian Antioch, a physician by profession, a
disciple of the apostles. Later he accompanied Paul until the
latter’s martyrdom, serving the Lord without distraction, for he
had neither wife nor children. He died in Boeotia” at the age of
‘* In Eusebius, Hist. EccI. 2.25.8. Dionysius also treats the church of Rome as the
joint foundation of Peter and Paul-an honour which Paul would have firmly
declined.
” E.g. D. de Bruyne, ‘Les plus anciens prologues latins des EGangiles’, Rowe
Bh‘dictine 40 (1928), pp. 193-2 14; A. von Harnack, Die iiltesten Evangelien-Prologe
und die Bildung L&J Neuen Testaments (Berlin, 1928). On their hypothesis ofa set of four
such
prologues, that to Matthew was lost, as also was that to Mark apart from the
closing words: ‘. . was asserted by Mark, who was named “stump-fingered”
(colobodactyhsl because his fingers were shorter in relation to the rest of his bodily
proportions. He was Peter’s interpreter. After Peter’s departure he wrote down this
gospel in the parts of Italy.’
I4 Especially in J. Regul, Dieantimarcionitischen EvangeLienprologe(Freiburg, 1969).
” The region of Greece around Thebes.
I54
THE CATHOLIC RESPONSE
eighty-four, full of the Holy Spirit. So then, after two gospels
had already been written-Matthew’s in Judaea and Mark’s in
Italy-Luke wrote this gospel in the region of Achaia, by
inspiration of the Holy Spirit. At its outset, he indicated that
other gospels had been written before his own, but that the
obligation lay on him to set forth for the believers among the
Gentiles a complete account in the course of his narrative, and to
do so as accurately as possible. The object of this was that they
might not be captivated on the one hand by a love for Jewish
fables, nor on the other hand be deceived by heretical and vain
imaginations and thus wander from the truth. So, right at the
beginning, Luke has delivered to us the story of the birth of
John [the Baptist], as most essential [to the gospel]; for John
marks the beginning of the gospel, since he was our Lord’s
forerunner and associate both in the preparation for the gospel
and in the administration of baptism and communication of the
Spirit. I6 This ministry [of John’s] was foretold by one of the
twelve prophets. ” Later on, the same Luke wrote the Acts ofthe
Apostles. Later still, the apostle John, one of the twelve, wrote
the Apocalypse on the island of Patmos, and then the gospel in
Asia.
The anti-Marcionite tendency of this prologue appears in the emphasis
with which it affirms the integrity of the first chapters of Luke with the
gospel as a whole and the essential character of John the Baptist’s
ministry in preparing the way for the ministry of Jesus. Marcion’s
Gospel lacked the first two chapters of Luke and the account of John’s
ministry in Luke 312-22; it refused to recognize any link between
Jesus and what went before him, whether the ministry of John or the
predictions of Old Testament prophets.
When the author of the prologue says that Luke’s gospel was
written in Achaia, he may have wished to associate one gospel with the
churches of the Greek mainland, as Matthew allegedly originated in
Judaea, Mark in Italy and John in the province of Asia.
More intriguing is the so-called anti-Marcionite prologue to John,
which survives in Latin only, although its original language was
plainly Greek. It suffered some textual corruption in the transmission
both of the Greek text and of the Latin translation, but the necessary
I6 Gk. pnrwnatos koinanra. The Latin text reads passionb Jociw, ‘a sharer in his
suffering’, which presupposes a Greek reading parht%afc/J instead ofpneunwfos.
” Mal. 3:1;4:5 @/Mark 1:2;9:11-13).
‘55
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,
T H E MURATORIAN
CHAPTER TWELVE
THE MURATORIAN
FRAGMENT
FRAGMENT
scribes; there are several errors which cry out for emendation. Many
scholars have held that behind the Latin wording lies an original Greek
text, which has been completely lost;3 on the whole, however, it seems
more likely that Latin was its original language, and that the list dates
from the time when the Roman church (which had been Greekspeaking since its foundation in the first century) was beginning to be
bilingual.4
The document is best regarded as a list of New Testament books
recognized as authoritative in the Roman church at that time. In
addition to naming the books, it makes a number of observations on
them, reflecting the contemporary opinion of some churchmen.
The manuscript is mutilated at the beginning. Since its first
complete sentence mentions Luke as ‘the third book of the gospel’, it
had presumably mentioned two others, and it is not excessively
speculative to suppose that these were Matthew and Mark. If so, the
first words to be preserved on the manuscript are the last words of a
sentence about Mark: ‘ . . . at these, however, he was present and so he
set them down.’ Then the document continues:
THE MANUSCRIPT AND ITS CONTENTS
In 1740 a Latin list of New Testament books was published by
Lodovico Antonio Muratori, a distinguished antiquarian and theologian in his day, from a codex copied in the seventh or eighth century
at the monastery of Bobbio, in Lombardy, but later lodged in the
Ambrosian Library, Milan (of which Muratori had at one time been
keeper); there it still is (catalogued J 101 sup., folios lOa- la). ’
The date at which the list was originally drawn up is disputed; it
belongs most probably to the end of the second century.2 The Latin
text has suffered from being copied by one or more barely literate
The third book of the gospel: according to Luke.
After the ascension ofchrist, Luke the physician, whom Paul
had taken along with him as a legal expert, wrote [the record]
down in his own name in accordance with [Paul’s] opinion. He
himself, however, never saw the Lord in the flesh and therefore,
as far as he could follow [the course of events), began to tell it
from the nativity of John.
The fourth gospel is by John, one of the disciples.
When his fellow-disciples and bishops encouraged him, John
said, ‘Fast along with me three days from today, and whatever
may be revealed to each, let us relate it one to another’. The
same night it was revealed to Andrew, one of the apostles, that
John in his own name should write down everything and that
they should all revise it. Therefore, although different beginn-
’ Some fragments of the list have been identified in four codices of the eleventh and
twelfth centuries at Monte Cassino. A facsimile and transcription of the list were
published by S. P. Tregelles, Canon Muratorianus: The Earliest Catalogue oftbe Books of
the New Testament (Oxford, 1867). A convenient edition of the text was published by
Hans Lietzmann as No. 1 in the series K&e Texte (Berlin, 2 1933); it includes the text
of the Cassino fragments.
* A. C. Sundberg, Jr., presents a strong case for a fourth-century date in Canon
Muratori: A Fourth-Century List’, Harvard Theologicaf Review66(1973), pp. 1-41; he
finds the closest affinities of the lisr co be with fourth-century lists of eastern origin.
Quite apart from the question ofdating, this article is one of the best recent studies of
the Muratorian list. On the point of dating, Sundberg has been ably answered by E.
Ferguson, ‘Canon Muratori: Date and Provenance’, Studra Patrirtiuz 18.2 (Kalamazoo,
MI, 1982), pp.677-683.
’ E.g. S. P. Tregelles, Canon Mwatoriamo, p.4 (following Muratori himself, who
supposed it to be work of the Roman presbyter Gaius; see p.168 below); J. B.
Lightfoot, The A~nstolic Fathers, I: S. Chenr o~Rome, II (London, * 1890), pp.405f.
4 See p.83, n. 1, with Jerome, On I//ustrio~~~ Mm. 53. Arguments for holding the
Latin to be the original text have been presented by A. von Harnack, ‘iiber den
Verfasser und den literarischen Charakter des Muratorischen Fragments’, ZNW 24
( 1925), pp. 1- 16; A. A. T. Ehrhardt, ‘The Gospels in the Muratorian Fragment’, 77~
I“r~~~or~ o/ fhr NW Trrtamurt Sforie.r (Manchester, 1964), pp. 1 l-36, especially
pg.16- 18.
158
‘59
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
ings are taught for the various books of the gospel, it makes no
difference to the faith of believers, since in all of them everything has been declared by one primary Spirit, concerning his
nativity, passion and resurrection, his association with his disciples and his twofold advent-his first in humility, when he
was despised, which is past; his second resplendent in royal
power, his coming again. It is no wonder, then, that John
should so constantly present the separate details in his letters
also, saying of himself: ‘What we have seen with our eyes and
heard with our ears and our hands have handled, these things
have we written.’ For in this way he claims to be not only a
spectator but a hearer, and also a writer in order of the wonderful
facts about our Lord.
The Acts of all the apostles have been written in one book.
Addressing the most excellent Theophilus, Luke includes one
by one the things which were done in his own presence, as he
shows plainly by omitting the passion of Peter and also Paul’s
departure when he was setting out from the City for Spain.
As for the letters of Paul, they themselves show those who
wish to understand from which place and for which cause they
were directed. First of all [he wrote] to the Corinthians forbidding schisms and heresies; then to the Galatians [forbidding]
circumcision; to the Romans he wrote at greater length about
the order of the scriptures and also insisting that Christ was
their primary theme. It is necessary for us to give an argued
account of all these, since the blessed apostle Paul himself,
following the order ofhis predecessor John, but not naming him,
writes to seven churches in the following order: first to the
Corinthians, second to the Ephesians, third to the Philippians,
fourth to the Colossians, fifth to the Galatians, sixth to the
Thessalonians, seventh to the Remans. But although [the
message] is repeated to the Corinthians and Thessalonians by
way of reproof, yet one church is recognized as diffused throughout the whole world. For John also, while he writes to seven
churches in the Apocalypse, yet speaks to all. Moreover [Paul
writes] one [letter] to Philemon, one to Titus and two to
Timothy in love and affection; but they have been hallowed for
the honour of the catholic church in the regulation of ecclesiastical discipline.
There is said to be another letter in Paul’s name to the
Laodiceans, and another to the Alexandrines, [both] forged in
accordance with Marcion’s heresy, and many others which cannot
be received into the catholic church, since it is not fitting that
poison should be mixed with honey.
160
T H E MLJRATORIAN
I-RAGMEN?
But the letter ofJude and the two superscribed with the name
of John are accepted in the catholic [church]; Wisdom also,
written by Solomon’s friends in his honour. The Apocalypse of
John we also receive, and that of Peter, which some of our
people will not have to be read in church. But the Shepbercl was
written by Hermas in the city of Rome quite recently, in our
own times, when his brother Pius occupied the bishop’s chair in
the church of the city of Rome; and therefore it may be read
indeed, but cannot be given out to the people in church either
among the prophets, since their number is complete, or among
the apostles at the end of the times.
But none of the writings of Arsinous or Valentinus or Miltiades
do we receive at all. They have also composed a new book of
psalms for Marcion; [these we reject] together with Basilides
[and] the Asian founder of the Cataphrygians . . ’
COMMENTS
ON
THE
LIST
Twenty-one of the books which we have received in our New Testament are listed here as acceptable.
Luke, says the compiler, was not an eyewitness or hearer of Christ.
What then was the nature of his authority? It derived from his
association with Paul. He accompanied Paul, it is said, as a legal
expert. This choice of words is a powerful argument in favour of
regarding Latin as the original language of the document: it reflects a
feature of Roman provincial administration. A Roman provincial
governor had a legal expert (iurrj studioszls, the phrase used here) on his
staff. This expert drafted legal documents ‘in the name’ or ‘in accordance with the opinion’ of his superior; so Luke (it is implied), having
been attached to Paul’s staff, issued his writings in his own name but
in accordance with Paul’s opinion. Luke’s writings, that is to say, are
endowed with apostolic authority although they do not appear under
the apostle’s name.’
Three points of interest arise in the account of the gospel of John.
5 The argument from iuris SLU~~OJUS is set forth by A. Ehrhardt, ‘The Gospels in the
Murarorian Fragment’, pp. 16-18. Ehrhardt had the advantage of having been a
Professor of Roman Law before he turned to the study ofecclesiastical history. Even so
good a Latinist as Alexander Souter missed the point here: he tentatively adopted E. S.
Buchanan’s emendation of quuu ut iun.r strdiostrtt~, ‘as a legal expert’, to qruu a&ww
.rt~~clrosutrr, ‘as a devoted helper’ (The Text and Coon of the New Testamrnt [London,
>17541, pp.191, 173).
161
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
First, the tale about John’s fellow-disciples preserves a tradition that
others apart from John himself were involved in the production or at
least in the publication of his work: we may recall the anonymous
endorsement at the end of the work by those who say of the evangelist,
‘we know that his testimony is true’ (John 2 1:24)6. Next, the insistence that all the gospels received in the church bear witness to one and
the same faith is a corollary of the claim that John’s fellow-disciples
shared responsibility for his gospel. This faith is summarized in a
sequence paralleled in the old Roman creed.’ Thirdly, the emphasis on
the eyewitness character of John’s record is linked with the opening
words of his first epistle, affirming that the matters to be dealt with are
those with which the writer has been in direct and personal touch. A
contrast has been seen between those words of 1 John 1: l-3 (‘that. . .
which we have heard, which we have seen with our eyes. . . ‘) and the
gnostic use of the quotation in 1 Corinthians 2:9 (‘what no eye has
seen, nor ear heard _ . . . ‘). The words of this last quotation, derived by
Paul from an unknown source, are ascribed to Jesus in the Gospel of
Thomas and the Acts of Peter; a they appear to have been pressed into
service as an initiation formula in some gnostic schools (the initiate
was promised experiences in which the rank and file could not share).’
The compiler of the Muratorian list was firmly anti-gnostic.
The list goes on to refer to Acts as ‘the Acts of all the apostles’. This
title embodies a patent exaggeration of the subject-matter of the book.
Even the traditional ,designation ‘the Acts of the Apostles’ is an
exaggeration. The book records some acts of some apostles, and
nothing more than this is claimed in the Greek title (praxeis apostoh,
‘acts of apostles’). What the author originally called it is uncertainperhaps ‘Luke to Theophilus, Volume 2’. Two apostles in particular,
Peter and Paul, have their acts recorded here. What was the reason for
the Muratorian exaggeration? Possibly it marks a reaction against
Marcion: Marcion claimed that Paul was the only faithful apostle of
THE
MURATORIAN
FRAGMENT
Jesus, but the compiler of our list implies, in accordance with the
judgment of the catholic church, ‘We acknowledge all the apostles,
and not Paul only; here is an authoritative document which records
their acts and not only Paul’s.’ An alternative possibility is that in
saying, ‘The Acts of all the apostles have been written in one book’,
the compiler wishes to emphasize that Luke’s Acts is the only genuine
book of apostolic acts. From about AD 160 onwards there began to
appear in various parts of the Christian world a number of compositions
claiming to record the acts of this or that apostolic figure: the Acts of
Peter, the Acts of Paul, the Acts of John, the Acts of Andrew, the Acts of
Thomas. lo The compiler may mean: none of these is authentic; all that
can be known of any of the apostles is exclusively recorded in this ‘one
book’.
Yet the compiler shows acquaintance with at least one of these
volumes of apocryphal Acts- the Acts of Peter. He tries to explain the
omission from Luke’s Acts of some events in the careers of the apostles
by saying that Luke recorded only such things as took place in his own
presence-an inept explanation, for the things that took place in
Luke’s presence are confined to those sections of Acts where the story is
told in the first person plural (the so-called ‘we’ sections). ” Luke, he
says, omits all mention of Peter’s martyrdom or Paul’s embarkation
for Spain because he was not there to witness them. Now these two
events, unrecorded by Luke, are narrated in the Acts of Peter, which the
Muratorian compiler evidently knew. The Acts of Peter opens with
Paul’s setting out for Spain from Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, l2
and ends with an account of Peter’s crucifixion (head downwards, at
his own request).13 (Neither the writer of the Acts of Peter nor the
compiler of the Muratorian list probably had any basis for Paul’s
voyage to Spain apart from his own statement of his travel plans in
Rom. 15:24, 28.)
As for the letters of Paul, thirteen are listed, including the three
Pastorals. I4 But special attention is paid to those addressed to churches,
‘” See pp. 202f.
6 The tale about John’s fellow-disciples was probably derived from Papias (cf
Harnack, ‘iiber den Verfasser. _‘, p.9; Ehrhardt, The Gospels in the Muratorian
Fragment’, pp. 19-25).
’ See Ehrhardt, ‘The Gospels in the Muratorian Fragment’, pp.25f.
s Gospel of Thomas, 17; Acts Peter, 39.
’ C’ Hippolytus, Refutation, 5.24.1; Clement of Alexandria, Strwmteir, 4.18.
Ehrhardt (‘The Gospels in the Muratorian Fragment’, p. 30) cites their use in this sense
in Pi& So/ha, 114; in Acti o~Thomas. 36, and even in a Manichaean fragment from
Turfan (M 789).
” Acts 16:10-17; 20:5-21:18; 27:1-28:16.
” Acts of Peter, 36-4 1.
‘* ActsofPeter, l - 3 .
I4 The curious order of Paul’s letters suggests that the basis was a list of the letters
following more or less their order in Marcion’s New Testament (with Galatians
removed from its leading place). If this list were written in two columns, so that
Corinthians came at the top of the first column and Romans at the top of the second,
then someone copying the titles down the first column and up the second would
produce an order not unlike that in the Muratorian fragment. See also N. A. Dahl,
‘Welche Ordnung der Paulusbriefe wird vom Muratorischen Kanon vorausgesetzt?’
102
163
of
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
T H E MURATORIAN FRAGMENT
seven churches in all- so the compiler insists, but he is mistaken, for
Galatians was addressed to several churches (all the churches of Galatia,
in fact). In writing to seven churches, the reader is told, Paul followed
the precedent of John who, ‘in his Apocalypse, while writing to seven
churches, yet speaks to all’. I5 The seven churches, that is to say, stand
for the whole worldwide church. Even the Pastoral Epistles, while
addressed to individuals, are credited with a catholic dimension.
This making Paul follow the precedent of John is chronologically
preposterous; it probably indicates, however, that for the compiler the
primary criterion of inclusion in the list was prophetic inspiration. In
the early church as a whole the predominant criterion appears to have
been apostolic authority, if not apostolic authorship; for this writer,
however, even apostolic authorship evidently takes second place to
prophetic inspiration. I6
John’s Apocalypse, being self-evidently the work of a prophet, was
naturally included in the list. ” So also (but not so naturally) was the
Apocalypse of Peter- no doubt in the belief that it was a genuine work
by the prince of the apostles. ” It is acknowledged, however, that it
did not find universal acceptance. But it was felt to be edifying-it
contained lurid pictures of the torments of the damned, which in due
course exercised some influence on Dante’s lnfevno-and it was undoubtedly orthodox (by the standards of the Roman church) and
therefore acceptable as the Gospel of Peter” was not.
The letter of Jude is listed, and two letters of John-probably 1
John and 2 John. It has sometimes been suggested that, since 1 John
been quoted, in the comment on the Fourth Gospel, the
two letters mentioned here are 2 John and 3 John, but this is a less
natural way to understand the reference. There is evidence elsewhere
that 2 John and 3 John were ‘canonized’ separately. ‘a
The letter to the Hebrews is not mentioned, which is only to be
expected in a Roman canon of the second or third century. As the
letter of Clement shows, Hebrews was known at an early date in the
Roman church, but was not accorded the authority enjoyed by the
letters of Paul. What is indeed surprising in a Roman list is to find no
mention of 1 Peter. One eminent scholar thought that both 1 and 2
Peter were originally listed after the mention of John’s Apocalypse,
but were accidentally lost in the process of copying, through the
omission of a line. When the existing text speaks of ‘John’s Apocalypse
and Peter’s’, Theodor von Zahn thought that the list originally
continued with the words: ‘. . . epistle. There is also another epistle of
Peter’-followed by the clause ‘which some of our people will not
have to be read in church.“l But this was a purely conjectural
emendation, not required by the text.
If it is surprising to find the Wisdom of Solomon (known to us as a
book of the Old Testament Apocrypha) listed here among New
Testament books, let it be reflected that, so far as its date goes, it may
be closer to the New Testament age than to that of the Old Testament.
(Some students have dated it as late as AD 40.)22 As for the statement
that it was ‘written by Solomon’s friends in his honour’, this may
reflect the tradition that Wisdom is much too late to be the work of
Solomon himself. Those who hold that a Greek original lies behind
ZNW 52 (1961), pp.39-53; ‘The particularity of the Pauline Epistles as a problem in
the Ancient Church’, in Nentestutnentica et Patristica (= NovT Sup 6), ed. W. C. van
Unnik (Leiden, 1962), pp. 26 l-27 1.
‘s K. Stendahl, ‘The Apocalypse ofJohn and the Epistles of Paul in the Muratorian
Fragment’, in Current Issuer in New Testament lntnpretation, ed. W. Klassen and G. F.
Snyder (New York, 1962), goes so far as to suggest that, for the compiler of our list,
the canonicity of Paul’s letters depended on that of John’s Apocalypse. The analogy
between Paul’s seven churches and John’s is pointed out by Cyprian (Exhortation
Martyrdom, 11) and Victorinus of Pettau (On tbeApoca/ypse, 1.7, on Rev. 1:20). Quite
apart from the number of churches addressed by Paul, Tertullian emphasizes the
universal relevance of Paul’s letters: ‘when the apostle wrote to some, he wrote to all’
(Against Marcion, 5.17).
I6 On these criteria ofcanonicity see below, pp.255-269.
” Its position between Wisdom and the Shepherd does not mean that it is accorded
only marginal canonicity; its earlier mention in the discussion of Paul’s letters is proof
enough of that.
” See pp.200f.
I” Seep.261.
for
164
has already
*O There is evidence that 3 John was translated into Latin by a different hand from 1
and 2 John. See A. Harnack, Zur Revision ah Prinzipien der neutestamentlicben Textkritzk
(Leipzig, 1916), pp.blf.; T. W. Manson, ‘The Johannine Epistles and the Canon of
the New Testament’,jTS 48 (1947), pp.32f.; J. L’teu, The Second and Third Epistle of
John (Edinburgh, 1986), pp.S-36. Behind the statement (in Latin) that two epistles
ofJohn ‘are accepted in the catholic [church]‘, P. Katz, ‘The Johannine Epistles in the
Muratorian Canon’, JTS n.s. 8 (1957), pp.273f., discerns a Greek form of words
which means ‘two. . . in addition to the catholic [epistle]‘; [jC. F. D. Moule, The Birth
of the New Testament (London, ‘1981), p.266, n.2.
2’ Zahn, Gescbicbte rk neutestamentlicben Canons, II (Erlangen/Leipzig. 1890), p. 142.
B. H. Streeter concluded that, since 1 Peter was absent from the Syriac canon as late as
the mid-fourth century AD, it was not among the books which Tatian took from Rome
to Edessa CAD 172 (The Primitive Church [London, 19291, p. 119).
21 E.g. W. 0. E. Oesterley, An Introduction to the Books of the Apoqpha (London,
1935), pp.207-209.
165
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
the Latin list have often suggested that ‘friends’ (philoi in Greek) was a
wrong reading for ‘Philo’ (the Jewish philosopher of Alexandria, who
lived c 20 BC - c AD 50); what the compiler allegedly wrote was
‘written by Philo in Solomon’s honour’ or something like that. But
this is an unnecessary supposition. 23
The allegorical work known as the Sbepbwdof Hermas was read with
appreciation in the Roman church and elsewhere,24 but the compiler
of our list excludes it from the New Testament scriptures. Its quality
of inspiration might have entitled it to a place among the prophets,
but the list of Old Testament prophets had been closed for a long time
before the Shepherd was written;25 it was too recent a work to be
included in the New Testament list along with such a prophetic work
as the Apocalypse of John. The Shepherd, says the compiler, was
written ‘quite recently, in our own times’, when Pius, the brother of
Hermas, was bishop of Rome. Pius was bishop of Rome some time
during the period when Antoninus Pius was Roman emperor ( A D
138- 161), but the Shepherd, to judge by internal evidence, may have
been written even earlier than that, about the beginning of the second
century. It has indeed been argued that the words ‘quite recently, in
our own times’, mean little more than ‘in the post-apostolic age’ and
are not incompatible with a fourth-century date for the Muratorian
list,26 but this is not a natural way to understand them: the two terms
‘quite recently’ and ‘in our own times’,” taken together, seem to
emphasize the recency of the work. Its recency is the main argument
against acknowledging it as a biblical document, on a par with those of
an earlier generation. In itself, the Sbepberd might have been unexceptionable, but if the door had been opened for the admission of
second-century prophecies, there would be many strange claimants for
inclusion.
The Muratorian list mentions other works which are rejected out of
hand. At the end of the section on Paul’s epistles, two alleged letters of
his are said to be Marcionite forgeries. One was addressed to the
THE MURATORIAN FRAGMENT
Iaodiceans. We know that Marcion himself entitled the letter to the
Ephesians ‘To the Laodiceans’; possibly the Muratorian compiler knew
of this title and, not realizing that it was identical with Ephesians,
concluded that it must have been forged in Paul’s name. Otherwise he
may have known of an attempt to supply the missing Laodicean letter
of Colossians 4: l6-an attempt otherwise unknown to us. (We know
a later ‘Epistle to the Laodiceans’, extant only in Latin; it is a perfectly
innocuous and unimaginative cento of pieces from Paul’s genuine
letters, but is of interest in the history of the English Bible because a
translation of it was included in fifteenth-century copies of the
Wycliffite version.)”
Of the letter to the Alexandrines we know nothing. It cannot be
identified with the letter to the Hebrews, which has no flavour of
Marcion’s teaching about it. The rejected letters may have much of the
truth in them, but it is vitiated by the admixture of error, as if poison
were to be mixed with honey. The Latin words for poison (fel) and
honey (mel) rhyme with each other, so that we may have here a
proverbial Latin tag. This has been used as a further argument for the
Latin origin of the list, since the assonance could not be reproduced
with the corresponding Greek words.
At the end of the list reference is made to other works which are
utterly repudiated. Arsinous we do not know. Valentinus we have met
already. Miltiades appears to have been a Montanist leader.29 The
‘book of psalms’ compiled for Marcion may have taken the place
among his followers that the Old Testament Psalter took in the
catholic church, since the latter was naturally unacceptable to the
Marcionites. Basilides, a gnostic teacher in Alexandria between A D
120 and 145, is said to have written a gospel and a commentary on it
in twenty-four volumes. 3o The Latin text of the list would imply that
Basilides was ‘the Asian founder of the Cataphrygians’, but the
conjunction ‘or’ or ‘and’ must have dropped out before this last
phrase. 3’ Basilides is associated with Alexandria, not with the province
of Asia, and he was not a Montanist, which is what the word
‘a In any case, the stylistic objections to ascribing Wisdom to Philo’s authorship,
even if it was written in his lifetime, are almost insuperable.
24 See pp. 183, 209f.
as Even so, there is evidence for ‘the inclusion of the Shepherd of Hermas in many
(Western) exemplars of the Old Testament, Eden in the Middle Ages’ (A. Harnack, The
Origin ofthe New Tertrrment, E.T. (London, 19251, p. 171).
r6 See A. C. Sundberg, ‘Canon Muratori: A Fourth-Century List’, pp.%1 1.
” Latin nuperrim, tempvribuJ nostrir.
‘s Seepp.237-240.
a9 He is mentioned in Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 5.16.3, where his name appears as that
of a Montanist leader in a letter addressed to Avircius Marcellinus (see p.281 below).
(The name appears in the Muratorian fragment as Mitiades, but this is usually taken to
be one of the many scribal mis-spellings).
” SeeEusebius, Hisf. Ed. 4.7.4-7. Seep. 128aboveforhisquotationofJohn 1:9.
” One of the Cassino fragments supplies the conjunction siue (‘or’).
166
167
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
‘Cataphrygian’ means.3z (He lived a generation before the rise of
Montanism.)
The ‘Asian founder of the Cataphrygians’ was Montanus, who
launched a new charismatic movement in Upper Phrygia abut AD
1 56.33 He claimed that the age of the Paraclete, foretold by Jesus, had
now arrived, and that he was the mouthpiece of the Paraclete. The gift
of prophecy was accordingly exercised in greater vigour than ever by
him and his followers, and their utterances presented a challenge to
the catholic view of the faith as something ‘once for all delivered’ (Jude
3). If Paul and John insisted in the first century that it was necessary to
‘test the prophets’ and make sure that their utterances were consistent
with the authentic witness to Christ,34 such testing was no less
necessary a century later. The Montanist challenge from one direction,
like the Marcionite and gnostic challenges from other directions,
made it the more important that the limits of holy scripture should be
clearly defined. Holy scripture, properly defined, would provide a
check on uncontrolled prophecy as it did on undisciplined speculation.” Montanism extended its influence far beyond its native Phrygia;
its menace was felt in Rome itself.36
One doughty opponent of the Montanists was a learned presbyter of
the Roman church named Gaius, who flourished towards the end of
the second century. He conducted a controversial correspondence with
a Montanist leader in Asia named Proclus3’ Gaius apparently tried to
cut the ground from under the Montanists’ feet by denying the
authenticity of the document on which they relied for their teaching
about the Paraclete, the Gospel of John.38 This was an excessive price
to pay for the maintenance of catholic orthodoxy, and a quite unneces‘* This is the earliest extant occurrence of the designation ‘Cataphrygian’; it appears
later
l’
‘s
26
”
in Eusebius, Epiphanius of Salamis (Cyprus) and John of Damascus.
u 1 Cor. 12:3; 1 John 4:1-3.
Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 5.14.1-18.14.
See Harnack, The Origin o/the New Testament, p.35.
And in Carthage (seep. 180).
Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 2.25.5-7; 3.3 1.4; 6.20.3.
‘* Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 3.28. If., implies that Gaius ascribed the Apocalypse to the
heresiarch Cerinthus-a view mentioned but rejected by Dionysius of Alexandria
(Eusebius, Host. Et-cl. 7.25.2-4). His rejection of the FourthGospel is implied in the
title of Hippolytus’s Chapfers against Gaius or A Defence of the Gospel and Apocalypse
ucwdmg fojohn. According to Bar+libi, twelfth-century Syriac commentator on the
Apocalypse, ‘Hippolytus of Rome states that a man named Gaius appeared, who said
that neither the Gospel nor the Apocalypse was John’s, but that they were the work of
Cerinthus the heretic.’ See T. H. Robinson, ‘The Authorship of the Muratorian
Canon’, Expmitw 7, 1 (1906), p.487. See p. 178 below.
168
THE
M U R A T O R I A N FRAGMEN’I
sary price. Those who agreed with Gaius on this point came to be
called Alogoi, a word of double meaning: it meant primarily ‘those
who refuse the Logos’ (the divine Word of John 1: 1 - 14) but also, in
its common usage, ‘irrational people’.3g But their negative attitude to
the Fourth Gospel had no influence on catholic thought, in Rome or
elsewhere. The Muratorian list reflects the Roman church’s policy at
this time to rebut the Montanist and other challenges to catholic truth
by identifying the sure written sources of apostolic teaching or, as
these sources came to be called later, the canon of the New Testament.
39 Epiphanius, Panarion 50-52. See J. Chapman, John the Presbyter and the Fourth
Gospel(Oxford, 1911), pp.53-55.
.
IRENAEUS, HIPPOLYTUS, NOVATIAN
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
IRENAEUS, HIPPOLYTUS,
NOVATIAN
IRENAEUS
The Greek-speaking settlements in south-eastern Gaul were
evangelized from the province of Asia- the area, indeed, from which
those settlements had been founded many centuries before. Their
evangeIization took place probably early in the second century, if not
earlier (it has been suggested by some that the ‘Galatia’ to which
Crescens is said to have gone in 2 Timothy 4: 10 was not the Anatolian
Galatia but European Gaul). Our first definite knowledge of
Christianity in south-eastern Gaul comes from a letter sent by two
churches of the RhBne valley, those of Lyon and Vienne, to tell their
friends in proconsular Asia of a fierce persecution which they had to
endure in AD 177, in the principate of Marcus Aurelius.’ For our
present purpose this letter has an incidental interest in the use that it
makes of scripture, one of the most striking instances being the
occurrence of the formula ‘that the scripture might be fulfilled’
(common in the gospels to introduce Old Testament quotations) to
introduce a quotation of Revelation 22: 11.’
At the same time as this letter was sent to Asia, another letter was
sent to Eleutherus, the bishop of Rome, to acquaint him and his
’ The letter is reproduced in Eusebius, His:. EccL. 5.1.3 -2.7.
’ In Eusebius, Hist. Ecci. 5.1.58.
170
followers with the sufferings of the Gaulish churches. The letter for
Rome was entrusted to Irenaeus, a presbyter in the church of Lyon,
described by the senderi as ‘zealous for the covenant of Christ’. 3
Irenaeus was born and brought up in the province of Asia. In his
youth he came under the influence of Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, and
ever remembered with gratitude the instruction which he (with
others) had received from him, including his reminiscences of contacts
‘with John and with the others who had seen the Lord’.4 Later he
emigrated to the Rhdne valley. One of the martyrs who died in the
persecution of 177 was Pothinus, the nonagenarian bishop of Lyon.
When the church of Lyon had time to recover somewhat after the
persecution, Irenaeus was elected as bishop in place of Pothinus.
Of Irenaeus’s literary works two have survived. The major one is
usually called Against Heresies, comprising five books; his own title for
it was An Exposure and Refutation of the Knowledge (gnosis) that is Falsely
So Called. ’ The original Greek has been lost for the most part: the work
has been preserved in a Latin translation of the fourth century and, so
far as the fourth and fifth books are concerned, in an Armenian
translation. His other surviving work, The Demonstration of the Apostolic
Preaching, is shorter; it has been described as a manual of Christian
evidences or an outline of the plan of salvation. It has been preserved in
an Armenian translation. 6
Irenaeus is the principal spokesman of the catholic response to
Gnosticism and other second-century deviations. He was well placed
to fill this r6le because of his links with widely separated areas of the
Christian world. The gnostic schools maintained that it was they who
best preserved the original teaching of the apostles; some of them
claimed that the apostles’ more esoteric teaching had been delivered
privately to selected disciples who were worthy or gifted enough to
receive it. 7 Irenaeus set himself to examine such claims and to establish
the content of the genuine apostolic tradition. This tradition was
maintained in living power, he argued, in those churches which were
’ Eusebius, Hist. Err/. 5.4.
4 Irenaeus, ‘Letter to Florinus’, in Eusebius, Hist. Ecck 5.20.4-8.
s The best edition of this work is by W. W. Harvey, Sancti Irenaei Libras Quinque
advewx Haerw, 2 ~01s. (Cambridge, 1857, reprinted Ridgewood, N. J., 1965).
There is an English translation in ANF I (Grand Rapids, 1956), pp.309-567. (The
ANF divisions, going back to Massuer , 17 12, are followed in the references below.)
6 There is a good English edition by J. A. Robinson (London, 1920).
’ Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 3.3.1.
‘7’
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
founded by apostles and in which there had been a regular succession of
bishops or elders since their foundation;’ it was summed up in those
churches’ rule of faith or baptismal creed.’ The doctrine maintained in
such a church in Irenaeus’s day might be assumed to be that which was
first taught by the apostolic founder or founders, and transmitted
through an unbroken succession of bishops. The burden of proof lay on
those who argued that the doctrine had been changed in the course of
transmission between the date of foundation and the time at which
Irenaeus wrote. Moreover, the faith confessed in the churches founded
by apostles was confessed in other churches of later foundation
throughout the world: ‘the churches planted in Germany have not
believed or handed down anything different, nor yet the churches
among the Iberians or the Celts, nor those in the east, nor yet in Egypt
and Libya, nor those established in the centre of the world.“’
This account of the matter depended on certain presuppositions,
some of which Irenaeus declared, while he was perhaps not wholly
conscious of others. The Holy Spirit, he declared, gave the apostles
perfect knowledge; they received no secret knowledge and delivered
no secret tradition. With the churches which they founded they
deposited everything that pertains to saving truth, and from these
churches it must be learned-the more securely because of the
complete and continuous succession of bishops in these churches. ” He
assumed that all the apostles were unanimous in their teaching. It is
plain, however, from the New Testament that while (say) Paul, Peter
and James were agreed on the basic facts of the gospel (1 Cot. 15: 1 l),
there were differences among them on the practical implications of
those facts. But whatever differences there were, they were resolved in
a second-century synthesis, and to Irenaeus this synthesis was the
apostolic tradition.
IRENAEUS,
HIPPOLYTLJS,
NOVATIAN
In all Irenaeus’s argument, moreover, scripture plays a dominant
part. It is the abiding witness to the one living and true God, ‘whom
the law announces, whom the prophets proclaim, whom Christ reveals,
whom the apostles teach, whom the church believes’.” Irenaeus is
well able to distinguish ‘the writings of truth’ from ‘the multitude of
apocryphal and spurious writings’. l3 The Old Testament writings are
indispensable witnesses to the history of salvation; the Septuagint
version was divinely inspired,14 the writings which we call the
Apocrypha being evidently invested with the same authority as those
translated from the Hebrew Bible. ls As for the New Testament, Hans
von Campenhausen describes ‘the critical period between Marcion and
Irenaeus’ as ‘the period in which the “New Testament” as such
emerged’. I6 Irenaeus nowhere in his extant writings sets down a list of
New Testament books, but it is evident that he had a clear notion of
their identity. He makes free use of the phraseology about ‘old
covenant’ and ‘new covenant’, ” but does not yet use the latter
expression to denote the collection of authoritative writings thrown
up by the new covenant, as Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian of
Carthage were soon to do. ” The collection itself, however, was a
reality to him. In using the scriptures to expose and refute subversive
teaching, it was important to know which scriptures might effectively
be so used, I9 and he knew them, and used them.
There is one place where Eusebius undertakes to reproduce Irenaeus’s
testimony to the traditions which he had received about the
scriptures. 2o First he quotes his account of the origins of the four
gospels; then he quotes his discussion of the number of the beast in
Revelation 13: 18,2’ and his remark that John saw his revelation ‘not a
long time ago, but almost in our own generation towards the end of
Domitian’s rule’. 22 Eusebius adds that Irenaeus makes many quotations
from 1 John, and also from 1 Peter. Then he points out that Irenaeus
* Heretics might appeal to the text of scripture, but their interpretation was
vitiated because it did not accord with the rule of faith-the summary of Christian
teaching handed down in the apostolic tradition (Against Heresies, 1.3.6).
9 The baptismal creed, based on the confessional response of candidates for baptism,
was different in origin from the rule of faith, but ‘they came in time to interpenetrate
each other, until from the fourth century onward the ecumenical creed supersedes the
appeal to the ruleoffaith’ (F. F. Bruce, TraditionOldandNew[Exeter, 19701, p. 116).
“’ Agaimt Heresies, 1.10.2. Elsewhere Irenaeus points out that, even when the
tradition is unwritten, ‘many barbarian nations which believe in Christ’ assent to it,
‘having [the way ofl salvation written in their hearts through the Spirit’ (3.4.2).
Compare the testimony of Hegesippus quoted on p. 123 above.
” Against Her&r, 3. 1-4.
and the quotation from 1 Baruch 4:36-5:9 (5.35.1).
i6 The Formation of the Christian Bible E.T. (London, 1972), p.37.
i’ Cf Against Heresies, 4.32.1.
‘a See pp. 180, 188.
I9 Against Hwesies, 3, preface.
“’ Eusebius, Hut. Err/. 5.8. 1-8.
” Against Hwesies, 5.30.1.
” A Kainst Heresies, 5.30.3, quoted also in Hist. Err(. 3.18.2f. If Irenaeus was born
CAD 130, ‘almost in our own generation’ means ‘in the generation before mine’.
172
173
I2 Against Heresies, 2.30.9.
” Against Heresies, 1.20.1.
‘4 Against Hwesies, 3.2 1.2.
” As in the use made of the story of Susanna and the elders (Against Heresies 4.26.3)
T H E C A N O N O F SCRIPTURE
the Shepherd of Hermas as ‘scripture’23 and quoted the book of
Wisdom, and also that he referred to Justin Martyr,24 Ignatius*’ and a
certain unnamed ‘apostolic presbyter’. 26 It is not suggested that the
three last writers were accorded scriptural status.
If none of Irenaeus’s writings had survived, one could imagine some
readers of this passage in Eusebius arguing from it that Irenaeus did
not receive as scripture either the Acts of the Apostles or the letters of
Paul. Such an argument would overlook what Bishop Lightfoot, in
another connexion, called ‘the silence of Eusebius’. To those who
argued in his day that Papias said nothing about the gospels apart from
what is said in the few extracts from his work that Eusebius reproduces,
Lightfoot pointed out that Eusebius is concerned to quote the testimony borne by earlier writers to the ‘disputed’ books; as for the
acknowledged books, he takes them for granted, pausing only to
mention any anecdotes or other points of interest occurring in those
writers’ treatment of them.*’ So here, Eusebius says nothing of
Irenaeus’s well attested use of Acts and the Pauline letters, but thinks
his remarks on the origins of the four gospels sufficiently interesting to
quote:
cited
Matthew published among the Hebrews a gospel in writing also
[i.e. in addition to the oral preaching] in their own speech,
while Peter and Paul were preaching the gospel and founding
the church in Rome. After their death Mark in his turn, Peter’s
disciple and interpreter, delivered to us in writing the contents
of Peter’s preaching. Luke also, the follower of Paul, set down in
a book the gospel preached by him [i.e. by Paul]. Then John,
the disciple of the Lord, the one who leaned back on his bosom,
gave forth his gospel while he was living at Ephesus in Asia.**
23 Against Her&s, 4.20.2 (quoting Mandate 1). In introducing Hermas’s words as
‘the scripture’, Irenaeus does not imply apostolic scripture.
L4 He quotes from Justin’s treatise Aguinst Mar&n in Against Heresies, 4.6.2.
*’ He quotes Ignatius, To the Remans 4.1, in Against Heresies, 5.28.4.
*6 Perhaps the ‘apostolic presbyter’ was Clement of Rome (believed to be a disciple
of apostles), to whose letter (called scripturu in the sense of ‘writing’) various allusions
are made in Against Heresies, 3.3.3.
” See J. B. Lightfoot, ‘The Silence of Eusebius’, Er~ays on the Work Entitled
‘St~prrnaturalReligion’ (London, 1889). pp.32-58.
” Against HrreJirc, 3.1.1, quoted by Eusebius, Hi.@. Err/. 5.8.2-4. See J. Chapman,
‘St Irenaeus on the Date of the Gospels’,JTS 6 (1904-5), pp.563-569.
‘74
IRENAEUS,
HIPPOLYTUS,
NOVATIAN
There is another passage where Irenaeus expresses himself in often
repeated words on the fourfold structure of the gospel record:
As there are four quarters of the world in which we live, and four
universal winds, and as the church is dispersed over all the
earth, and the gospel is the pillar and base of the church, and the
breath of life, so it is natural that it should have four pillars,
breathing immortality from every quarter and kindling human
life anew. Whence it is manifest that the Word, the architect of
all things, who sits upon the cherubim29 and holds all things
together, having been manifested to mankind, has given us the
gospel in fourfold form, but held together by one Spitit.
. . . Therefore they are guilty of vanity and ignorance, and of
audacity also, who reject the form of the gospel and introduce
either more or fewer faces of the gospels-in the former case, so
that they should have the reputation of having discovered more
than the truth, in rhe latter case, so that they should reject the
dispensations of God.”
In his warning against either increasing or reducing the number of
gospels Irenaeus may have in mind those who gave some degreee of
credence to the more recent gnostic gospels or, on the other hand,
people like Gaius of Rome and the Alogoi who at that very time were
repudiating the Gospel of John. 3’ But the general impression given by
his words is that the fourfold pattern of the gospel was by this time no
innovation but so widely accepted that he can stress its cosmic
appropriateness as though it were one of the facts of nature. 32
Irenaeus uses both the singular ‘gospel’ and the plural ‘gospels’ to
designate the fourfold record, but his preference seems to be for the
singular. 33 It is the mark of heresy, he says, to concentrate on one of
the four to the virtual exclusion of the others, as the Valentinians,
according to him, concentrated on the Gospel of John.34 All four were
inspired by the same Spirit as spoke through the prophets. This
29 CfPs. 80: 1 (LXX 79:2). Irenaeus goes on to relate the four gospels to the faces of
the four living creatures of Ezek. 1:lO and Rev. 4:7-a lion (John), a calf (Luke), a
man (Matthew), an eagle (Mark).
” AgaznJt Heresies, 3.11.8.
” It is their repudiation of John that is probably referred to in Against Hrresies.
3.11.9.Seepp.168f.
inspiration extended to the choice of one word rather than another: if
Matthew 1:lg says ‘the birth of Christ took place in this way’ (as
Irenaeus evidently found it in his copy) and not ‘the birth ofJesus took
place in this way’, that is because the Spirit, foreseeing (as the
evangelist himself did not) the rise of heretics who would admit that
Jesus was born of Mary but maintain that Christ descended on him from
heaven at his baptism, refuted them in advance by affirming that
Christ was born of Mary. 35
As for the Acts of the Apostles, it stands or falls with the Gospel of
Luke; that is to say, it stands. Irenaeus appeals to Acts in refutation of
the Ebionites who refuse to recognize the apostleship of Paul? he
appeals to it equally in refutation of the Marcionites who refuse to
recognize any apostle other than Paul. 37 He does not list the letters of
Paul, but he evidently accepted the whole corpus of thirteen letters
(the Pastorals included); the only letter he does not mention is the
short letter to Philemon, which he had no occasion to cite. There is a
probable quotation from Hebrews 1:3 in the third book Against
Heresies, where God is said to have created all things ‘by the word of his
power ’ .38 Eusebius speaks of a ‘book of various discourses’ by Irenaeus
in which he mentions Hebrews and quotes some passages from it,39
but there is no suggestion that he regarded it as Pauline; indeed, a
sixth-century writer named Stephen Gobarus says that (like Hippolytus
shortly afterwards) he denied its Pauline authorship.40
By contrast with the Pauline corpus, Irenaeus makes little appeal to
the catholic epistles. He knows 1 Peter as the work of the apostle
Peter; twice he quotes 1 Peter 19 (‘without having seen him, you love
him. . . ‘). 4’ He quotes 1 and 2 John as the work of John the evangelist,
‘the disciple of the Lord ’ .42 There is one fairly clear quotation of James
2:23 (‘he [Abraham] believed God, and it was reckoned to him as
righteousness; and he was called the friend of God’),43 but its source is
St, Against Heresies, 3.15.1.
” Against Heresies, 3.16.2.
” Against Heresies, 3.13.1-14.4.
” Against Hermes, 2.30.9.
HIPPOLYTUS, N O V A T I A N
IRENAEUS,
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
!
not given, nor is any reference made to James. The Apocalypse is
quoted frequently towards the end of the treatise Against Heresies as the
basis of the eschatology held by Irenaeus and many of his predecessors
and contemporaries;44 it is ascribed to ‘John the disciple of the Lord’,
and treated as a genuine prophecy, in keeping with its own claim
(Rev. 1:3; 22:7, 10, 18, 19).45 But when, in a discussion of John’s
eschatological teaching, ‘the apostle’ is quoted, the reference is to
Paul, ‘the apostle’ par excellence. 46
Irenaeus, in fact, recognized and appealed to the same collection of
Christian writings as is listed in the Muratorian fragment, except that
he included 1 Peter, which is not mentioned there. If the Muratorian
list is of Roman origin, it may have been during one of his earlier visits
to Rome that Irenaeus became acquainted with the contents of the
‘New Testament’ scriptures acknowledged in the church of the
capitaL4’ Perhaps we should be warned against calling it a ‘closed’
canon by the very fact that it was later added to;48 but it was envisaged
as a coherent co+zr, comprising twenty-two books-all the books of
the final New Testament, indeed, except Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 3
John and Jude.
The Old and New Testaments together provided Irenaeus with a
broad and secure foundation not only for the negative purpose of
refuting heresy but even more for the positive exposition of what has
been called ‘the biblical theology of St Irenaeus’.49 From his time on,
the whole church in east and west has acknowledged the New
Testament collection as making up, together with the Old Testament,
the Christian Bible.
HIPPOLYTUS
Hippolytus of Rome (c 170-235), the last significant figure in the
Roman church to write in Greek, was the greatest scholar of his age in
44 Against Heresies, 5.26-36.
” Hut. Ed. 5.26. In the same work Wisdom was also cited (seep. 174).
‘a Quoted by Photius, Bibhotheca, 232.
41 Against Heresies, 4.9.2; 5.7.2. In4.16.5, 1 Pet. 2:16isquotedandascribedto
Peter. Elsewhere there are unascribed quotations from the same letters: Irenaeus seems
to be specially fond of quoting 1 Pet. 1: 12, ‘things into which angels long to look’
(A~ainstHernin, 2.17.9;4.34.1;5.36.2).
” 1 John 2:18-22 is quoted in part in Agavst Heresie.r. 3.16.4; 1 John 4:1-s in
3.16.7; I John5:1in3.16.8;2John7fin3.16.7;2John11in1.16.3.
” Agamt Hertwe~, 4. 16.2.
4S AgainstHeresies, 4.20.11; 5.26.1.
46 AgainstHwesies, 5.30.2; 5.36.2, 3.
47 For the part of the Roman church in the fixing of the collection see A. van
Harnack, The Origin of the New Testament, E.T. (London, 1925), pp. 104-106; E. J.
Goodspeed, The Formation o/the New Testament (Chicago, 1926), pp.67-77.
48 H. van Campenhausen says that to ascribe to Irenaeus the idea of a closed canon,
‘to which nothing may be added and from which nothing is to be deleted’, is to extend
to the whole New Testament what he says about the fourfold gospel (The Form&on of
the Chrrsttan Bible, p.209, n.207).
49 Cf J. Lawson, The Bddicai Theology of Saint Irenaeus (London, 1948).
176
‘77
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
the west (though neither in scholarly depth nor in intellectual power
could he match his younger contemporary Origen in the east).” He
was for a short time bishop of a dissident group in the Roman church
(the first antipope, one might say), but died in communion with the
bishop of Rome in Sardinia, to which both of them were exiled; he has
been venerated as a saint and martyr. His works include a Refutation of
all heresies in ten books, a manual of the church order (the Apostolic
Tradition), a commentary on Daniel in four books (the earliest orthodox
commentary on any biblical book)” and other exegetical works. An
incomplete list of his writings preserved on the back of his statue in
Rome (rediscovered in 15 5 1 and now in the Vatican Library) mentions
one On the Gospel of Jo h n and the Apocalypse, possibly identical with his
Chapters against Gains (referred to by the Syrian writer Ebedjesu, c
1300), of which some Syriac fragments survive; this work evidently
defended the apostolic authorship of the Gospel and Apocalypse of
John against the anti-Montanist Gaius of Rome and the Alogoi.52 Had
the eccentric views of Gaius and the Alogoi been more influential than
in fact they were, this work of Hippolytus might have played an
important part in the history of the New Testament canon.
As it is, Hippolytus no more than Irenaeus has left us a list of New
Testament books. But he evidently placed most of them on the same
level of authority as the books of the Old Testament: he refers to ‘all
scripture’ as comprising ‘the prophets, the Lord, and the apostles’.s3
He knows Hebrews and quotes it, but not as scripture; he also appears
to know (if only slightly) James, 2 Peter and Jude. He quotes on
occasion some other early Christian works which in the event did not
gain canonical status, such as the Shepherd of Hermas, the Did& and
the Letter of Barnabas, but he does not treat them as scripture.
‘” Origen heard Hippolytus preach in Rome about 2 12; in the course ofhis sermon
Hippolytus referred to Origen’s presence in the congregation (Jerome, On Il/~~frious
Mm, 61).
” Written apparently about 204.
” In his Commentary on the Apocalypse Dionysius bar glibi (died 117 1) refers
repeatedly to Gaius and to Hippolytus’s refutation of him. Bar glibi (on Rev. 8: 18,
etc.) calls Gaius a heretic because of his rejection of the Apocalypse and the Fourth
Gospel. But Gaius and the A/qw appear to have been orthodox in all other respects.
Seep. 168.
5’ CorlIrwItq IIN ncrnrrl. 4.49.
17%
IRENAEUS,
HIPPOLYTUS,
NOVATIAN
NOVATIAN
The first substantial work in Latin to come from a Roman Christian is
the treatise On the Trinity by Novatian, written about 250, or a little
earlier. 54 Like Hippolytus, he was an antipope: the puritan fellowship
which followed him became known, after his own name, as the
Novatians.
Novatian appeals to what he calls the ‘rule of truth’ (regula veritatis),
which is the summary of scriptural teaching. He quotes freely from
the Gospels (especially John) and the letters of Paul in support of his
arguments, manifestly assigning to them the same authority as the
Old Testament writings which he similarly quotes. However, we
learn nothing from him about the history of the canon which we do not
know from other sources.
s4 Translated in ANF V, pp.61 l-644.
TERTULLIAN,
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
TERTULLIAN, CYPRIAN
AND OTHERS
TERTULLIAN
Tertullian of Carthage takes his place at the head of a distinguished
series of Christian theologians who wrote in Latin. ’ His writings
belong to the period AD 196-212; around the year 206 he became a
Montanist. It is in his writings that we first find the designation ‘New
Testament’ for the second part of the Christian Bible.
When Melito of Sardis spoke of ‘the books of the old covenant’,’ the
expression might be taken to imply the existence of books of the new
covenant, but not necessarily so. The ‘old covenant’ certainly implies a
‘new covenant’, and vice versa (cf Heb. 8: 13), but the existence of books
of the old covenant does not demand the existence of books of the new
covenant. Paul, in 2 Corinthians 3: 14, speaks of ‘the reading of the old
covenant’, meaning the reading of the law in the synagogue services,
but while he speaks in the same context of the new covenant which
supersedes the old, there can be at that stage no ‘reading of the new
covenant’, except in so far as the law and the prophets can be read in
the light of their fulfilment in the gospel. Paul indeed contrasts the
written text of the old covenant with the unwritten form of the new
’ See T. D. Barnes, ?‘rrtrr&an: A Hi~torzcaiand Literary Study (Oxford, 197 1).
’ Seep.71.
180
CYPRIAN
AND
OTHERS
covenant: ‘the letter kills; the Spirit gives life’ (2 Cor. 3:6).3
But before long, as Harnack pointed out, in place of the divinely
cancelled ‘handwriting which was against us with its legal demands’
(Col. 2: 14),4 ‘there must be a new handwriting which is for us’.’ It was
inevitable, as the eyewitnesses and their hearers passed away, that the
terms of the new covenant should be set down in writing. Occasional
as his letters might be, Paul himself took the lead in this activity even
in the lifetime of eyewitnesses.
The Greek word diathka, ‘covenant’, can denote a settlement of
various kinds. Occasionally (as in Gal. 3: 15 and Heb. 9: lbf:) it means
a last will and testament, a document which does not come into effect
until its signatory has died. When the word was translated into Latin,
it had to be decided which Latin word best represented the meaning of
the Greek. The Latin vocabulary is not deficient in legal terminology.
Tertullian uses two Latin words to represent Gk. diath?k?instrumenturn, a ‘deed’ or other properly drafted legal document, and
testamenturn, a ‘testament’ or ‘wi11’.6 He uses these words to denote not
only the old and new covenants, but also the two bodies of literature
associated with them. He himself may have preferred the term
instrumenturn (he is commonly thought to have been a jurist by
profession),’ but he implies that the term testamenturn was more
commonly in use among Latin-speaking Christians. Thus, when
speaking of Marcion’s Antitheses, he says that it set up two separate
Gods, ‘one belonging to one instrumenturn (or, as it is more usual to say,
testamenturn) and one to the other’. a It is mainly because of Tertullian’s
use of testamenturn in this sense that we speak in English of the Old
Testament and the New Testament, although neither of these bodies
of literature is in any real sense a will.
Since Tertullian recognized the New Testament as a collection of
3 The ‘letter’ is the Mosaic law, which sentences the law-breaker to death (Num.
15:3Of.; Deut. 17: l-6; 27:26); the ‘Spirit’ in the gospel promises forgiveness and life
to the sinner.
4 The ‘handwriting’ (RSV ‘bond’) of Cal. 2:14 may be the law-breaker’s signed
acknowledgment of indebtedness, cancelled by the redemptive work of Christ on the
cross.
’ A. Harnack, The Orzgin ofthe New Testament, E.T. (London, 1925), p. 13.
6 He also uses, with regard to the Old or New Testament collection, armarium
(‘bookcase’) andpararura (‘equipment’).
’ T. D. Barnes casts doubt on this (Tertulian, pp.22-29).
’ Agarmt Mar&n 4.1. In AKain.rf Praxeas I5 he uses both terms in one phrase: ‘the
whole uutwmentum of both tesfamenta’.
181
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
T E R T U L L I A N , CYPRIAN AND OTHERS
books, he may be expected to have had a fairly clear idea which books
it contained. He did not use the word ‘canon’, but approved of the idea
which ‘canon’ later came to express. When he charged Valentinus
with misinterpreting the instrumenturn (i.e. the New Testament) and
Marcion with mutilating it,9 he knew exactly what he meant by the
instrument&m. Although he nowhere formally enumerates its contents,
it certainly comprised the four gospels and Acts, the thirteen epistles
which bear Paul’s name, 1 Peter, 1 John and Revelation (which he
ascribes to John the apostle). i” It also included the epistle of Jude,
which he ascribes to the apostle of that name. ”
The reason for his very positive evaluation of Jude is interesting. In
his treatise On Women’s Dress he approves the notion that female finery
was first introduced on earth by the fallen angels (the ‘sons of Cod’) as a
device for the seduction of the ‘daughters of men’ (Gen. 6:2-4). ‘*
This notion was given expression in the first part of the pseudepigraphic book of Enoch (a composite work of the last century BC and
first century AD). i3 In Tertullian’s eyes, a book containing such
wholesome doctrine should not have been left out of the arsenal of
sacred (Old Testament) books. (Perhaps, he suggests, it was rejected
because people did not believe that an antediluvian book could have
survived the deluge, or because its clear proclamation of Christ was
resented.)i4 Tertullian found his good opinion of the book of Enoch
confirmed by Jude’s treatment of it as a genuine prophecy of ‘Enoch,
the seventh from Adam’ (Jude 14f.). is
Of the remaining catholic epistles (James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John)
Tertullian has nothing to say; we cannot tell whether he knew them or
not. But of Hebrews he has something quite interesting to say. It had
not come down to him as one of the New Testament books, and he
himself had no authority to add it to the list; but in his judgment it
was worthy to be ranked with the apostolic writings. He regarded it as
the work of Barnabas, a man who ‘learned his doctrine from apostles
and taught it with apostles’. I6 He compared it, to its great advantage,
with the Shephrd of Hermas, a work highly esteemed by many readers
in the church of those days and treated by some as inspired scripture. ”
But Tertullian had no time for the Shepherd. He was an ethical rigorist,
especially in his later years after he had joined the Montanists, and he
deplored the laxity of the Shepherd’s moral teaching.
Hermas tells, at the beginning of the Shepherd, how he committed,
or thought himself to have committed, the sin of ‘adultery in the
heart’ against which Jesus uttered a warning in the Sermon on the
Mount (Mt. 5:28). I8 His conscience was burdened about this: he
wondered if there was any forgiveness for a sin committed after
baptism. It was revealed to him that for post-baptismal sin there was
indeed forgiveness, but for one such sin only-no more. I9 Tertullian
repudiated entirely this concession to human weakness and stigmatized
the book as ‘the Shepherd of the adulterers’; he recommended rather the
teaching of Hebrews 6:4-6, according to which it was impossible for
those once enlightened to be ‘renewed again to repentance’ if they fell
by the way. (It is most probable that the writer to the Hebrews had the
sin of apostasy in mind,” but Tertullian thought primarily of sexual
sin.)
9 seep. 145.
” E.g. in Against Marcion 3.14: ‘the apostle John in the Apocalypse describes a
two-edged sword proceeding from the mouth of God.’
” On Won~en’~Drrss, 1.3. Seep.85 above.
I2 On Wornen’s Dress, 1.2.
” What is commonly called 1 Enoch (extant in its entirety only in Ethiopic)
comprises five main compositions. Perhaps only the first of these (1 Enoch l-36) was
known to Tertullian (most of it survives in Greek; the original language was evidently
Aramaic). But see p.86.
I4 Its clear proclamation of Christ is probably its announcement of the coming of
the Lord with his holy myriads (1 Enoch 1:9), as quoted and interpreted in Jude 14f.
See p. 5 1 above.
” On the other hand, Jerome says that Jude was widely rejected because of its
quoting from 1 Enoch (On lhtriow Mm, 4).
182
THE SCILLITAN MARTYRS
By Tertullian’s time a good part of the New Testament (and probably
of the Old Testament too) circulated among the churches of North
Africa in a Latin translation (one of the Old Latin versions, to use the
term applied to all Latin biblical translations before Jerome’s Vulgate
gained the ascendancy). On July 17, AD 180, a group of Christians
from the North African town of Scillium were brought before the
provincial governor and charged with being Christians. The governor
reasoned with them and tried to make them see and acknowledge the
error of their ways, but they proved obstinate and were accordingly led
off to execution. In the course of the enquiry a box, the property of the
I’ Seep. 166.
I6 On Mo&sty, 20.
‘s Hermas, Shephrrc/. Vision 1.1,
I’) Hermas, Shrphrrd, Vision 2.2
” As RSV says explicitly, ‘if they then commit apostasy’ (Heb. 6:6).
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
TERTULLIAN,
church, was brought into court. On being asked what the box contained, the defendants replied, ‘Books, and the writings of Paul, a just
man.‘*l From this we gather that among the portions of scripture and
other literature in the library of a small provincial church was a
collection of Paul’s letters, presumably in aLatin version. (The Roman
province of Africa was the first area in which a Latin version of the New
Testament was required; the church in Rome itselfwas Greek-speaking
until the end of the second century, and indeed later.)
C Y P R I A N AN11 O T H E R S
Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude). Neither does he cite Hebrews, but he
echoes its opening words at the beginning of his treatise On the Lord’s
Prayer: ‘God willed many things to be said and heard through his
servants the prophets, but how much greater are those spoken by the
Son!‘27 Like other western Christians of his age, he probably knew
Hebrews but did not regard it as scripture. As for the Apocalypse, he
manifests a marked predilection for it, quoting it frequently as a
source-book for Christology and for the blessings of martyrdom; he
has no doubt that it is ‘divine scripture’. **
CYPRIAN
AGAINST DICE-PLAYERS
Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus was born to pagan parents early in the
third century. He was educated in rhetoric at Carthage, and was
converted to Christianity about 246. Such were his qualities that, two
years later, he was elected bishop of Carthage, and occupied the see
with distinction until his martyrdom in 258. He was a fluent writer,
and shows a ready acquaintance with the Latin Bible and with the
writings of Tertullian, to whom he refers as ‘the teacher’ (magi.r~er).**
It is plain that by Cyprian’s day there existed a fairly complete Bible
in the Old Latin version for him to memorize and cite as occasion
required. His New Testament comprised four gospels,23 Acts, Paul’s
letters to seven churches24 and to Timothy and Titus,*’ 1 Peter, 1
John and the Apocalypse. These writings, like the prophetic scriptures
of the Old Testament, were the product of divine inspiration.*‘j He
nowhere cites Philemon (probably because he had no occasion to refer
to such a short book) nor the five disputed catholic epistles (James, 2
Among the works of Cyprian there has been transmitted a Latin
homily Against Dice-Players. It is not his; from the note of authority
which is evident in it the author may have been, like Cyprian, a bishop
in North Africa, but perhaps a generation or so later. He expresses
himself eloquently and vigorously in his attack on gambling, which he
thinks excites the wildest passions: gambling is sheer idolatry, and the
gambler, even if he has been baptized, cannot be acknowledged as a
Christian. For our purpose the interest of the little work lies in its free
quotation of scripture, especially from the New Testament (the quotations are introduced by such words as ‘the Lord says’, ‘the apostle says’,
‘scripture says’). Even the Shepherd of Hermas is cited as ‘divine
scripture’, 29 and an allusion to one or two passages from the Didach
(cited not as scripture but as the Teachings of the Apostles) is introduced
among apostolic quotations.30 But a preacher may allow himself greater
liberty in such matters than the author of a theological treatise: even
today, a British preacher may quote Shakespeare or Burns as well as
the Bible, but if he is careful he will not let his hearers go away with
the idea that the non-biblical quotations carry canonical authority.
r’ ‘Acts of the Scillitan Martyrs’, appended to The Passion of St Perptua, ed. J. A.
Robinson, TS 1.2 (Cambridge, 1891).
” See M. A. Fahey, Cypvian andtbe Bible: A Study in Third-Centwy ExegeG, BGBH
9 (Tubingen, 197 1).
*’ In Epistle 73.10 he compares the four gospels to the four rivers of Paradise (Gen.
2: 10).
I4 Tehmnies, 1.20, where he links Paul’s letters to seven churches (overlooking the
fact that Galatians was sent to several churches) with John’s letters to seven churches
(dthe Muratorian list, p. 164); To Fortmatus, 11, where Paul’s letters and John’s find
their place in a more elaborate array of sevens.
*li In quoting Tit. 3:10, where a heretic is to be admonished ‘once or twice’,
Cyprian (Epistle 59.20; TeGimonia 3.78) omits ‘or twice’ (as also do Ambrosiaster and
Augustine).
” E.g. On fhr .L+ed, 7: the prophets of old and the apostles subsequenrly
‘preached, being full of the Holy Spirit.’
” Epistle 63.12.
*’ On the Lord’s Prayer, 1 (cfHeb. 1:lf.l.
29 Against Dice-Players, 2 (where Similitude 9.3 1.5 is quoted).
” Against Dice-Players, 4 (probably a memory quotation from Didache 4.14;
14.1-3).
f
THE ALEXANDRIAN FATHERS
as far
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
THE ALEXANDRIAN
FATHERS
CLEMENT
Clement of Alexandria was contemporary with Tertullian. He was not
a native of Alexandria (he was probably an Athenian by birth)’ but he
spent most of the last quarter of the second century there; he is
thought to have emigrated from Alexandria to Asia Minor when the
church of Alexandria was hard hit by persecution in AD 202. We know
nearly as little of the man himself, apart from his writings, as we know
of Tertullian; but what we do know shows clearly that he differed
widely from Tertullian in temperament and outlook. Tertullian was
uncompromising in the antithesis which he maintained between
Christianity and pagan culture: ‘What has Athens to do with
Jerusalem?’ he asked. * But Clement finds much good in Pagan culture,
as Justin Martyr did before him,3 and claims everything that is good
for Christ. In his journeys before he settled in Alexandria he had sat at
the feet of many teachers, but the teacher to whom he acknowledges
his greatest debt was Pantaenus, a convert to Christianity from
Stoicism, the founder of the catechetical school of Alexandria.4
Pantaenus himself had been no mean traveller: he is said to have gone
I Epiphanius (Pcmrrwn 32.6) mentions the tradition that he was an Athenian.
’ Tertullian, Pr~crrprb~, 7.
’ Seep. 129.
’ S~or~crkr.~, 1.1, quoted and interpreted by Eusebius, Hut. EL-C/. 5 1 1 1 - 5.
186
as India, where he found the Christian faith already planted, and
he had some knowledge of Indian culture.’
Clement’s surviving writings include the Protrepticus or Exhortation
(a call to the Greeks to accept the Christian faith), the Pedagogue (a
beginner’s handbook of Christian ethics and manners), a treatise on
Mark 10: 17-3 1 entitled The Salvation of a Rich Man, a volume of
Extracts from the Prophetic Scriptures, and eight volumes of Stromateis or
Miscellanies, a wide-ranging and discursive work undertaking to show
that Christian knowledge (gncsis) is superior to any other. He wrote
another work in eight volumes-his Hypotypiireis or Outlines, containing notes on various biblical books. This would have supplied
information more relevant to our present purpose than any of his other
works, but unfortunately it is lost, apart from the merest fragments.
Christianity was no doubt planted in Alexandria quite early, but we
know very little of its history in that city before the time of Pantaenus.
It has often been held that in its earlier days it was strongly influenced
by gnosticism. 6 A corrective to this view is provided by the evidence of
Christian papyri in Egypt in the first two centuries,’ but it is true that
‘in the second century the Gnostic movement found very fertile soil in
Egypt and left a deep mark even on the Church Catholic of Alexandria’.’
Clement himself had very much the gnostic cast of mind. According
to him the true Christian tradition consisted of the ‘knowledge’ which
the risen Christ delivered to James the Just, Peter and John; they in
turn delivered it to the other apostles, and these again to the seventy
disciples (cf Luke 10: l), of whom, says Clement, Barnabas was one.’
There is a secret knowledge which is reserved for those able to take it
in: ‘the wise do not utter with their mouths what they debate in
council.“’ He speaks of ‘the gnostic superstructure on the foundation
of faith in Christ Jesus’. ’ ’ But he differed from most of the gnostics of
the second century in that his gnasis was orthodox by the standard of
his day (exemplified, preeminently, by Irenaeus). Pantaenus expounded
5 Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 5.10.3.
6 So W. Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity (1934, E.T.
(Philadelphia, 1971), pp.44-60; A. A. T. Ehrhatdt, ‘Christianity before the
Apostles’ Creed’, in The Framework the New Testament Stories (Manchester, 1964),
pp. 174-179.
’ See C. H. Roberts, Manuscript, Society and Belief in Early Christian Egypt (London,
1979).
s H. Lietzmann, TbeBe@zin~softheChristianChurch, E.T. (London, 1949), p.98.
9 Hypotyposeis, 7, quoted by Eusebus, Hist. Eccl. 2.1.4.
” Strom. 1.12.
I’ Sfrom. 5.4. Seepp.302f. below.
of
187
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
the scriptures according to what was held to be the true tradition
received from the apostles, and Clement followed his teaching.
Clement was a true Christian humanist: he displays a wide catholicity
in the variety of authors whom he cites for his own purposes. If
Paul-both the Paul of the epistles and the Paul of Acts-could
quote pagan writers in this way, I2 why should not Clement follow his
example? He is specially prone to quote the ‘divinely-inspired’, the
‘truth-loving’ Plato, I3 finding in his philosophy adumbrations of
distinctively Christian teaching. Plato, he holds, wa practically a
prophet as he expounded the doctrine of the Trinity, salvation by the
cross of Christ, the institution of the Lord’s Day. I4 It is not that he
treats Plato as an authority on the level of the prophets or apostles, but
as he reads Plato through Christian spectacles he recognizes many
things in his writings that seem to foreshadow Christian truth, and he
concludes that Plato was in some measure enlightened by the Spirit of
God, where he was not dependent on Moses and the prophets. He can
even quote Plato alongside our Lord: ‘Many are called, but few are
chosen’ (Mt. 22: 14) is given as a companion saying Plato’s ‘Many are
the wand-bearers but few are the initiates.“’
In his reference to Christian writings Clement’s catholicity is
equally evident. He speaks of the two parts of the Christian Bible as
the Old Testament and the New Testament, l6 but has nothing to say
about the limits of the New Testament. He would probably have felt
the idea of ‘limits’ to the writings having apostolic authority to be too
restrictive: he at least does not use language about ‘neither adding nor
taking away’. ” When he speaks of ‘scripture’ or ‘the scriptures’ he
usually means the Old Testament writings. When he uses the term of
Christian writings, he usually means the gospels. Otherwise he is as
likely as not to use it of writings which never found a secure place
within the New Testament, such as the Didach. I8
‘* Cf1 Cor. 15:33 (Menander quoted); Acts 17:28 (Aratus and possibly Epimenides
quoted).
I3 Strom. 1.8 (‘the truth-loving Plato, as ifdivinely inspired, says.. .‘).
I4 Stvom. 5.14 (the Trinity adumbrated in Timaeus 41A, the cross of Christ in
Republic- 2.5.361E-362A, the Lord’s Day in Republic 10.14.616B).
I5 Plato, Phaedo 69C, a saying relating to the Eleusinian mysteries. Two similar
sayings, with a gnostic flavour, appear in rhe Gospei ofThomas 74, 75.
” Stvond. 1.9 (‘Testaments’); 3.11 (‘New Testament’); 4.21 (‘Old Testament’);
5.13 (‘Old and New Testament’). He stresses the inspiration of the LXX version of the
Old Testament (Stronr. 1.22).
IX Stron,. 1.20.
” see p.22.
188
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
FA T H E R S
The Old Testament was understood by him in a thoroughly
Christian sense: ‘faith in Christ and the knowledge of the gospel are
the exegesis and fulfilment of the law. ‘I9 The law, the prophets and the
gospel form a united authority. *’ The authentic gospel is fourfold.
According to Eusebius, Clement preserved in his Outhes ‘a tradition
of the primitive elders’ regarding the order of the gospels:
He said that those gospels were first written which contain the
genealogies [i.e. Matthew and Luke), but that the Gospel
according to Mark took shape as follows: Peter had publicly
proclaimed the word at Rome and told forth the gospel by the
Spirit. Then those present, who were many, besought Mark, as
one who had accompanied Peter for a long time and remembered
the things he had said, to make a written record of what he had
said. Mark did this, and shared his gospel with those who made
the request of him. When Peter came to know of it, he neither
vigorously forbade it nor advocated it. But John last of all (said
the tradition), aware that the ‘bodily’ facts had been set forth in
the [other) gospels, yielded to the exhortation of his friends and,
divinely carried along by the Spirit, composed a spiritual
gospel.”
The fourfold gospel was part of the tradition that Clement had
received, and its contents were specially authoritative for him, but he
had no objection to citing other gospel writings if it suited his
purpose. He knows, for example, that the Gospel according to the
Egyptians is not one of ‘the four gospels that have been handed down to
us ‘,‘* but he quotes it none the less, not once but four times.23 It was a
thoroughly gnostic composition, but Clement can take a gnostic
saying which it ascribes to Jesus and give it an ethical reinterpretation
which could give no offence to anybody. In the perfect state, according
to this saying, there will no more distinction of sex, since male and
female will be reunited in one androgynous person; but Clement
allegorizes this to mean the surmounting of naturally male and
naturally female impulses (he puts the same interpretation on Paul’s
‘neither male or female’ in Galatians 3:28--which reveals the quality
of his exegetical judgment.)24
2o Strom. 4.1, etc.
I9 Strom. 4.21.
2’ HyporyposeiJ, quoted by Eusebius, Hist. Ed. 6.14.5-7.
*3 Strom. 3.6.9 (twice), 13.
” Strom. 3.13.
24 See my JBI~J anJ Christtan Or&m wtsicle the Nm Tesrantrnt (London, ‘1984),
pp. 157f. Cfp.3 11 below.
189
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
The Acts of the Apostles, which Clement quotes repeatedly, he
knows to have been the work of Luke.” He acknowledges the ‘Apostle’,
that is the Pauline collection, including not only the Pastorals but also
(in accordance with the tradition of the church of Alexandria) Hebrews.
He quotes ‘the blessed presbyter’ (probably Pantaenus) to the effect
that Paul did not attach his own name to Hebrews because he was
apostle to the Gentiles only, whereas the Lord himself was apostle to
the Hebrews (cfHeb. 3: 1; Rom. 15:8).26 Clement reckoned that Paul
wrote the letter in the Hebrew speech and Luke published it in a Greek
translation for the benefit of Greek-speaking readers.”
This information comes from Clement’s lost Outlines, from one of
several extracts preserved by Eusebius. In this work, says Eusebius,
Clement gave concise accounts of all scripture contained in the Testaments, including such disputed writings as Jude and the other catholic
epistles, with the letter of Barnabas and the Apocalypse of Peter.”
Agording to Cassiodorus (6th century), the catholic epistles on which
Clement commented in his Outlines were 1 Peter, 1 and 2 John and
James (but James may be a corruption or a slip for Jude).29 1 John is
distinguished as John’s ‘larger epistle’.30
The earliest extant occurrence df the phrase ‘catholic epistle’ comes
in an anti-Montanist work by one Apollonius, in reference to a writer
named Themiso, who ‘dared, in imitation of the apostle, to compose a
“catholic epistle” for the instruction of those whose faith was better
than his own’.31 The apostle thus imitated was perhaps Peter.32
Clement himself refers to the apostolic letter of Acts 15:24-29 as a
‘catholic epistle’,33 possibly because it was addressed to more churches
than one (those in the united province of Syria-Cilicia, as well as the
metropolitan church of Antioch).
” E.g. Strom. 5.12 (‘as Luke in the Acts ofthe Apostles relates that Paul said. . .‘).
” Hypotyposeis, quoted by Eusebius, Hist. EccL 6.14.4.
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
FATHERS
Clement seems to have had no hesitation about the Apocalypse of
John. 34 He probably had a clear enough idea of what he meant by ‘the
truly sacred writings ‘35 in which believers are instructed by the Son of
God, but he refers with the utmost freedom to many documents
which he would perhaps not have included among these. A brief list of
works which he cites will illustrate his hospitality in this regard: they
include, in addition to some already mentioned (the Gospel according to
the Egyptians, the letter of ‘the apostle Barnabas’,36 the Apocalypse of
Peter), 37 the Gospel according to the Hebrews, 38 the letter of Clement of
Rome (who is actually called ‘the apostle Clement’),39 the Didah
(cited as ‘scripture’40), the Shepherd of Hermas,4’ the Preaching o f
Peter, 42 the Traditions of Matthias,43 the Sibylline Oracles. 44 He quotes
some agrupha4’ or uncanonical sayings of Jesus,46 and relates a few
apocryphal anecdotes of the apostles and their colleagues.”
Although he is not mentioned by name in any of the surviving
works of Origen, Clement was almost certainly a teacher of Origen
and exercised no little influence over him. Some time after Clement’s
departure, Origen was appointed to lead the catechetical school in
Alexandria. Clement accepted the tradition he had received with
regard to the contents of the two Testaments, but the question of
34 E.g.
Strom, 6.13, ‘as John says in the Apocalypse’ (quoting Rev. 4:4).
35 Strom. I .20, probably in reference to the ‘sacred writings’ (hiera ,yrummatai of 2
Tim. 3:15.
36 He is called ‘the apostle Barnabas’ in Stronr. 2.6.7 (4 2.20, where he is called ‘the
apostolic Barnabas’). The letter of Barnabas is quoted also in 2.16, 18; 5.10. See
p. 122.
3’ Clement ExtrartJ from thr Pvophtic ScriptureI, 4 1, 48, 49. See pp. 16 1, 26 1.
J* Strom. 2.;. 5.14 (practically the same saying appears in the Go@ofThon~a.~. 2). See
p.311.
’
39 Strom. 4.1i’;also 1.7;6.8,etc.Seepp.121,268.
4o
Seep. 194.
4’ Strom. 1.17, 29; 2.9; 4.9. See pp. 166, 194.
42 Strom. 2.15; 6.5, 6, 7, 15. Seep. 194.
44 Exhortation. 8; Strom. 3.3; 5.14. Old Testament pseudepigrapha quoted by
Clement include 1 Enoch (Extracts, 53; see p.85) and the AP~u&@ c)fZepbamrrh (Strom
” Hypotyposeis, quoted by Eusebius, Hist. Ecd. 6.14.2f.
** Hist. Err/. 6.14.1. Eusebius describes what were later called the ‘canonical’
writings as the ‘intestamented (endiatb?&os) scripture’, following the example ofOrigen
(in Hist. EccI. 6.25.1).
” Cassiodorus, Introduction to the Reading of Holy Scripture, 8.
j” Sworn. 2.15.
” Eusebius, HA. Eccl. 5.18.5.
” This could be the earliest known allusion to 2 Peter, if the reference to ‘those
whose faith was better than his own’ echoes ‘those who have obtained a faith of equal
standing with ours’ (2 Pet. 1:l).
zJ Sttwu. 4. 15 (cf Pedqogue. 7).
5.11.77). seep.75.
(Stmnr. 5.11.77). See p.000.
45 The term agrapha in this sense means not ‘unwritten’ but ‘uninscripturattdi.e. ‘not in (canonical) scripture’.
4o E.g. ‘Seek what is great, and the little things shall be added to you’ (Stmm.
1.24).
” E.g. the story of the apostle John and the reclaimed robber (Salzzrtion of& Rub
Man. 42, quoted by Eusebius, Hist. EK/. 3.23.5-19). See J. Ruwet, ‘Cl~menr
d’Alexandrie: Canon des Ecritures et Apocryphes’, Bib/u 29 (19481, pp.240-27 1.
190
191
THE
CANON
OF
THE
SCRIPTURE
‘canonicity’ does not appear to be one in which he was greatly
interested. Origen, however, a more disciplined thinker and more
thorough-going biblicist, who discharged his teaching duties with a
keen sense of responsibility, gave the question of ‘canonicity’ more
careful attention.48
ORIGEN
Origen ( AD 185-254) has not left in any one place a list of New
Testament books comparable to his list of Old Testament books
quoted above.49 Eusebius gathered from several of Origen’s works an
account of his position on the books of the New Testament-on the
gospels, from his commentary on Matthew; on the Pauline and
catholic epistles and the Apocalypse, from his exposition of John; on
Hebrews, from his homilies on that epistle.” That Origen did
recognize a New Testament collection alongside the Old Testament is
certain, although he expresses himself as if the use of the word
‘Testament’ (Gk. d&h& in this sense were fairly new in his circle: he
speaks of ‘what we believe to be the divine scriptures both of the Old
Testament, asqeople say, and of the the New [Testament), as it is
called’. ”
Origen distinguished the undisputed (or acknowledged) books of
the New Testament from those which were disputed (or doubtful).
The undisputed books were the four gospels and Acts, the Pauline
epistles, 1 Peter, 1 John and the Apocalypse. He does not appear to
mention the number of Pauline epistles, but shows by his references to
them throughout his works that he knew all thirteen-fourteen if
Hebrews be included. As a matter of form he followed the Alexandrian
tradition in regarding Hebrews as Pauline; but he recognized that the
writer had a better Greek style than Paul. The thoughts of the epistle
he found admirable, not inferior to those of Paul’s acknowledged
ALEXANDRIAN
FATHERS
letters: perhaps the thoughts were Paul’s, while the language was due
to one of his disciples (Clement of Rome, say, or Luke’*)-but ‘who
really wrote the epistle God only knows.‘53 Since, however, Origen
knew that some churches did not accept Hebrews, he classed it as
disputed.
Also disputed, according to Origen, were 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John,
James and Jude. Origen is the earliest Christian writer to mention 2
Peter; it does not appear to have been known much before his day.54
(The earliest manuscript to contain its text, along with the text of 1
Peter and Jude, is P12, which was probably copied in Origen’s lifetime.)
The uncertainty which he mentions with regard to 2 and 3 John was
probably due to their brevity, which led to their being easily overlooked.” (Their internal evidence makes it clear that they come from
the same circle, if not from the same individual author, as the Fourth
Gospel and 1 John.) There are several quotations from ‘the reputed
epistle of James ‘S in Origen’s works. In some of his works which
survive only in a Latin translation the author of the epistle is called ‘the
apostle’ and ‘the Lord’s brother’; but Origen’s Latin translator (Rufinus)
tended to conform his wording to the orthodoxy of his own time (c AD
400). As for the epistle of Jude, Origen says in his commentary on
Matthew that it was the work of the Lord’s brother of that name
(mentioned in Mt. 13:55): it ‘has but few lines, but is filled with the
words of heavenly grace’.” This probably turned the balance in its
of Tradttion (London, 1954); Allegory and Etant (London, 1959); J. W. Trigg,
Origen (London, 1985).
49 See p.72.
‘” Eusebius, Hirt. Ecrl. 6.25.3- 14. On the works oforigen from which Eusebms
compiled his data see R. P. C. Hanson, Orip’j Dorfrine of Tradition (London, 1954),
pp.133-145.
” On First Primples 4. 1, 1 = Phihuha 1. By ‘divine scriptures’ he means ‘divinely
inspired scripcures’.
” Whatever may be thought of Luke’s claims to be regarded as the writer to the
Hebrews, Clement of Rome cannot be seriously considered. Clement knows the epistle,
it is true, but he misunderstands it: worse than that, he ‘turns his back on its central
argument in order to buttress his own arguments about the Church’s Ministry by an
appeal to the ceremonial laws of the Old Testament’, thus making ‘a retrogression of the
worst kind’ (T. W. Manson, The Chwcb’s Minimy [London, 19481, pp. 13f.).
19481, pp.13f.).
s3 Eusebius, Hist. EccI. 6.25.14.
54 ‘Peter.. has left one acknowledged epistle, perhaps a second also, for it is
doubtful’ (in Eusebius, Hist. Erci. 6.25.8).
s5 John ‘has left also an epistle of very few lines, perhaps also a second and a third,
for not all agree that these are genuine. Only, both of them together are not a hundred
lines long’ (in Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 6.25.10). Alongside his distinction between
‘undisputed’ and ‘disputed’ books Origen uses the threefold classification ‘genuine’,
‘false’ and ‘mixed’, i.e. doubtful or disputed (Commentary on John, 13.17).
” Cnnrnrentary on John, 18.6.
s’ Comnientaty nn Mathw, 10.17. In the same comment he identities the J a m e s
mentioned in Mt. 13:55 with ‘James the Lord’s brother’ of Gal. 1:19, but says
nothing about the epistle of James.
192
193
4R SeeB. F. Westcott, ‘Origenes’, DCB IV, pp.96-142; R. P. C. Hanson, Origen’J
Doctrine
,,
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
favour in Origen’s eyes; elsewhere in the same commentary, however,
he indicates that it was not universally acknowledged.”
Origen thus mentions all twenty-seven books ofour New Testament;
twenty-one, he says, are acknowledged, and six are doubtful. But
among doubtful books he also reckons some which in the end did not
secure a place in the canon. Like Clement of Alexandria before him he
treats the Didach as scripture, and he calls the Letter of Barnabas a
‘catholic epistle’s9- a term which he also applies to 1 Peter.60 R. M.
Grant suggests that while he lived at Alexandria he accepted the more
comprehensive tradition of the church there and acknowledged the
Dida& and the Letter of Barnabas, together with the Shepherd of
Hermas, as scripture, but that after he moved to Caesarea and found
that these books were not accepted there he manifested greater reserve
towards them.6’ He knew 1 Clement but does not indicate if he
regarded it as scripture. He had doubts about the Preaching of Peter,
which Clement of Alexandria regarded highly.62 He refers to the
Gospel according to the HebrewF’ and the Acts of Pau164 without at first
either admitting or disputing their status as scripture; later, however,
he had doubts about the Acts of Paul. 6s
In a different category altogether from the acknowledged and
doubtful books are those which he calls ‘false’- not only because they
falsely claimed apostolic authorship (as some of them did) but more
especially because they taught false doctrine. Such are the Gospel
according to the Egyptians, the Gospel of the Twehe, the Gospel according to
Basilides, and other heretical Gospels and Acts. 66
‘a Commntuy on Matthew, 17.30: ‘and if indeed one were to accept the epistle of
Jude. .‘.
59 Against Ceh, 1.63.
" In Eusebius, Hirt. Err/. 6.25.5.
6’ R. M. Grant, The Formation ofthe New Testament (London, 1965), pp. 171f.
62 E.g. On First Principles 1, preface, 8: this work ‘is not reckoned among the
ecclesiastical books, and. . is neither by Peter nor by any one else who was inspired by
the Spirit of God.’
63 E.g. Conrmentay on John, 2.6, where he explains Jesus’ reference in the Gospel
according to the Hebrews (qfJerome, Commentary on Micah, 7.6) to ‘my mother, the Holy
Spirit’, not by the fact that ‘Spirit’ is a feminine noun in Jesus’ native language but by
Jesus’ statement in Mt. 12:50 that every one who does the will of the Father in heaven
is his mother.
64 On First Principles, 1.2.3. Seep.202.
‘s Comnlentuy on John, 20.12: ‘If any one cares to accept what is written in the Am
of Paul. ’
66 See J. Ruwet, ‘Les apocryphes dam I’oeuvre d’origene’, Bihh 23 (1942), pp. 1842, 24 (1943), pp. K-58, 25 (1944). pp. 143- 166.
‘94
T H E ALEXANDRIAN
FATHERS
Origen’s conviction that the contents of the Old and New
Testaments were, word for word, the product of the Spirit ofGod gave
him confidence in the validity of their allegorical interpretation: this
was the appropriate method of penetrating beyond the letter to the
mind of the Spirit. Even so, he believed he could distinguish levels of
revelation within the scriptures. The gospels, which record the fulfilment of all that the prophets had spoken, naturally present a more
complete record of revelation than was possible in the age before
Christ came. Even within the New Testament, the epistles, for all the
apostolic authority by which they were written, have a derivative
status as compared with the evangelic witness to the life and teaching
of him in whom ‘the perfect Word blossomed’.67 The Gospels are the
firstfruit of all the scriptures, as the Gospel of John is the firstfruit of
all the gospels6’ Moreover, Origen’s doctrine of inspiration and his
allegorizing method do not inhibit his bringing the whole of his
scholarly apparatus to bear on exegetical problems when occasion
arises. 69
DIONYSIUS
When Origen left Alexandria for Caesarea in AD 23 1, he was succeeded
as head of the catechetical school in Alexandria first by his colleague
Heraclas and then (after a year or two) by his former pupil Dionysius,
who became bishop of Alexandria in AD 247/S and remained in that
office until his death in 265. In the course of a treatise On Promises
Dionysius undertook to refute another Egyptian bishop, Nepos by
name, who attacked the allegorizing method of biblical interpretation,
especially with regard to the Apocalypse. Nepos himself understood
the Apocalypse, and particularly the millennial reign of the resurrected
saints in Revelation 20:4-6, in a literal and earthly sense.
Dionysius not only defended the allegorical method, which he
believed could bring to light in the Apocalypse hidden and wonderful
truths which were too high for his own comprehension; he added some
observations on the authorship of the book which reveal his sure touch
in the field of literary criticism. He saw that the stylistic and lexical
67 Commentay on John, 1.4.
‘a Commentary on John, 1.6. See R. P. C. Hanson, AlLegoy and El’ent (London,
1959), pp.2lOf.
69 See H. van Campenhausen, The Formation of the Christian Bible, E.T. (London,
1972), p.317.
‘95
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
features of the book were such as to render it unlikely that it came from
the same author as the Fourth Gospel and 1 John; he agreed that it was
the work of a man called John, as indeed it claims to be (whereas the
Fourth Gospel and 1 John are anonymous), and agreed further that
this John, while not the apostle, was a ‘holy and inspired person’. It
was, he held, no disparagement of the Apocalypse to hold that it was
written by someone other than John the son of Zebedee; at the same
time, if it was the work of another John, it could not (he implies) be
accorded quite the same status as might be claimed by a work of direct
apostolic authorship.” In principle, then, Dionysius recognized what,
in the language of a later day, came to be called a ‘canon within the
canon’. ”
” In Eusebius, Hist. Ed. 7.25.1-27.
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
7’ See pp.244, 270-272.
EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA
EUSEBIUS THE HISTORIAN
Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea in Palestine from about 3 14 to his death
in 339, may properly be acknowledged as the second Christian historian, the first being Luke. ’ Eusebius’s greatest work is his EccLesiastical
History, in which he traces the fortunes of the Christian movement
from the time of Christ to the establishment of the peace of the church
under Constantine in AD 3 13. When Constantine became ruler of the
eastern empire as well as the western ( AD 324), a good rapport was
established between him and Eusebius, on whose advice in matters
ecclesiastical the emperor came increasingly to rely.
Eusebius wrote his History in stages during the first quarter of the
fourth century. He had all the material for research available to him in
the great church library of Caesarea, which went back to Origen’s day
’ Luke’s claim to be the first is sometimes unjustly challenged; but see A. A. T.
Ehrhardt, ‘The Construction and Purpose of the Acts of the Apostles’ (1958), in 7’hr
Framework oftbe New Testament Stories (Manchester, 1964). pp.64- 102; he cites with
approval Eduard Meyer’s estimate that Luke ‘figures as the one great historian who
joins the last of the genuinely Greek historians, Polybius, to the first great Christian
historian, perhaps thegreatest ofall, Eusebius ofCaesarea’(p.64). See J. B. Lightfoot,
‘Eusebius of Caesarea’, DCB II, pp.308-348; D. S. Wallace-Hadrill, E~ehzw of
Carsarea (London, 1960).
196
‘97
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA
and had been richly endowed by Eusebius’s mentor Pamphilus
(martyred in 309).2 Eusebius was deficient in some of the critical
qualities requisite in a first-class historian, but he knew the importance
of consulting primary sources, and indeed he introduces frequent
quotations from them. We have to thank him for preserving portions
of ancient writings (such as Papias’s) which would otherwise be quite
lost to us. But where his sources have survived independently, a
comparison of their wording with his quotations confirms the accuracy
with which he quoted them, and this gives us confidence in the
trustworthiness of his quotations from sources which can no longer be
consulted. 3
To the books which are disputed, but recognized by the
majority, belong the so-called epistle ofJames and that ofJude,
the second epistle of Peter and the so-called second and third
epistles of John, whether these are by the evangelist or by
someone else with the same name.
As for the third category:
Among the books which are spurious should be reckoned the
Acts of Paul, 6 the so-called Shepherd, ’ the Apocalypse of Petep and
in addition to these the so-called epistle of Barnabas’ and the
so-called Teachings of the Apostles, ” and moreover, as I said, the
Apocalypse of John, should it seem right. For, as I said, some
reject it, while others count it among the acknowledged books.
Some have also included in the list the Gospel according to the
Hebrews, ” in which special pleasure is taken by those of the
ACKNOWLEDGED, DISPUTED
AND SPURIOUS BOOKS
We have already been indebted to Eusebius for information about
statements by earlier writers on the Old and New Testament scriptures.
In one place he gives an account of the New Testament writings
current throughout the churches in his own time.4 He distinguishes
three categories: (1) universally acknowledged, (2) disputed, (3)
spurious. Of the universally acknowledged writings he says:
In the first place should be placed the holy tetrad of the gospels.
These are followed by the writing of the Acts of the Apostles.
After this should be reckoned the epistles of Paul. Next after
them should he recognized the so-called first epistle ofJohn and
likewise that of Peter. In addition to these must be placed,
should it seem right, John’s Apocalypse.
(Hebrews must be included among ‘the epistles of Paul’, which
Eusebius elsewhere enumerates as fourteen. “) Then he goes on:
’ Eusebius, Hict. Em’. 6.32.3; Jerome, Epistle 34.1; seeP.73.
3 One must recognize his habit of extracting from their contexts just so much of
passages quoted from earlier writers as suited his immediate purpose. But J. B.
Lightfoot’s emphatic witness remains valid: ‘In no instance which we can test does Eusebius
gizr a doubtftd testimony’ (Emys on ‘Supernatural Rebgion’, p.49; his italics).
’ Hist. Ecci. 3.25. l-7.
5 Hict. El-cl. 3.3.4 f. where he adds that ‘some have rejected the letter to the
Hebrews, saying that is is disputed by the church of the Romans as not being by Paul’
(~~6.20). In Hirt. EK/. 6.41.6 he mentions the despoiled believers of Heb. lo:34 as
‘those of whom Paul testified’; in Mart. Pal. 11.9 he couples ‘the heavenly Jerusalem’
of Heb. 12:22 with ‘Jerusalem above’ ofGal. 4:26 as the city ‘ofwhich Paul spoke’.
Hebrews who have accepted Christ.
It is evident that by ‘spurious’ Eusebius means little more than
uncanonical. Usually the adjective, when used of literature, implies
that a work is ascribed (by itself or by others) to an author who did not
really compose it (like the gospel or apocalypse ascribed to Peter). I2
But when Eusebius includes the Shepherd among the ‘spurious’ books,
he does not suggest that the Shepherd was not actually written by
Hermas-after all, Hermas, the slave, was such an unimportant
person that no one would try to gain undeserved credit for a work by
ascribing it to him. It is surprising to find John’s Apocalypse listed,
not among the disputed books, but both among those universally
acknowledged and among the ‘spurious’ books, both times with the
qualifying clause ‘should it seem right’. Had Eusebius listed it among
the disputed books that would not have been surprising, for it
continued to be disputed among some of the eastern churches well
after Eusebius’s day. I3 Eusebius’s apparent inconsistency arises from
the fact that the Apocalypse was acknowledged by those churches
whose opinion he valued most, whereas he himself was unhappy about
it-he could not reconcile himself to its millenarian teaching. But
6 Seepp.202, 261.
’
‘”
‘*
I3
’ Seepp. 166, 191.
9 See pp. 122, 191.
See pp. 161, 261.
” see pp. 191, 194.
Seepp. 191, 194.
The adjective is nothos, literally ‘illegitimate’ or ‘bastard’, as in Heb. 12%.
Seep.213.
199
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
when he calls it potentially ‘spurious’, he is not questioning its claim
to be the work of one John (cf Rev. 1:4, 9 etc.); he was disposed to
accept the opinion of Dionysius of Alexandria that the author was not
the apostle and evangelist John but another John, also associated with
Ephesus. I4 He would simply prefer it not to be in the canon.
So far (apart from his ambiguous attitude to the Apocalypse)
Eusebius’s threefold classification is plain enough. But then he says
that the ‘spurious’ books might be ranked with the ‘disputed’ books,
and tries, not very clearly, to say why nevertheless he lists them
separately. The reason appears to be that, while in his day the
‘spurious’ books were not generally included in the canon, yet they
were known and esteemed by many churchmen. If not canonical, they
were at least orthodox. This could not be said of some other writings
known to Eusebius, which claimed falsely to be the work of apostles
and their colleagues, but in fact promoted heterodoxy. Such works, he
says:
are brought forward by heretics under the name of the apostles;
they include gospels such as those of Peter, Thomas and Matthias
and some others as well, or Acts such as those of Andrew and
John and other apostles. None of these has been deemed worthy
of citation in the writings of any in the succession of churchmen.
Indeed, the stamp of their phraseology differs widely from the
apostolic style, and the opinion and policy of their contents are
as dissonant as possible from true orthodoxy, showing clearly
that these are the figments of heretics. Therefore they are not to
be reckoned even among ‘spurious’ books but must be shunned
as altogether wrong and impious.
REJECTED GOSPELS AND ACTS
Of the works denounced by Eusebius the Gospel of Peter has a special
interest. In the second century it was read and appreciated by Christians
who were disposed to take it at face value as composed by Peter. Even
Justin Martyr appears to quote it in one place.” Serapion, bishop of
I4 See pp. 195f.
‘s In FM/ Apohgy 36.6, speaking ofthepassion ofchrist, Justin says, ‘And indeed,
as the prophet had said, they dragged him and made him sit on the judgment-seat,
saying “Judge us”.’ Compare Go~pelo/Prtw 3:6 f. where Jesus’ enemies ‘made him sit
on a judgmenr-seat, saying “Judge righteously, 0 king of Israel!“’ The prophet
referred to by Justin is Isaiah (~fIs. 58:2). The idea that Jesus was made to sit on the
EUSEBIUS
OF
CAESAREA
Antioch towards the end of that century, found that it was held in
high esteem in the church of Rhossus, which lay within his jurisdiction. To begin with, he was not troubled by this, because he knew the
church of Rhossus to be orthodox in its belief. But later reports moved
him to examine the work more carefully, and he found that it
presented a ‘docetic’ view of the person of Christ- that is, the view
that his human nature was only apparent and not real. A substantial
fragment of the Gospel of Peter in Greek was identified as part of the
contents of a parchment codex discovered in Upper Egypt in 1886;
from this the docetic tendency of the work is evident. Jesus, it is said,
remained silent on the cross, ‘as though he felt no pain’. He is not
expressly said to have died; rather, ‘he was taken up’. His cry of
dereliction is reproduced in the form, ‘My power, my power, you have
left me!’ suggesting that at that moment the divine power left the
physical shell in which it had been temporarily resident. ”
Having discovered the true nature of the work, Serapion exposed its
defects in a treatise entitled Concerning the So-Called Gospel of Peter. ”
As for the Gospel of Thomas mentioned by Eusebius, that seems to be
a gnostic work quoted by Hippolytus” and stigmatized as heretical by
Origen; I9 its relation to the Gospel of Thomas found among the Nag
Hammadi documents in 1945 is uncertain, but they are certainly not
identical.20 The Gospel of Matthias is also listed as heretical by Origen;”
its relation to the Traditions of Matthias quoted by Clement of
Alexandria is doubtful. **
judgment-seat could have arisen from a mistranslation of John 19: 13 (as though it
meant not ‘Pilate sat’ but ‘Pilate made him sit’). But, as L. W. Barnard points out
uustin Martyr: his L;f and Thotrght [Cambridge, 19671, p.641, Justin’s reliance on
uncanonical material is remarkably scanty compared with his points of agreement
with our canonical gospels.
I6 For the Go@’ of Peter see E. Hennecke-W. Schneemelcher-R. McL. Wilson
(ed.), Neu~ Tt~tament Apoctypha, I (London, 1963), pp. 179- 187.
Ix Hippolytus, Refiltation, 5.7.20.
” Eusebius, Hirt. Eccl. 6.12.2-6.
I9 Origen, Homilies on Lukr, 1.
lo Hippolytus quotes an alleged saying ofJesus from the Naassene G~spel~f Thonm~
‘He who seeks me will find me in children from seven years old, for there concealed I
shall be made manifest in the fourteenth age’ (Rrfhation 5.7.20). The Nag Hammadi
GM/X( of Thonur (a collection of 114 sayings of Jesus) exhibits signs of Naassene
influence (the Naassenes were a gnostic party) but it does not include this saying. See
Hennecke-Schneemelcher-Wilson, Ntil, Tr~tmmt Apouyph. I, pp.278-307; F. F.
Bruce, Jw/f crud Chvi.rtian 0rigin.l out.~zft. thr Nru, Trrtmnmt (London, ’ 1984), pp. 1 IO158.
” Origen, Hovulrrr WI LN&, 1
‘* Seep.191.
201
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
There is a group of five books of Acts bearing the names of apostles,
dating from the second half of the second century onward- the Acts
of Paul, Peter, Andrew, John and Thomas. Of these the last two are
definitely gnostic works; the first two belong rather to the category of
early Christian fiction, and the Acts of Andrew, while it has been
suspected of a gnosticiting tendency, may have been the work of an
author who remained within the fellowship of the catholic church.*’
The author of the Acts of Paul, a presbyter in one of the churches of
Asia, was deposed from his office for his incursion into fiction. The
best-known section of the work, the Acts of Pauland T&la, scandalized
Tertullian because it represented Paul as encouraging Thecla, one of
his female converts, to teach and even baptize.24 The Acts of Peter is
mainly concerned with the last phase of Peter’s life, his closing
ministry and martyrdom in Rome, and not least his controversy there
with Simon Magus.*’
The Acts ofJohn is ascribed to an author names Leucius (after whom,
indeed, all five sets of apocryphal Acts have been called the ‘Leucian
Acts’).26 It contains a number of curious anecdotes about the apostle
John, who is presented as a gnostic teacher. It includes an interesting
gnostic hymn in which Jesus accompanies his disciples, performing a
solemn dance at the same time. The hymn has been set to music by
Gustav Hoist. One of its quatrains embodies familiar themes from the
Fourth Gospel: Jesus says,
I am a lamp to you who see me,
I am a mirror to you who know me,
I am a door to you who knock on me,
I am a way to you the traveller.
At the end of each ‘I am’ statement the disciples make the response
‘Amen’. 27
In the Acts of Thomas the apostle Thomas is described as visiting
*’ See Hennecke-Schneemelcher-Wilson, New Testament Apoc’ypha, II (London,
1965), pp.392-395.
a See p.261’> see also E. M. Howe, ‘Interpretations of Paul in The Acts o/Pauiand
T/m/a’, in Pardine St//dies, ed. D. A. Hagner and M. J. Harris (Exeter/Grand Rapids,
198OA pp.33-49.
” Seep. 163.
26 So Photius, Bibhtheca, 114. The five circulated among the Manichaeans as an
Acts-corpus. The Gelasian decree (see pp. 234f.), among its ‘books not to be received’,
includes ‘all the books which Leucius, the devil’s disciple, has made’ (5.4.4).
” See Hennecke-Schneemelcher-Wilson, Nrul Testament Apocrypha, II, pp. 188259 (the hymn is translated on pp.228-232).
202
EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA
India. ** It is extant in Syriac; it is full of legend but certainly indicates
that Christianity had been carried to India by the time the work was
composed (about the middle of the third century). As is well known,
the Mar Thoma Christians, with their Syriac liturgy, maintain their
vigorous life and witness in India to the present day. We have to thank
the Acts of Thomas for preserving the Hymn of the Pearl, a poem by the
gnostic teacher Bardaisan, the founder of Christian Syriac literature.
This poem tells the allegorical story of the soul that went down to
Egypt for the sake of the one pearl: it has been called, despite its
gnostic orientation, ‘the most noble poem of Christian Antiquity’.
That was the judgment of F. C. Burkitt, who added, ‘it is worth while
to learn Syriac, so as to be able to read it in the original’.29
CONSTANTINE’S FIFTY BIBLES
Eusebius may have performed a special service towards the fixing of
the Christian canon of scripture. Not long after Constantine inaugurated his new capital at Constantinople on the site of ancient Byzantium
( AD 330), he wrote to Eusebius, asking him to have fifty copies of the
Christian scriptures (both Testaments in Greek)prepared for the use of
the churches in the city. The emperor’s letter is preserved in Eusebius’s
Life of Constantine, a panegyric composed soon after Constantine’s
death in 337. 3o The fifty copies were to be made on good parchment by
trained scribes: the emperor would defray the entire cost and authorize
the use of two public carriages to transport the copies to
Constantinople. Eusebius proceeded without delay to comply with
the emperor’s request: the scriptures were prepared as specified and
senr in ‘magnificent and elaborately bound volumes’.3’
*’ See Hennecke-Schneemelcher-Wilson, New Testament Apoqpha, II, pp.42553 1 (G. Bornkamm, who edits the A& o/Thomas for this compilation, is the leading
world-authority on it).
29 F. C.Burkitt, Ear/y Christianity outside the Roman Empire (Cambridge, 1899),
p.61. The hymn is translated in Hennecke-Schneemelcher-Wilson, II, pp.498-504.
30 Life of Coutantine, 4.36.
3’ Lz$ ofConstantine, 4.37. The volumes are further said ro have been ‘in threefold
and fourfold form’. The meaning of these words is disputed: they may have been
written with three columns to a page (like Codex Vaticanus) or four (like Codex
Sinaitictu); or the point may be that they were sent to the emperor three or four at a
time. For the former suggestion see K Lake, ‘The Sinaitic and Vatican Manuscripts
and the Copies sent by Eusebius to Coristantinople’, HTR 11 (19181, pp.32-35; for
the latter, see T. C. Skeat, ‘The Use of Dictation in Ancient Book-Production’,
Pmtredqs ofthe Brutish A~dewy 42 (1956). pp. 179-208 (especially pp. 195- 197).
203
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA
There are several unanswered questions about these sumptuous
copies. (We may reflect, in passing, that only a quarter of a century
earlier the Christian scriptures were being assiduously sought out and
destroyed by imperial authority.)32 What type of text was used in
these copies? It has frequently been surmised that the Vatican and
Sinaitic codices of the Greek scriptures (dne of them, if not both) are
survivors from this consignment. That is unlikely: apart from some
indications that the Vatican codex may have been produced in Egypt,
they are our two chief witnesses to what is called the Alexandrian text
type, and there is no indication that his text type was current in
Constantinople and its neighbourhood in the period following 330.
(Nevertheless, these two codices may give one a good idea of the
appearance of the copies which were made for Constantine.) If a guess
may be hazarded, it is more likely that the fifty copies exhibited the
text of the recent edition of Lucian of Antioch (martyred in 3 12), the
ancestor of the Byzantine or ‘majority’ text.33 If they did, this would
help to explain the popularity of this form of text in Constantinople
and the whole area of Christendom under its influence from the late
fourth century on, a popularity which led to its becoming in fact the
majority text and to its being called by many students nowadays the
Byzantine text. (But the New Testament text used by Eusebius
himself belongs neither to the Alexandrian nor to the Byzantine
type.)34
A more important question for our present purpose is: which
books-and, in particular, which New Testament books-were
included in these copies? We are not told, but the answer is not
seriously in doubt. The copies contained all the books which Eusebius
lists as universally acknowledged (including Hebrews, of course, but
also including Revelation) and the five catholic epistles which he lists
as disputed by some- in short, the same twenty-seven books as
appear in our copies of the New Testament today. The emperor might
not be greatly concerned about the particular type of text used for the
copies-variations between text types make little difference to the
general wording- but he would discover rather quickly if a book
which he believed to be part of the scriptures had been left out. As for
Revelation, it is clear that Constantine attached high importance to it:
he used its imagery for purposes of his own imperial propaganda.35
Eusebius personally might have preferred to omit it, but it was the
emperor’s preference, not his own, that he had to consider on this
occasion. If these copies did indeed contain the twenty-seven books,
no more and no less, that would have provided a considerable impetus
towards the acceptance of the now familiar New Testament canon.
A related, though less important, question concerns the order of the
New Testament books in those copies. Most probably the order was
that followed in Eusebius’s own list of the books: the four gospels,
Acts, the Pauline epistles with Hebrews, the catholic epistles,
Revelation. ,This is the order which was to become standard in
manuscripts of the Greek New Testament; it superseded the order
exhibited in the great uncial codices, in which the catholic epistles
come immediately after Acts.
It is difficult, then, to accept the conclusion of one scholar, that the
New Testament canon was still ‘in the process of formation’ in
Eusebius’s mind.36 Eusebius’s canon deviated from the consensus of
his ecclesiastical milieu only in respect of the Apocalypse, and he knew
his mind very well on that.
T H E E A R L Y UNCIAL!?,
The mention of the great uncials makes this a convenient point to list
their New Testament contents, as their Old Testament contents have
been listed above:37
Sinaiticus
(4th
century).
Matthew, Mark, Luke, John; Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2
Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1
Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, Hebrews, 1 Timothy, 2
” See pp. 2 l6f.
” See B. M. Metzger, ‘The Lucianic Recension of the Greek Bible’, Chuptevs in the
Hirtory o/New TrJtmmt Textd Crztzcim, NTE 4 (Leiden, 1963), pp. 1-41.
‘4 Eusebius, as might be expected, seems to use a form of the Caesarean text type.
35 See C. Odahl, ‘The Use of Apocalyptic Imagery in Constantine’s Christian
Propaganda’, Centerpoint-The JoumaI of Interu’isciplinary Studies 4, Spring 1982, City
University of New York, cited by W. R. Farmer,jeJw and the CoJpei (Philadelphia,
1982), pp.273-275, nn.139, 154. Onpp.184-187 ofFarmer’swork thereisagood
discussion of Constantine’s influence on the definitive form and status of the New
Testament. See also K. L. Carroll, ‘Toward a Commonly Received New Testament’,
BJRL 44 (1961-2), pp.327-349 (especially p.341).
36 A. C. Sundberg, Jr., ‘Canon Muratori-A Fourth-Century List’, HTR 66
(1973A p.29.
” See pp. 69f.
204
205
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Timothy, Titus, Philemon; Acts; James, 1 Peter, 2 Peter, 1
John, 2 John, 3 John, Jude; Revelation; Lxtter of Barnabas,
Shepherd of Hermas (Vision 1.1.1 -Mandate 4.3.6). ‘*
(This is the only one of the great uncials to preserve all the
New Testament books in their entirety. The placing of Acts
after the Pauline epistles and before the catholic epistles reflects
the earlier practice of binding Acts and the catholic epistles
together in one smaller codex.)
Vaticanus (4th century):
Matthew, Mark, Luke, John; Acts; James, 1 Peter, 2 Peter, 1
John, 2 John, 3 John, Jude; Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 CorinGalatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians,
thians,
1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, Hebrews 1: l-9: 14.
(The end of this codex is defective: the remainder of Hebrews,
with Paul’s letters to individuals and Revelation, has been
lost.39 As in Codex Sinaiticus, Hebrews was placed between
Paul’s letters to churches and those to individuals. Also as in
SinaiticuJ, Acts is followed immediately by the catholic epistles,
but they precede and do not follow the Pauline epistles. The
Pauline epistles are divided into numbered chapters, the
numbers not starting afresh with each epistle but running
continuously throughout the whole corpus. This reveals that
Vaticanus was based on an earlier copy in which Hebrews came
between Galatians and Ephesians.“’ In that earlier copy
Galatians began with chapter 54 and ended with chapter 59,
but Ephesians began with chapter 70. These chapter numberings
were taken over unchanged by Vaticanus, in which Hebrews,
although its position has been changed, begins with chapter 60
and presumably ended with chapter 69; it is now broken off in
the course of chapter 64, halfway through the epistle.)
EUSEBIUS
OF CAESAREA
Peter, 2 Peter, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John, Jude; Romans, 1
Corinthians,
2 Corinthians (three leaves, comprising
4: 13- 12:6, are missing), Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians,
Colossians, 1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, Hebrews, 1
Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon; Revelation; 1 Clement,
2 Clement l:l--12:5.
(The first twenty-five leaves of the New Testament are
missing; so are the final leaves of the codex, which at one time,
according to its prefatory table of contents, included the Psalms
of Solomon. In the table, however, this document is separated
from the others by a note ‘The books together’, which was
followed by a number no longer decipherable; the two epistles of
Clement were evidently included among ‘the books’, but not
the Psalms of Solomon. )42
4’ A comparative calculation of the lines in these missing leaves makes it plain that
the section on the woman taken in adultery (John 7:53--8:ll) was not included.
4* See p.70 for the Psalms ofSolomon, pp. 12 If. for 1 and 2 Clement.
Alexandrinus (5 th century).
Matthew 25:6-28:20, Mark, Luke, John (from which two
leaves, comprising 6:50-8:52, are missing)$’ Acts; James, 1
” For the Letter ofBarnabas and the Shepherdof Hermas see pp. 122, 166.
” The remainder of Hebrews and the Apocalypse were supplied by a fifteenthcentury scribe; see T. C. Skeat, ‘The Codex Vaticanus in the Fifteenth Century’,JTS
n.s.35 (1984), pp.454-465.
“’ Hebrews appears in this position in the Sahidic (Coptic) version of Athanasius’s
thirty-ninth festal letter (see pp.2Ogf.)
206
207
ATHANASIUS AND AFTER
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
ATHANASIUS AND AFTER
ATHANASIUS ON THE NEW TESTAMENT
As we have seen, Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, devoted most of
his thirty-ninth festal letter, announcing the date of Easter in AD 367,
to a statement about the canon of scripture and its limits. After his list
of Old Testament books, which has been quoted above, ’ he continues:
Again, we must not hesitate to name the books of the New
Testament. They are as follows:
Four gospels-according to Matthew, according to Mark,
according to Luke, according to John.
Then after these the Acts of the Apostles and the seven
so-called catholic epistles of the apostles, as follows: one of
James, two of Peter, three of John and, after these, one of
Jude.
Next to these are fourteen epistles of the apostle Paul,
written in order as follows: First, to the Romans; then two to
the Corinthians, and after these to the Galatians and next
that to the Ephesians; then to the Philippians and two to the
Thessalonians and that to the Hebrews. Next are two to
Timothy, one to Titus, and last the one to Philemon.
Moreover, John’s Apocalypse.
’ See pp.78f.
208
These are the ‘springs of salvation’,* so that one who is thirsty
may be satisfied with the oracles which are in them. In these
alone is the teaching of true religion proclaimed as good news.
Let no one add to these or take anything from them.3 For
concerning these our Lord confounded the Sadducees when he
said, ‘You are wrong because you do not know the scriptures.“’
And he reproved the Jews, saying, ‘You search the scriptures,
because... it is they that bear witness to me.‘5
But for the sake of greater accuracy I must needs, as I write,
add this: there are other books outside these, which are not
indeed included in the canon, but have been appointed from the
time of the fathers to be read to those who are recent converts to
our company and wish to be instructed in the word of true
religion. These are6. . . the so-called Teaching of the Apostles and
the Shepherd. But while the former are included in the canon and
the latter are read [in church], no mention is to be made of the
apocryphal works. They are the invention of heretics, who write
according to their own will, and gratuitously assign and add to
them dates so that, offering them as ancient writings, they may
have an excuse for leading the simple astray.
Athanasius is the first writer known to us who listed exactly the
twenty-seven books which traditionally make up the New Testament
in catholic and orthodox Christianity, without making any distinction
of status among them. His order of books, on the other hand, is not
that which has become traditional: he follows the Alexandrian precedent ofplacing the Pauline epistles after Acts and the catholic epistles,
and within the ‘Pauline’ epistles he places Hebrews between 2 Thessalonians and 1 Timothy, as the great uncials do.’
By the ‘apocryphal’ books, of which no mention is to be made,
Athanasius means those which Origen stigmatizes as ‘false” and
Eusebius rejects as heterodox. 9 The Did&Z and the Shepherd, while not
meeting the requirements for canonical recognition, were edifying
works and might profitably be read as such. It was therefore not
2 A quotation from Is. 12:3.
4 Mt. 22:29.
’ Jn 5:39.
3 See p.23 with n.20.
6 For the Old Testament ‘apocrypha’ listed here see p.79.
’ But see p.206, 11.40 for its changed position in the Sahidic version of this letter.
Athanasius quotes Heb. 11:s and expressly ascribes it to Paul more than once (On rhr
In~wnafion of the Dwtnr Word, 3.2; On fhr Drcrm: Drfmce o/-h Nimr Definrtron. 18).
” Seep. 194.
’ See p.200.
209
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
improper to bind such works together with the canonical books in
copies of scripture, as in the Sinaitic and Alexandrine codices. lo
CANONS OF LAODICEA
The last of the sixty canons of the Council of Laodicea is probably an
addition to the others, which were promulgated at the time of the
Council itself (c 363);” it may indeed reflect the influence of
Athanasius’s list, except that it does not include the Apocalypse
among the canonical books. After listing the books of the Old
Testament, it continues thus:
Of the New Testament: Four gospels-according to Matthew,
Mark, Luke and John. The Acts of the Apostles; seven catholic
epistles, as follows: one of James, two of Peter, three of John,
one of Jude. Fourteen epistles of Paul, as follows: one to the
Romans, two to the Corinthians, one to the Galatians, one to
the Ephesians, one to the Philippians, one to the Colossians,
two to the Thessalonians, one to the Hebrews, two to Timothy,
one to Titus, one to Philemon. ”
LATER GREEK FATHERS
Cyril of Jerusalem (died 386), in one of his catechetical lectures, deals
with the ‘divinely inspired scriptures’ and admonishes his hearer (or
reader):
Learn diligently from the church what are the books of the Old
Testament, and what are those of the New. But read none of the
apocryphal writings, for if you do not know those which are
universally acknowledged, why should you trouble yourself in
vain about those which are disputed?13.
Of the New Testament there are (only) four gospels: the
I” Arhanasius is specially given to quoting from the Shrphrvcl, ‘a most profitable
book’ (On fhe I~rnvn~r/~n. 3. l), the opening words of Mandate 1, ‘First of all believe
that God is one, who created all things and fitted them together, and made all things
to be out ofthat which is not’([falso ON thrDn_w~. 18; Fea/Letter 11 [Easter 3391.4).
” See p.80.
” English translation in NPNF, series 2, XIV, p. 159.
” Here follow the Old Testament books; see pp.8Of.
2 IO
ATHANASIUS
AND
AFTER
others are pseudepigraphical and harmful (the Manichaeans
indeed have written a Gospel according to Thomas, which by the
fragrance of its evangelical title corrupts the souls of the more
simple sort). I4 Receive also the Acts of the twelve Apostles, and
in addition to these the seven catholic epistles of James and
Peter, John and Jude. Then as a seal on them all, the last work of
the disciples, receive the fourteen epistles of Paul. Let all the
rest be set apart on a secondary level. As for the books which
may not be read in churches, do not even read them by yourself,
as you have heard me say. ”
The Manichaean Gospel of Thomas is apparently a different work from
the Naassene Gospel of Thomas, denounced by Hippolytus. I6 The
authentic letters of Paul were in fact the first books of the New
Testament to be written: it is odd to see them here referred to as a final
‘seal’ on all the others. I7 The temptation to find theological significance
in what was originally a fortuitous or mechanical arrangement of
biblical books is one to which some readers yield even today. By ‘all
the rest’ Cyril means edifying works like the Didach? or the Shepherd
which were not admitted to the canon but permitted to be read in
church. Those which were unfit for reading in church, and therefore
unfit for a Christian’s private reading, were presumably what
Athanasius called ‘the apocryphal works’, inculcating heresy.
Gregory Nazianzen’s metrical list of ‘the genuine books of inspired
scripture’, after enumerating the Old Testament books,” went on:
Now enumerate those of the new mystery:19
Matthew wrote the wonderful works of Christ for the Hebrews,
Mark in Italy, Luke in Achaia.
John, who visited heaven,” was agreat herald to all.
Then come the Acts of the wise apostles,
I4 For other works with the same title see pp. 162, 3 11.
‘s Ca&betical Lectwe 4.36 (NPNF, series 2, VII, pp.27 f.).
I6 Seep.201.
” Cyril’s language is based on the arrangement by which Acts and the catholic
epistles precede Paul’s epistles.
‘” Seep.81.
I9 That is, ‘of the new revelation’; when used in a Christian sense, ‘mystery’ in the
New Testament is something hitherto concealed in the divine counsel but now
revealed.
*” Gk. ~~rrrr@h~ufi~, a reference to John’s experience in his Patmos vision (Rev. 4: 1
f. ), although Gregory did not include the Apocalypse in his canon.
211
ATHANASIUS
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
and Paul’s fourteen epistles,
and seven catholic epistles, of which James’s is one,
two by Peter, three by John again,
and Jude’s is the seventh. There you have them all.
Any one outside of these is not among the genuine writings. ‘r
About the same time as Cyril and Gregory produced their lists
Amphilochius of Iconium produced his-a metrical one like
Gregory’s, but less concise:
But this especially for you to learn
is fitting: not every book is safe
which has acquired the holy name of scripture.
For there appear from time to time pseudonymous
books, some of which are intermediate or neighbours,
as one might say, to the words of truth,
while others are spurious and utterly unsafe,
like counterfeit and spurious coins,
which bear the king’s inscription
but as regards their material are base forgeries.
For this reason I will state for you the divinely inspired
books one by one, so that you may learn them clearly.
AND
AFTER
that to the Galatians, that to the Ephesians, after them
that in Philippi; then the one written
to the Colossians, two to the Thessalonians,
two to Timothy, and to Titus and Philemon
one each, and one to the Hebrews.
But some say the epistle to the Hebrews is spurious;
they say not well, for its grace is genuine. 23
So be it. What remains? Of the catholic epistles
some say there are seven, others that three only
are to be received: one of James,
one of Peter and one of John.
Some receive the three of John and in addition to them the two
of Peter, with Jude’s as the seventh.
The Revelation of John, again,
some include, but the majority
say it is spurious. This is the most unerring
canon of the divinely inspired scriptures. 24
Evidently Athanasius’s unquestioning inclusion of the Apocalypse
among the canonical books carried little weight among many eastern
churchmen. Cyril of Jerusalem and Gregory Nazianten leave it out of
the canon, and while Amphilochius mentions it, he says that the
majority reject it.
He proceeds to enumerate the Old Testament books,” and then goes
on:
It is time for me to state the books of the New Testament.
Receive only four evangelists:
Matthew, then Mark, to whom Luke as third
count in addition, and John, in time
the fourth, but first in the sublimity of his doctrines,
for rightly do I call him the son of thunder
who sounded forth most loudly with the word of God.
Receive also Luke’s second book,
that of the Acts of the universal apostles.
Next add the ‘chosen vessel’,
the herald to the Gentiles, the apostle
Paul, who wrote in wisdom to the churches
twice seven books: to the Romans one,
to which must be added two to the Corinthians,
‘I Gregory, Hynln 1.1.12.3 1, lines 30-39.
212
” Seep.81.
EPIPHANIUS
Epiphanius of Salamis in Cyprus gives a summary of canonical books
in his treatise against heresies:
If you had been begotten by the Holy Spirit and instructed in
the prophets and apostles, you must have gone through (the
record) from the beginning of the genesis of the world until the
times of Esther in twenty-seven books of the Old Testament,
which are (also) numbered as twenty-two, also in the four holy
gospels, and in fourteen epistles of the holy apostle Paul, and in
the writings which come before these,‘s including the Acts of
the Apostles in their times and the catholic epistles of James,
Peter, John and Jude, and in the Revelation ofJohn, and in the
Wisdom books, I mean those of Solomon and of the son of
23 Compare Origen’s reason for accepting Jude (p. 193).
24 Amphilochius, larnbics to SeIeucus, lines 289-319.
” ‘Before these’ in the arrangement by which Acts and the catholic epistles precede
the Pauline epistles.
213
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
ATHANASIUS AND AFTER
Sirach-in short, all the divine writings. Having gone through
all these, I say, you should have condemned yourself for bringing
forward as not unfitting for God but actually pious towards God
a name which is nowhere listed, the name of a spurious book,
nowhere mentioned in holy scripture.26
epistles except 1 Peter and 1 John, but it is more likely that he rejected
these also. This is the most natural sense of the statement of Leontius
of Byzantium (6th century) that he rejected the epistle of James and
the catholic epistles that followed next to it.33 Of the three major
catholic epistles (James, 1 Peter, 1 John), the Syriac writer Isho ‘dad of
Metv (9th century) says that ‘Theodore, the Interpreter, does not even
mention them in a single place, nor does he bring an illustration from
them in any one of the writings he made’.34
The earliest New Testament in the Syriac churches comprised the
four gospels (either the Diatessaron or the ‘separated gospels’), Acts and
the Pauline epistles (evidently including the Pastoral Epistles and
Hebrews).3s From the early part of the fifth century the common
Syriac version, the Peshitta, included the three major catholic epistles
as well. Not until 508 were 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude and
Revelation included in a Syriac edition of the New Testament (the
Philoxenian version). 36 Even then, this enlarged New Testament was
accepted only by the Jacobite (Monophysite) branch of the Syriac
church; the Nestorians to this day acknowledge a canon of only
twenty-two books. 37
Epiphanius’s curious appending of the wisdom books of Solomon and
Ben Sira to his New Testament list has been noted already.” He
appears to include the Apocalypse without hesitation. He knows that
some have doubts about it, but he himself does not share them: ‘St
John through his gospel and epistles and Apocalypse has inparted the
same holy spiritual gift.“’
CHRYSOSTOM
‘John of the golden mouth’ (Chtysostom), bishop of Constantinople
from 397 to 407, quotes copiously from the New Testament books
apart from the four controverted catholic epistles (2 Peter, 2 and 3
John, Jude) and the Apocalypse. A Synopsis of Sacred Scr$~tzms,
sometimes (but on doubtful grounds) attributed to him, follows a list
of the Old Testament books with the fourteen epistles of Paul, the four
gospels, the book of the Acts (ascribed to Luke) and the thrtz catholic
epistles. 29 For the rest, it is noteworthy that Chrysostom appears to be
the first writer to use the phrase ‘the books’ (Gk ta biblia) of the two
Testaments together;3o in Christian usage the phrase had previously
been restricted to the Old Testament writings. Chrysostom’s usage is
the origin of our word ‘Bible’; while bibfia (‘books’) is a plural word
in Greek, it was taken over into Latin as a singular, Biblia, ‘the Bible’.
THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA AND
THE SYRIAC CANON
EASTERN
DIVERSITY
Eastern Christendom thus cannot match the unanimity with which
the New Testament canon of twenty-seven books has been accepted in
the west from the end of the fourth century onward. The G r e e k
Orthodox Church accepts the twenty-seven books as listed by
Athanasius, but there are no readings from the Apocalypse in its
lectionary.
‘3 Leontius, Against the Nestovians and Eutycbians, 3.14.
26 Epiphanius, Pan&on, 76.22.5. He apostrophises the extreme Arian Aetius
(died 367), founder of the Anomoeans, and undertakes to refute his published set of
heretical propositions.
‘a Panakon 5 1.35.
27 Seep.81.
‘a Homilies on Matthew, 47.3.
29 Migne, PG 56.317.
” E.g. by B. F. Westcott, On the Canon of the NW Testament (London, ‘1870).
p.411.
” Seep.81.
J4 Isho ‘dad, Commentary on the Epistle ofJames, ed. M. D. Gibson, HorarSemzti~-aeX
(Cambridge, 1913), p.49 (Syriac), p.36 (English).
‘s E P hrem (4th century) wrote commentaries on the Diatessaron, on Acts, and on
the Pauline epistles (among the latter he included the spurious 3 Corinthians, part of
the Acts of Paul; see p. 239).
‘6 See B. M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament (Oxford, 1977),
pp.3-75 (the Philoxenian version is discussed on pp.63-68); J. S. Siker, ‘The
Canonical Status of the Catholic Epistles in the Sytiac New Testament’, JTS n.s. 38
(1987), pp.311-340.
” The Monophysites deviated from Chalcedonian orthodoxy by ascribing to our
Lord one nature, not two (divine and human); the Nestorians, by ascribing to him two
persons (divine and human), not one. In the language of the early creeds ‘person’ has a
technical sense unlike its present usage.
214
2r5
It had been thought by a number of scholars3’ that Theodore of
Mopsuestia (died 428)” rejected the Apocalypse and all the catholic
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
?
THE CLERMONT LIST
Codex Claromontanus4 is a bilingual manuscript (Graeco-Latin) of the
Pauline letters and Hebrews, dating from the sixth century (its
common notation is Dp>. Between Philemon and Hebrews it contains
a Latin list of biblical books, noting the number of lines in each. The
Old Testament books follow the Septuagint reckoning (on which the
Old Latin version was based).’ The New Testament books are then
listed:
Four Gospels
Matthew (2600 lines)
John (2000 lines)
Mark (1600 lines)
Luke (2900 lines)
Epistles of Paul
To the Romans (1040 lines)
To the Corinthians I (1060 lines)
To the Corinthians II (70 [sir) lines)
To the GaIatians (350 lines)
To the Ephesians (375 lines)
To Timothy I(208 lines)
To Timothy II (289 lines)
To Titus (140 lines)
To the Colossians (25 1 lines)
To Philemon (50 lines)
To Peter I (200 lines)
To Peter II (140 lines)
Of James (220 lines)
Of John I (220 lines)
Of John II (20 lines)
Of John III (20 lines)
Of Jude (60 lines)
-Epistle of Barnabas (850 lines)
Revelation of John (1200 lines)
Acts of Apostles (2600 lines)
-The Shepherd (4000 lines)
-Acts of Paul (3560 lines)
-Revelation of Peter (270 lines)
a Clrcrnr~~r~ntan~~s. from the Latin form of Clermont, near Beauvais, where the codex
THE WEST IN THE FOURTH CENTURY TO JEROME
The omission of Philippians and 1 and 2 Thessalonians is evidently
accidental; so too, probably, is the omission of Hebrews. 6 The order of
Paul’s letters is not the order in which they appear in Co&x Claromontanus;’ the scribe apparently copied this list into the codex from an
independent source. The order of the gospels and the other books is
also unusual. Carelessness must be the reason for the misnaming of 1
and 2 Peter as the epistles ‘to Peter’; this is a slip which is sometimes
heard when the New Testament lesson is announced in church, but it
is surprising to see it perpetrated in writing. The four ‘uncanonical’
books- the Letter of Barnabas, a the Shepherd, 9 the Acts of Paul” and
the Revelation of Peter’ ’ - have a dash written before each of their
titles, as though to indicate their inferior status (a similar dash appears
before 1 Peter, but this is to mark this and the following books off
from the epistles of Paul, which precede them).
The majority opinion seems to be that this list is based on one
drawn up at or near Alexandria about AD 300; in its original form it
appears to mark a stage in the canonizing process intermediate between
Origen and Eusebius. l2
THE CHELTENHAM LIST
Another fourth-century Latin list was identified by Theodor
Mommsen in 1885 in a tenth-century manuscript in what was the Sir
Thomas Phillipps collection at Cheltenham. I3 (It is sometimes referred
to as the Mommsen list.) It too comprises the books of both
was originally identified; it is now in Paris.
’ The Old Testament list (which deviates somewhat in order from what is usual)
includes 4 Maccabees as well as 1 and 2 Maccabees.
’ If (as is most probable) the Latin list is translated from a Greek original, the
omission of the four epistles could be explained by the wandering ofa scribe’s eye from
‘Ephesians’ to ‘Hebrews’: in Greek, ‘Ephesians’ and ‘Hebrews’ have the same number
ofletters (eight) and the first letter and last four letters are identical in the two words.
’ In Co&x Ciuronlontanxr the epistles appear in the same sequence as we find in most
modern editions of the New Testament.
9 Seep. 166.
I0 Seep.202.
s Seep. 122.
” Seep.161.
I2 See T. Zahn, Gescbichtedes neutestament~icben Kanom, II (Erlangen/Leipzig, 1890),
pp. 157- 172; A. Harnack, Chronologie dwaitchristlichen Litwatur, II (Leipzig, 1904),
pp.84-86.
I3 See T. Mommsen, ‘Zur lateinischen Stichometrie’, Hermes 21 (1886), pp. 142156; W. Sanday, ‘The Cheltenham List of the Canonical Books of the New Testament
and of the Writings of Cyprian’, Studza Bihiira et Ecclesiastica, III (Oxford, 1891),
pp.217-303, withappendix by C. H. Turner, pp.304-325. Lateracopyofthesame
list was identified in a ninth-century codex at St Gall, Switzerland.
21X
219
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Tes,taments. Its place of origin seems to have been North Africa, and a
reference to the consulships of Valentinian and Valens suggests that it
was drawn up in AD 365. Here too the titles of the books are followed
by a note of the number of lines contained in each. After the Old
Testament list the document goes on:
Similarly the catalogue of the New Testament:
The Four Gospels
Matthew (2700 lines)
Mark (I700 lines)
John (1800 lines)
Luke (3300 lines)
In all: 10,000 linesI
Epistles of Paul-in number 13
Acts of Apostles (3600 lines)
Apocalypse (1800 lines)
Epistles of John, 3 (350 lines)
one only
Epistles of Peter, 2 (300 lines)
one only
Again, there are some unusual features in the order of the books, but
no ‘outside’ books are listed. The number of lines in Paul’s epistles is
not given. Since his epistles are said to be thirteen in number,
Hebrews is omitted. By mid-century the church in Rome had been
persuaded by Athanasius to acknowledge Hebrews as canonical, but
evidently the North African churches had not yet come into line on
this. James and Jude are also omitted.
The repeated note ‘one only’ appended to the mention of the epistles
of John and Peter ‘expresses a preference for First John and First Peter
exclusively’, according to A. Souter;” since the compiler had inherited
a list in which the number of lines was given for John’s epistles
together and for Peter’s epistles together, he reproduced what he
found in his source but indicated his personal preference for 1 John and
1 Peter only. So B. M. Metzger very persuasively suggests. I6 The
compiler rejected the five disputed catholic epistles.
I4 Something has gone wrong: the total number of lines in the four gospels, as
given, is 9500, not 10,000.
‘* The Text andCanon ofthr New Testanlent (London, “1954), p. 196, n. 1.
” The Canon of the New Trrtanent (Oxford, 1987). pp.23 If.
220
THE
WEST
IN
THE
FOURTH
CENTURY
TO
JEROME
ATHANASIUS VISITS ROME
In 340 Athanasius, exiled (for the second time) from his see in
Alexandria, made his way to Rome and spent a few years in the
fellowship of the church there. He established good relations with the
bishop of Rome (Julius I) and other church leaders, and the Roman
church profited in various ways from the presence within it of such a
distinguished theologian from the east. It is probable that he persuaded
the Roman Christians to fall into line with their eastern brethren in
admitting the canonicity, if not the Pauline authorship, of Hebrews.
From that time on the right of Hebrews to be accepted as a New
Testament book was not seriously questioned at Rome, or in those
western churches which fell within Rome’s sphere of influence.
HILARY OF POITIERS
Hilary, bishop of Poiters (died 367), was in any case a follower of
Athanasius and a champion of Nicene orthodoxy; in his exegetical and
dogmatic writings he introduced several ideas of eastern theology to
the west. He accepted not only the canonicity of Hebrews but its
Pauline authorship: he quotes Hebrews 1:4 and 3: 1, for example, as
‘what Paul writes to the Hebrews’. ” He similarly quotes James 1: 17
(‘with whom there is no variation’) and ascribes it to ‘the apostle
James’; I8 he is in fact the first western writer known to us to accept the
letter of James as apostolic. I9
COMMENTATORS ON PAUL
To the fourth century belong several Latin writers of commentaries on
the letters of Paul.” The first of these was Marius Victorinus, a native
of the province of Africa who became a leading teacher of rhetoric in
Rome and was converted to Christianity about 355. In the years
following 360 he wrote expositions of Galatians, Ephesians and
Philippians.” He was a stout defender of Nicene orthodoxy, in the
I8 On the Trinity, 4.8.
I9 For his list of Old Testament books see p.90, 11.45. He has left no comparable
list of New Testament books.
” See A. Souter, The Earliest Lrrtin Commentaries on the Epirh of St Paul (Oxford,
1927).
” See W. Erdt, Marim Victorinto Aj&, Paui/~s~fJkomlrlmtut/~r (Frankfurt, 1980).
” On the Trinity, 4.11.
221
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
presentation of which he gives clear evidence of the Neoplatonic
pattern of his thought. 22
More important for our purpose is the scholar whom we must
(following Erasmus) call Ambrosiaster because his real name has not
been preserved. He is the author of commentaries on the thirteen
epistles which bear Paul’s name, written at Rome while Damasus was
bishop (366-384), but in the manuscript tradition they have been
assigned chiefly to Ambrose, bishop of Milan (339-397). They are
certainly not by Ambrose, but this certainty does not help us with a
positive attribution (Ambrosiaster means ‘pseudo-Ambrose’). The
same writer is held (with good reason) to be the author also of a work
entitled Questions of the Old and New Testament, which has been transmitted among the works of Augustine.23
The fact that Ambrosiaster did not include Hebrews among the
Pauline epistles which he expounded is evidence enough that he set it
in a category apart: he refers to it occasionally, both in his Pauline
commentaries and in the Questions, in terms which show that he
accepted it as canonical but did not know who wrote it. 24
Another commentator on Paul’s thirteen epistles is Pelagius (c
350-430),2J the first British or Irish author known to us-the
evidence is best satisfied if he be regarded as an Irishman (Scotus) born
or resident in Britain. 26 Unlike Ambrosiaster, Pelagius cites Hebrews
as Pauline, but the fact that he did not write a commentary on it may
suggest that he did not regard it as Pauline in the same sense as the
thirteen.
Among those commentators Victorinus refers to James the Lord’s
brother in terms which indicate that he viewed him as technically in
” See G. Geiger, C. Mark Victonnus Afw, ein neuplatonisch Pbihopb (Metten,
188819); P. Henry, Plotin et I’Occident (Louvain, 1934), pp.44-62.
23 See A. Souter, A Study of Ambrosiaster, TS 7.4 (Cambridge, 1905); Earliest Latin
Commentaries, pp. 39-95.
24 The commentary on Hebrews included in some manuscripts along with
Ambrosiaster’s Pauline commentaries is actually by Alcuin of York (E. Riggenbach,
D i e ci’ltesten lateinisc-hen Kommentare zum Hebriirrbriqf, F G N T K 8 [ L e i p z i g , 19071,
pp. 18-40).
‘s Souter, Earliest Latrn Commentaries, pp.205-230. Souter was the first editor of
Pelagius’s commentaries: see his Pelagius’r Expositions of Thirteen Epistles of St Paul,
I-III, TS 9.1-3 (Cambridge, 1922-31). Seealso J. Ferguson, P&gius;An Historical
und Tbenhgk' Study (Cambridge, 1956).
26 Augustine and others say he was British; Jerome (Commentary on Jeremiah, 1,
preface) calls him an Irishman (Srotrrs).
222
THE
WEST
IN
THE
FOURTH
C E N T U R Y TO J E R O M E
heresy and that, while he knew the letter ofJames, he did not regard it
as canonical.27 Ambrosiaster, on the other hand, accepted it as
canonical. He also ascribed 3 John to ‘John the apostle’. In fact he cites
every book of the New Testament, with the exception of Jude. 28 One
can well believe that Athanasius had persuaded the Roman church not
only to acknowledge the canonical status of Hebrews but also to give
up any lingering doubts about the canonicity of the five disputed
catholic epistles.
LUCIFER, FILASTER AND AMBROSE
Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari in Sardinia (died 370/l), was a vigorous
anti-Arian polemicist. His works are linguistically interesting because
they were written in vulgar Latin; 29 they are important for the history
of the Latin Bible because he quoted extensively from a pre-Vulgate
text. His quotations are drawn from most of the New Testament
books, including Hebrews; in one of his treatises he incorporates
almost the whole of the letter of Jude in an attack on heresy. 3o
Filaster (Philaster), bishop of Brescia (died c 397), wrote a work On
Heresies, sadly deficient in literary organization. His confusion appears
in a list of the New Testament scriptures from which Hebrews and the
Apocalypse are missing, although it is perfectly plain from other
references in his work that he accepted both books as canonical,
ascribing the former to the apostle Paul and the latter to the apostle
John. Such works as the apocryphal Acts he recommends to the
spiritually mature for their ethical instruction.3’
Ambrose, the illustrious bishop of Milan (339-397), quotes
Hebrews as canonical but is reticent about its authorship. He was
familiar with the tradition of the Greek fathers, but prudently refrained
” Victorinus, Commentaq on Gal&am, on Gal. 1: 19.
*’ See Souter, Study of Amhrosiaster, pp. 196f. Ambrosiaster (on Gal. 5: 10) quotes
Jas. 5:20 (‘as James says in his letter’); he quotes 2 Peter more than once (e.g. on Phil.
1:3-5) as the work of ‘Peter the apostle’; on Rom. 16:23 he (no doubt wrongly)
identifies Paul’s host Gaius with the Gaius ‘to whom the apostle John wrote’ (in 3
John).
“) Vulgar Latin is the colloquial Latin from which the Romance languages of
Europe developed.
‘” Lucifer, On HeretIcs, 15.
‘I Filaster, On Heresies, 88.
223
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
THE WEST IN THE FOURTH CENTURY TO JEROME
from committing himself to Pauline authorship, on which he knew
western theologians had well-founded misgivings.32
not appealed to for the confirmation of doctrine. T h e o t h e r
writings they have named ‘apocrypha’; these they would not
read in the churches.36
RUFINUS
Rufinus uses ‘apocrypha’ of heretical works, as Arhanasius does. The
Two Ways (‘the way of life and the way ofdeath’) is a little body ofethical
teaching or catechesis incorporated bath in the Didache and in the
Letter of Barnabas. ” Jerome mentions the Judgment of Peter among the
Rufinus of Aquileia (345-410), at first the friend and then the
opponent of Jerome, is best known as the translator of Origen, but has
left some writings of his own, including An Exposition of the Creed.
When the creed confesses faith in ‘the Holy Spirit’ and ‘the holy
church’, Rufinus takes the opportunity to mention the books of the
Old and New Testaments which have been inspired by the Spirit and
handed down in the church. 33 He then lists the Old Testament books
according to the Hebrew Bible (the writings which appear in the
Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible are called not ‘canonical’ but
‘ecclesiastical’). 34 After listing the Old Testament books he goes on to
list the same twenty-seven New Testament books as Athanasius, but
not in the same order:
Of the New Testament there are the four gospels (Matthew,
Mark, Luke, John); the Acts of the Apostles (written by Luke);
fourteen epistles of the apostle Paul, two of the apostle Peter,
one of James (brother of the Lord, and apostle), one of Jude,
three of John; the Revelation ofJohn. These are the books which
the fathers have comprised within the canon; from these they
would have us deduce the evidences of our faith.35
As the Old Testament has appended to it books which are ‘ecclesiastical’
but not ‘canonical’, so has the New Testament. These are:
the little book which is called the book of the Shepherd of
Hermas, and that which is called The Two Ways or the Judgment
of Peter. They would have all of these read in the churches but
apocryphal works ascribed to Peter;38 nothing is now known of it.
Not only does Rufinus ascribe fourteen epistles to Paul; he occasionally cites him as author when he quotes Hebrews,39 although he
recognizes that ‘some do not receive it as his’.40
JEROME
In response to Pope Damasus’s direction, Jerome produced his revised
Latin version of the four gospels about 383 .4’ How far he is responsible
for the rest of the Vulgate New Testament is a disputed question.42
But the important point is that the Vulgate New Testament-more
precisely, the New Testament part of the Latin Bible which came in
due course to be called the common or ‘Vulgate’ edition-comprised
twenty-seven books, and with the general acceptance of the Vulgate
by western Christians the dimensions of the New Testament canon
were fixed.
Jerome expresses himself more than once on the canon of scripture.
Writing to Paulinus, bishop of Nola, for example, in 394, he outlines
the books of the Old Testament at some length and then undertakes to
deal more briefly with the New Testament.
Matthew, Mark, Luke and John are the Lord’s team of four, the
true cherubim (which means ‘abundance of knowledge’),
endowed with eyes throughout their whole body; they glitter
like sparks, they flash to and fro like lightning, their legs are
straight and directed upward, their backs are winged, to fly in
‘* He implies (or assumes) Pauline authorship when, e.g., he quotes Col. 1: 15 as
coming from the ‘apostle’ and goes on: ‘In another place also the apostle has declared
that God made the Son “heir of all things, by whom also he made the worlds. .“‘,
quoting Heb. I:2 (On thr Farrh, 1.48).
33 On the Creed, 36-38. The form of the creed which Rufinus expounds is called the
creed of Aquileia, an earlier form of what is traditionally known as the Apostles’
Creed.
34 On the Creed, 37f See p.90.
js On rhr Creed, 37. By placing Jude before the epistle of John, he brings the latter
into close association with John’s Apocalypse.
M On the Creed. 38. On the Shepherdof Hermas see pp. 166, 2 10.
‘s Jerome, On lihtrious Mm, 1.
37 See pp.23, 122.
YJ E.g., On the Creed. 3, where a quotation of Heb. 1 I:6 is introduced by the words:
‘as the apostle Paul, writing to the Hebrews, says’.
4’ Seep.88.
4” Apohu. 1.39.
” See B. M. Metzger, The Em/y Vrorons (4th Ntw Testmmt (Oxford, 1977),
pp.356-362.
224
225
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
all directions. They are interlocked and hold on to one another,
they roll along like wheels within wheels, they go to whatever
point the breath of the Holy Spirit guides them.43
The apostle Paul writes to seven churches (for the eighth such
letter, that to the Hebrews, is placed outside the number by
most); he instructs Timothy and Titus; he intercedes with
Philemon for his runaway slave. Regarding Paul I prefer to
remain silent than to write only a few things.
The Acts of the Apostles seem to relate a bare history and to
describe the childhood of the infant church; but ifwe know that
their writer was Luke the physician, ‘whose praise is in the
gospel’ ,44 we shall observe likewise that all their words are
medicine for the sick soul. The apostles James, Peter, John and
Jude produced seven epistles both mystical and concise, both
short and long-that is, short in words but long in thoughtso that there are few who are not deeply impressed by reading
them.
The Apocalypse of John has as many mysteries as it has
words. I have said too little in comparison with what the book
deserves; all praise of it is inadequate, for in every one of its
words manifold meanings lie hidden.45
In comparing the four gospels to Ezekiel’s four chrerubim or ‘living
creatures’,46 Jerome reproduces the details of Ezekiel’s description of
the cherubim to a point where he himself might have been puzzled to
say exactly how they applied to the gospels. For the rest, we note that
he places Acts and the catholic epistles together after the Pauline
epistles,47 that he distinguishes Hebrews from Paul’s letter ‘to seven
churches’,48 and that he assigns apostolic authorship to all seven
catholic epistles.
Elsewhere, however, he expresses himself more critically. In writing
to Dardanus, prefect of Gaul, in the year 414, he answers his
correspondent’s questions about the ‘promised land’ of scripture and
quotes highly relevant texts from Hebrews 11: 13-- 16, 39f.; 12:22f.
On the authority of these texts he says:
This must be said to our people, that the epistle which is
entitled ‘To the Hebrews’ is accepted as the apostle Paul’s not
43 From Ezek. 1:7-21.
44 2 Cor. 8: 18 (seep. 174).
45 Epistle 5 3.9.
de C/.Irenaeus (p. 175, 11.29).
47 C/C&x SimtitmI (pp. 205f. ).
4x C/the Muratorian list, Cyprian and Victorinus of Pettau (p. 164 with n. 15).
226
THE
WEST
IN
THE
FOURTH
CENTURY
TO
JEROME
only by the churches of the east but by all church writers in the
Greek language of earlier times, although many judge it to be
by Barnabas or by Clement. It is of no great moment who the
author is, since it is the work of a churchman and receives
recognition day by day in the churches’ public reading. If the
custom of the Latins does not receive it among the canonical
scriptures, neither, by the same liberty, do the churches of the
Greeks accept John’s Apocalypse. Yet we accept them both, not
following the custom of the present time but the precedent of
early writers, who generally make free use of testimonies from
both works. And this they do, not as they are wont on occasion
to quote from apocryphal writings, as indeed they use examples
from pagan literature, but treating them as canonical and
ecclesiastical works.49
Jerome’s insistence that canonicity is not dependent on particular
authorship, not even on apostolic authorship, reveals an insight which
has too often been ignored in discussions about the canon of scripture,
in earlier and more recent times alike. so
As for the catholic epistles, Jerome receives all seven as canonical,
but he recognizes the questions that were raised about their authorship
and authority. James the Lord’s brother, he says, ‘wrote a single letter,
which is reckoned among the seven catholic epistles. Even so, some
claim that is was published by another person under James’s name and
gradually gained authority as time went on’.‘i Peter ‘wrote two
epistles which are called catholic, the second of which, on account of
its stylistic difference from the first, is considered by many not to be by
him. ‘52 In a letter to Hedibia (406/i’) he suggests that the stylistic
difference between the two might be due to the employment of two
different translators (on whom Peter presumably relied to turn his
Galilean Aramaic into Greek and write it down).53 He ascribes 1 John
to John the apostle and evangelist, but thinks that 2 and 3 John were
written by another John, ‘John the elder (presbyter)‘.54 The author of
both 2 and 3 John introduces himself as ‘the elder’, and Jerome links
this self-designation with Papias’s ‘John the elder’.” When he adds
that to the memory of this John ‘another sepulchre is shown at Ephesus
to the present day, though some think that there are two memorials of
one and the same John, the evangelist’, he echoes the testimony of
49 Epistle 129.3.
5o See Augustine’s position (p.232).
s’ On Ihtrim Men, 2.
” On Ihstrious Men, 1.
54 On Iilustrious Men, 9.
*5 Seep. 119, n.5.
227
” Epistle 120.11
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Dionysius of Alexandria, preserved by Eusebius.56 But Dionysius,
followed by Eusebius, was concerned to find another John than the
evangelist as author of the Apocalypse. With regard to the one
remaining catholic epistle, ‘Jude, the brother of James’, says Jerome,
‘left a short epistle which is reckoned among the seven catholic
epistles, but it is rejected by many because in it he quotes from the
apocryphal book of Enoch. Nevertheless by age and use it has gained
authority and is reckoned among the holy scriptures. ‘57
Jerome gives the impression that on one or two of the canonical
books he has private reservations, but by this time the canon was
something ‘given’ and not to be modified because of the personal
opinion of this or that churchman, however eminent. Similarly he
gives the impression that he thought one or two of the ‘outside’ books
worthy of inclusion in the canon, but by this time they were decidedly
outside, and it was not for him, or anyone else, to add them.
The writing called the Letter of Barnabas, for example, he regards as
the authentic work of Barnabas, Paul’s colleague.58 Since Paul at times
appears to recognize Barnabas’s standing as comparable with his
own, 59 and since Barnabas and Paul are twice called ‘apostles’ by
Luke,60 it might be concluded that a letter of Barnabas, ‘valuable for
the edification of the church’ (as Jerome says), should have its place in
the canon with other apostolic writings. But it was not in the canon
which Jerome had received, and therefore it ‘is reckoned among the
apocryphal writings’ (as in an Old Testament context, so here Jerome
uses the adjective ‘apocryphal’ of those ‘ecclesiastical’ writings which
are read ‘for the edification of the people but not for establishing the
authority of ecclesiastical dogmas’).6’ As a matter of fact, the Letter of
Barnabas cannot be the work of the Barnabas who figures in Acts and
in the Pauline epistles; it belongs to the later part of the first century
and is probably of Alexandrian origin.
THE WEST IN THE FOURTH CENTURY TO JEROME
Jerome ascribes the Shepherd of Hermas to that Hermas to whom
Paul sends greetings in Romans 16: 14 (an ascription mentioned also
by Eusebius, who does not commit himself to it).62 The Shepherd, he
says, ‘is read publicly in some churches of Greece; it is in fact a useful
book and many of the ancient writers quote from it as authoritative,
but among the Latins it is almost unknown’63 - which is remarkable,
since it originated in Rome. In any case, whatever be the date of the
Shepherd, there is nothing to be said in favour of identifying the author
with Paul’s Hermas.
With Jerome, then, the canon is a datum to be received gratefully,
preserved faithfully, and handed on intact.
” Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 3.3.6.
63 On Illustrious Men, 10.
56 See pp. 195f. It is more probable that there were two rival memorials to John the
evangelist; see F. F. Bruce, Men and Mowments in the Primitive Church (Exeter, 1979),
pp. 139f.
s7 On lhstrious Mm, 4.
s8 On Ihstriow Men, 6. B. M. Metzger points out that in his book On Hebrew Names
(composed in 388) Jerome lists the proper names in both Testaments and adds at the
end thirteen from the Lrrter of Barnabas (The Canon of the New Testament, p.236).
s9 Cf Gal. 2: I- 10; 1 Cor. 9:6.
‘” Acts 14:4, 14. The sense in which Luke uses the term here of Paul and Barnabas
is arguable; normally he restricts it to the twelve.
61 Seep. 122.
228
229
AUGUSTINE TO THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES
These are the same twenty-seven books as were listed by Athanasius,
although they are not in the same order. 3 Those which form groups are
placed first- the four gospels, the fourteen epistles of Paul, the seven
catholic epistles (with Peter’s being accorded the primacy)-and then
the two which stand on their own: Acts and Revelation.
While he received the twenty-seven books as they had been delivered
to him, Augustine, like other Christian thinkers, considered the
question: Why these, and no others? He prefaces his list of canonical
books with these observations:
CHAPTER NINETEEN
AUGUSTINE TO THE END
OF THE MIDDLE AGES
AUGUSTINE
Augustine, like Jerome, inherited the canon of scripture as something
‘given’. It was part of the Christian faith which he embraced at his
conversion in 386 and, as with so many other elements of the Christian
faith, he set himself to understand, defend and expound it.
In the second book of his work On Christian Learning, after listing
the books within which, as he says, ‘the authority of the Old Testament
is contained’,’ he continues:
That of the New Testament, again, is contained within the
following:
Four books of the gospel-according to Matthew, according
to Mark, according to Luke, according to John. Fourteen epistles
of the apostle Paul-one to the Remans, two to the Corinthians,
one to the Galatians, to the Ephesians, to the Philippians, two
to the Thessalonians, one to the Colossians, two to Timothy,
one to Titus, to Philemon, to the Hebrews. Two [epistles) of
Peter, three ofJohn, one ofJude, and one ofJames. One book of
the Acts of the Apostles, and one of the Revelation of John.’
’ Seep.95.
’ On Christian Learning, 2.13.
230
Among the canonical scriptures he [the interpreter of the sacred
writings) will judge according to the following standard: to
prefer those that are received by all the catholic churches to
those which some do not receive. Again, among those which are
not received by all, he will prefer such as are sanctioned by the
greater number of churches and by those of greater authority to
such as held by the smaller number and by those of less authority.
If, however, he finds that some books are held by the greater
number of churches, and others by the churches of greater
authority (although this is not a very likely thing to happen), I
think that in such a case the authority on the two sides is to be
considered as equaL4
It is plain from this that, when Augustine wrote, no ecclesiastical
council had made a pronouncement on the canon which could be
recognized as the voice of the church. All twenty-seven books had been
delivered to him and his contemporaries, but not all with the same
authority: the practice of different churches varied, and greater respect
would be paid to those of higher prestige (especially, no doubt, to
those of apostolic foundation) or to the majority consensus (and these
two criteria might conceivably conflict at times).5 The prestige of
Jerome and Augustine ensured that their canon prevailed in the west,
but the distinction between those books which were received by all
and those which were disputed by some (namely, Hebrews, James, 2
Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, Revelation) was not entirely forgotten, and
surfaced again in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 6
4 On Christian Learning, 2.12.
3 See p.208.
’ This passage is discussed by C. R. Gregory, Canon and Text oftbe Nrw Trsfanmt
(Edinburgh, 1907). pp.287f. ‘The “important” churches in Augustine’s eyes’, he
says, ‘are those that have apostolical bishops’ seats: Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, and
those that received Epistles from apostles.’
6 See pp.242, 248.
231
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Augustine enjoyed critical freedom, according to the standards of
his time, in expounding the books within the canon. He tackles
discrepancies between different gospel accounts of the same incident:
how, for example, could John the Baptist say of Jesus, ‘I myself did
not know him’ (Jn 1:3l, 33), when, according to another evangelist,
he could say to him, ‘I need to be baptized by you’ (Mt. 3:14)?’ If
Joseph was afraid to settle in Judaea because Archelaus was ruler there
(Mt. 2:22), how could he settle happily in Galilee, where another son
of Herod (Antipas) was ruler (Lk 3:l; cf Mt. 14:1)?* Or, to take a
problem peculiar to one of the evangelists, why does Matthew 279
ascribe to Jeremiah an oracle which actually appears in Zechariah
11: 13 ? (Matthew perhaps experienced a slip of memory, thinking of
the incident of Jer. 32:6-15, and then reflected that this slip of
memory may have been divinely prompted: after all, the prophets
spoke with one voice.)’
In saying that Paul’s epistles are fourteen in number, Augustine
does not intend to foreclose the question of the authorship of Hebrews.
‘In his earliest writings (down to 406) he cites the Epistle as Paul’s; in
the middle period he wavers between Pauline authorship and
anonymity; in his old age (409-30) he refers to it always as
anonymous. ‘lo But he never questions its canonicity: for him, as for
Jerome, canonicity and authorship are separate issues. It is not so
certain as has sometimes been thought that the inclusion of Hebrews
in the New Testament is due to the ‘happy fault’ of its wrong
ascription to Paul. ”
COUNCILS
OF
HIPPO
AND
CARTHAGE
The Council of Hippo (393) was probably the first church council to
lay down the limits of the canon of scripture: its enactments are not
’ On the Consensus of the Evangdists, 2. IS.
H On the Consenst~s of the Ewzngehts, 2.8.
” On the Consensw of the Ewqelists, 3.28-3 1.
” A. Souter, The Text and Canon ofthe Neu Testament (London, 21954), p. 174,
summarizing 0. Rottmanner, ‘Saint Augustin SLIT l’auteur de l’bpitre aux Hebrew’,
Rewe BlnCdictine 18 (1901), pp.257-26 1, reprinted in his Gei&sfricthte aus der
Klo~trrzrllr (Munich, 1908), pp.84-90.
” C/W. F. Howard, ‘The Greek Bible’, in Thr Brhfe m II~ An&nt and En&h
Vrnrom, ed. H. W. Robinson (Oxford, 1940), p.68: ‘To the mistaken critical
judgement of the ancient Church we owe the presence in the New Testament of not a
few books. The most striking instance is Hebrews, which was certainly not written by
Paul. Oj&ix u/N[p)rl!
232
AUGUSTINE TO THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES
extant, but its statement on the canon was repeated as Canon 47 of the
Third Council of Carthage (397). I2 The relevant words are these:
And further it was resolved that nothing should be read in
church under the name of the divine scriptures except the
canonical writings. The canonical writings, then, are these:.
Of the New Testament:
The four books of the gospels,
the one book of the Acts of the Apostles,
the thirteen epistles of the apostle Paul,
the one [epistle] to the Hebrews, by the same,
two of the apostle Peter,
three of John,
one of James,
one of Jude,
John’s Apocalypse-one book.
. . Let it be permitted, however, that the passions of martyrs be
read when their anniversaries are celebrated.
Here Hebrews is ascribed to Paul, but listed separately from the
thirteen letters which bear his name. As in Augustine’s list, Peter’s
letters come first among the catholic epistles (but Jude follows James
instead of preceding it). The permission given to read the account of a
martyrdom when its anniversary came round was reasonable: no one
would think that such an account was part of holy scripture. What was
important was that nothing should be read as holy scripture which was
not listed in the canon. Augustine himself is said to have read extracts
from Cyprian’s works in church occasionally, but none of his flock was
given reason to suppose that he regarded Cyprian as canonical. I3
The Sixth Council of Carthage (419) repromulgated in Canon 24
the resolution of the Third Council regarding the canon of scripture,
and added a note directing that the resolution be sent to the bishop of
Rome (Boniface I) and other bishops:
Let this be made known also to our brother and fellow-priest
Boniface, or to other bishops of those parts, for the purpose of
confirming that Canon {Canon 47 of the Third Council], because
we have received from our fathers that these are the books which
are to be read in church. I4
” See p.97.
2.33
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
POPE
INNOCENT’S
LIST
In his list of canonical books addressed to Exsuperius, bishop of
Toulouse, in 405, Pope Innocent I specifies the books of the New
Testament (after those of the Old Testament) as follows:
Of the gospels-four,
epistles of the apostle Paul-thitteen,
epistles of John-three,
epistles of Peter-two,
epistle of Jude,
epistle of James,
Acts of the Apostles,
John’s Apocalypse.
But the rest of the books, which appear under the name of
Matthias or of James the less, or under the name of Peter and
John (which were written by a certain Leucius), or under the
name of Andrew (which (were written] by the philosophers
Xenocharides and Leonidas), or under the name of Thomas, and
whatever others there may be, you should know are to be not
only rejected but also condemned. I5
The omission of Hebrews from the New Testament books is surprising.
The manuscripts, in fact, are divergent in their testimony: the three
best ones reckon Paul’s epistles as thirteen (written XIII), but the rest
reckon them as fourteen (written X1111).
T H E GELASIAN D E C R E E
The sixth-century compilation commonly called the ‘Gelasian decree’
continues as follows after its list of Old Testament books:
The order of the scriptures of the New Testament, which the
holy and catholic Roman church accepts and venerates:
Of the gospels four books:
according to Matthew-one book
according to Mark-one book
IS Innocent, Epist/r 6.7. With regard to the apocryphal works which he mentions,
on Matthias see pp. 191, 201; on James the less it may be observed that an Ap~~‘yphon
~~//ame.r is included in the Nag Hammadi documents; on the Leucian Acts see p.202;
on the Acts o/Andrtm see p. 202; on Thomas the reference may be to a Gruprl o/Thon,as
(see p. 300) or the AI-~J oj’Thovu~ (see pp. 202f.).
234
AUGUSTINE TO THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES
according to Luke-one book
according to John-one book
Also: of the Acts of the Apostles-one book
Epistles of the apostle Paul-in number fourteen:
to the Romans-one epistle
to the Corinthians-two epistles
to the Ephesians-one epistle
to the Thessalonians-two epistles
to the Galatians-one epistle
to the Philippians-one epistle
to the Colossians-one epistle
to Timothy-twh epistles
to Titus-one epistle
to Philemon-one epistle
to the Hebrews-one epistle
Also: John’s Apocalypse-one book
Also: canonical epistles-in number seven:
of the apostle Peter-two epistles
of the apostle James-one epistle
of the apostle John-one epistle
of the other John, the elder-two epistles
of the apostle Jude the Zealot-one epistle
The Canon of the New Testament ends. I6
In this list it is worthy of note that John’s Apocalypse precedes the
catholic epistles, that the latter are called the ‘canonical epistles’, that
within this group 2 and 3 John are assigned (as by Jerome) to another
John than the evangelist (who is identified with the author of 1 John),
and that Jude is called ‘the Zealot’ (this designation having evidently
been transferred to him from the apostle Simon, called the Zealot in
Luke6:15 and Acts 1:13).”
The Gelasian decree follows its lists of books which are to received
with a long catalogue of books which are not to be received, comprising
a variety of apocryphal, spurious and heretical writings. I8
I6 See E. von Dobschiitz, Das Decrerum Grl~sianm (Leipzig, 1912). pp.27f. (see
p.97, n.74).
” The apostle Judas--‘not Iscariot’-is called ‘Judas the Zealot’ in some Old
Latin texts of Mt. IO:3 (where our other witnesses read ‘Thaddaeus’); Judas the Zealot
is also listed among the apostles in the cecond-century Epistle of fhe Aposfh, 2.
‘s See M. R. James, The Apoqpbal Nru, TrJtament (Oxford, 1924), pp.2 l-23, for a
translation of the catalogue.
235
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
THE DIATESSARON IN WESTERN EUROPE
Throughout the Middle Ages the shape of the New Testament canon
in Western Europe remained unchanged, but there were some
interesting, if local and temporary, developments within it.
The Diatessaron, which was displaced by the ‘separated gospels’ in
its Syrian and Mesopotamian homeland in the course of the fifth
century, had a fresh lease of life in some parts of the west during the
following centuries. When a gospel harmony from this period is
identified, it is necessary to make sure that it is really based on Tatian’s
Diatessaron and that it is not rather an independent production. There
is little room for doubt on this score with the Dutch gospel harmony,
composed in the middle of the thirteenth century and best preserved
in a Liege manuscript of about 1270 - 1280. This was evidently based
on a lost Old Latin original, which in turn was derived from a Syriac
and not a Greek copy of the Diatessaron. l9
The influence of the Diatessavon can be recognized much earlier in
the Old Saxon versified form of the gospel story, commonly known
nowadays as the Heliand (‘Saviour’), dating from the first half of the
ninth century. This is not a straight translation, but the Diatessaron is
evidently its basis. ” It is the basis also of an East Franconian version of
the gospel story, extant in its entirety in a late ninth-century
manuscript. ”
Apart from versions or paraphrases which show the specific influence
of Tatian’s Diatessaron, there are others which follow Tatian’s arrangement of gospel material without being dependent on his wording.
Codex Fuldensis, for example, is an important witness to the text of the
Latin Vulgate; the copyist completed his work for Victor, bishop of
Capua, who corrected it and signed his name in it in 546. But in the
gospels, while the text is that of the Vulgate, the arrangement is that
of Tatian.” Various mediaeval gospel harmonies were based on this
I9 In the last phrase of Luke 2:42, the Dutch wording means not ‘according to the
custom of the feast’ (as it should) but ‘according to the custom of their habits’. This is
best explained as a confusion between two Syriac words, meaning respectively ‘feast’
and ‘habit’, which have the same consonants (and in fact share the same root). See W.
B. Lockwood, ‘Vernacular Scriptures in Germany and the Low Countries before
15OO’, CHB II, p.430. On the Diclrr~samn see also p. 127 above.
‘“See Lockwood, ‘Vernacular Scriptures. .‘, pp.418-420.
‘I See Lockwood, ‘Vernacular Scriptures. .‘. p.418.
” See B. M. Metzger, The Tr.ut lrjthr Neu Trrtmmt (Oxford, 1964), p.89; The Ear!,
VtmI’om (4 thr New TrJtmmt (Oxford, 197 7), pp. 2Of., 2Xf., 335.
236
AUGUSTINE TO THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES
form of the text: Magdalene College, Cambridge, for example,
possesses a manuscript from about 1400 which once belonged to
Samuel Pepys, containing a Middle English Harmony. 23 Of a similar
character is a mediaeval gospel harmony in the Tuscan dialect of
Italy. 24
THE LETTER TO THE HEBREWS
While the ascription of Hebrews to Paul was generally accepted
throughout the Middle Ages, the precedent of Augustine, who recognized it as canonical and anonymous, encouraged some students to
think of another author than Paul. Those who did so tended to prefer
Luke-‘Luke, that excellent advocate, translated that work of art
from Hebrew into Greek’, said Thomas Aquinas. ” Rabanus Maurus
and Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury were also among those who
ascribed the work to Luke. 26
It is uncertain what significance to attach to the omission of
Hebrews from Codex Boernerianus (Gp) a ninth-century Graeco-Latin
manuscript of the Pauline epistles. It ends with the letter to Philemon,
after which stands a note: ‘Here begins the letter to the Laodiceans’but the text of that document is not included.
THE LETTER TO THE LAODICEANS
This reference to ‘the letter to the Laodiceans’ provides an occasion to
mention the extraordinary popularity in the Middle Ages of a spurious
work bearing that title.
When Paul writes to the Colossians, ‘when this letter has been read
among you, have it read also in the church of the Laodiceans; and see
that you read also the letter from Iaodicea’ (Cal. 4: l6), the status of
this ‘letter from Laodicea’ is not quite clear to a reader today (although
no doubt it was perfectly clear to the original readers). Was it a letter
originating from Laodicea, or was it a letter sent by Paul to the
Laodicean church, which the Colossians were to procure ‘from
Laodicea’? The latter is more probable. If the reference is to a letter
composed by Paul, have we any other information about it? From time
” See Metzger, Early Versiom, p. 25.
24 See K. Foster, ‘Vernacular Scriptures in Italy’, CHB II, p.464.
” Prefal-e to the Epistle to the Hebrews.
Lb See C. Spicq, L’Epitveaux H6bmx, I (Paris, 1952), p. 198, n. 1
237
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
to time it has been identified with what we know as the epistle to the
Ephesians (the oldest form of which seems to contain no indication of
the addressees’ whereabouts or identity).*’ Marcion evidently made
this identification, and gave Ephesians the title ‘To the Laodiceans’.28
The compiler of the Muratorian list speaks ofa ‘letter in Paul’s name to
the Laodiceans’ which, he says, was ‘forged in accordance with
Marcion’s heresy’. 29 This may be an unintelligent reference to the
letter which Marcion entitled ‘To the Laodiceans’, or the compiler
may actually have known a spurious work so designated.
There is extant a spurious work so designated, but it betrays no
trace of Marcion’s heresy. This work has been well described as a
‘worthless patching together of Pauline passages and phrases, mainly
from the Epistle to the Philippians’30 (although its opening words are
taken from Galatians). The chapter-headings supplied for it in a
twelfth-century manuscript of the Latin Bible in Trinity College,
Cambridge, sum up its contents thus:
1. Paul the apostle gives thanks to the Lord for the Laodiceans
and exhorts them not to be deceived by those who
would lead them astray.
2. Concerning the apostle’s ‘manifest’ bonds,3’ in which he
rejoices and exults.
3. The apostle admonishes the Laodiceans that, as they heard
him when he was present with them, so they should
retain his teaching and practise it without drawing
back.
4. The apostle exhorts the Laodiceans to be steadfast in the faith
and do those things which are marked by integrity
and truth and which bring pleasure to God. He greets
the brothers. 32
The Letter to the Luodiceans was probably written in the fourth century;
it is mentioned by Filaster33 and Jerome34 and quoted in the fifth” Seep. 131.
z9 Seep. 167.
*s Seep. 139.
j0 R. Knopf and G. Kriiger in Neutestamentlicbe Apoktypben, ed. E. Hennecke
(Tiibingen, 21924), p. 150, quoted by W. Schneemelcher in HenneckeSchneemelcher-Wilson, Nru~ Testament Apoctypba, II, p. 129.
j’ From Phil. 1:13.
‘* The Latin text of these chapter-headings is reproduced by J. B. Lightfoot, Saint
PuI’J Eprstles to the Cohians and to Philemon (London, 1875), p.284 (in rhe course of
an informative and judicial account of this apocryphon, pp.281-300).
14 Jerome, On Illu~fno~~s Mm, 5.
” Filaster, Here&r, 89.
2.38
AUGUSTINE TO THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES
century work called the Spectlltlm,35 a topical arrangement of Bible
texts, traditionally but mistakenly ascribed to Augustine. Its original
language was Greek, but the original Greek text has not survived.36
Its circulation in the eastern church seems to have been checked after it
was pronounced a forgery by the Second Council of Nicaea (787).
Almost as soon as it was composed, however, it was translated into
Latin, and the Latin version flourished for a thousand years and more.
It was drawn into the textual tradition of the Old Latin Bible, and
later, although Jerome gave it no countenance, it was absorbed into
the Vulgate text and is found in many Vulgate manuscripts, including
Codex Fuldensis, mentioned above.
Pope Gregory the Great (c 595) says that Paul wrote fifteen letters,37
although only fourteen were reckoned canonical: although he does not
expressly say so, it is probable that this Laodicean letter was the
fifteenth. Aelfric, abbot of Cerne in Dorset (late tenth century), is
more explicit: he not only says that Paul wrote fifteen epistles but lists
them, and names that to the Laodiceans as the fifteenth.38 John of
Salisbury, another English writer about two centuries later, writes to
the same effect although he knows that he is contradicting Jerome:
‘Jerome says that it is rejected by all; nevertheless it was written by the
apostle. ‘39 Yet another writer of that period, possibly Herveus Burgidolensis,49 speaks of Paul as the author of fifteen or sixteen letters
(including not only the Laodicean letter but another apocryphon, 3
Corinthians).4’
From the Latin text the Letter to the Luodiceans was translated into
several of the western European vernaculars and was included in Bible
versions in those languages. Although it did not form part originally
of either the earlier or the later Wycliffite Bibles, two independent
” It quotes verse 4 of the work: ‘See that you are not robbed by certain people who
tell you vain tales in order to turn you away from the truth of the gospel which is
proclaimed by me’.
36 Reasons for believing that the extant Latin text is based on a Greek original are
g i v e n b y Lightfoot, Cnhians-Philemon, pp.291-294. He provides a Greek
retroversion.
37 Gregory, Moral ExpoGfion ofJob 35.25.
38 Aelfricus Abbas, A Saxon Treatise concerning the Old and Neu Testament, ed. W.
L’lsle (London, 1623), p.28, cited by Lightfooc, p.296.
” John of Salisbury, Epi~fle 143.
4’1 On the Eputlr to rbr Colo&nu, adloc. (PL 181, col. 1355). J. B. Lightfoot notes
the possibility that the author might be Anselm of Laon.
4’ _i C/,rrwthirmj 1s included in the At-o “f Purl; see Hennecke-SchneemelcherWilson, Nrw Te~ti~me~~r Apocqpbu. II, pp.374-378. See p.215 above.
239
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Middle English versions of the work made their way into the manuscript tradition of the Wyclifftte Bible, and were repeatedly reproduced
from the first half of the fifteenth century onward.
With the invention of printing in the middle of the fifteenth
century, the Laodicean letter was included in some of the earliest
printed editions of the New Testament. This did not happen in
England, where the printing of the Bible was inhibited by the
anti-Lollard Constitutions of Oxford (1408): the first printed edition
of the New Testament in English (Tyndale’s) had to be produced on
the Continent (1525/26) and, being based on the Greek text, did not
include the Letter to the Laodiceans. But the earliest printed German
New Testaments (from 1466 onward) and Czech New Testaments
(from 1475 onward) included it: it was omitted, however, from the
new versions which were based on the Greek text, such as Luther’s
(1522) and the Czech Kralice Bible(1593).“’
In France, Jacques Lefevre d’Etaples (Faber Stapulensis) wrote a
commentary on the Latin text of the Pauline epistles in 15 13; in this
he not only included the Laodicean letter but also the spurious
correspondence of the philosopher Seneca with Pau1.43 A more critical
assessment was made by Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt, who in
152 1 listed the work among the New Testament apocrypha, together
with the last twelve verses of Mark’s gospe1.44 Any claims by the work
to be treated as a genuine Pauline letter were finally exploded by
Erasmus45 and Luther .46
4* The New Testament part of the Kralice Bible (the ‘authorised version’ of the
Czech Bible) was based on an earlier translation from the Greek by Jan Blahoslav
(1564).
43 This third-century compilation was regarded as authentic even by Jerome (On
Illustriws Men, 12). For an English translation see Hennecke-Schneemelcher-Wilson,
Nwc’ Testament Apocypha, II, pp.133-141.
44 In his Welcbr Bkcber hedig und biblisch sind(Wittenberg, 152 l), a popular version
of De canoni& iibris libelhs (Wittenberg, 1520).
45 Erasmus, on Cal. 4: 16: ‘it is not for any Tom, Dick or Harry to copy the mind of
Paul. *
” The mere fact of its omission from Luther’s New Testament was its sufficient
quietus in the lands of the Reformation. It had already been omitted from the list of
New Testament books published by the Council of Florence about 1440 (see p. 104).
CHAPTER TWENTY
THE NEW TESTAMENT
CANON IN THE AGE
OF PRINTING
BEFORE
LUTHER
The dimensions of the New Testament canon were not seriously
affected by the fifteenth-century revival of learning and the sixteenthcentury Reformation. This is the more noteworthy because one of the
features of these movements in the field of literature was the detection
and exposure ofhallowed forgeries. The most notorious of these was
Laurentius Valla’s demonstration of the spurious character of the
so-called ‘Donation of Constantine’, the alleged justification for the
secular dominion of the Papacy. In addition to this demonstration (so
convincingly done that it required no repetition), Valla (1406/7-57)
disproved the authenticity of the traditional correspondence between
Christ and King Abgar of Edessa,’ of the Letter of Lentuhs (a thirteenth-century work purporting to give a contemporary description of
the person of Christ), 2 of the fifth/sixth-century corpus of Neoplatonic
treatises ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite (Acts 17:34); he also
exploded the legend which told how each of the apostles had con’ First recorded in Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 1.13.1-22; 2.1.68. See W. Bauer, ‘The
Abgar Legend’, in Hennecke-Schneemelcher-Wilson, New Testament Apocypba, I,
pp.437443.
’ Translated in M. R. James, The Apocyphal New Testament (Oxford, 1924).
pp.477f.
240
241
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
tributed a clause to the Apostles’ Creed.3 These activities did not
endear Valla to the upholders of tradition for tradition’s sake, but
Valla had a powerful protector in King Alfonso V of Aragon, whose
secretary he was (later, however, he became apostolic secretary to Pope
Nicholas V).
It was not for nothing that Cardinal Bellarmine later described
Valla as a ‘precursor of Luther’.4 At his death Valla left in manuscript a
series of annotations on the New Testament. When Erasmus came
upon a copy of this manuscript nearly fifty years later, he found that
Valla had anticipated much of his own thinking and published the
work at Paris in 1505. Valla showed little patience with theologians
who wrote on the New Testament without paying any attention to the
Greek text. These were Erasmus’s own sentiments, but it was
expedient that the odium which their publication would inevitably
incur should fall on the dead Valla and not on the living Erasmus.
The study of the New Testament in Greek, which now became
more accessible in the west, was bound to make an impact on all
phases of biblical study. The Greek text was printed as part of the New
Testament volume of the Comphtensian Polyglot in Spain in 15 14, but
it remained unpublished until the whole work, in six volumes, was
published in (probably) 1522.5 By that time Erasmus had published
two printed editions of the Greek New Testament (15 16, 15 19), and
in 1522 a third edition appeared. There was no problem about the
contents of the New Testament in these new editions: the twentyseven established books were reproduced in them all, no more and no
less. But questions within the canon were reopened. Erasmus denied
the Pauline authorship of Hebrews and questioned the traditional
authorship of the five ‘disputed’ catholic epistles; he thought also that
on grounds of style the Apocalypse could not be attributed to the
author of the Fourth Gospel.
His contemporary Cardinal Cajetan (Jacob Thomas de Vio), an able
’ On the origins of this legend (possibly going back to Ambrose ofMilan) see A. A.
T. Ehrhardt, ‘Christianity before the Apostles’ Creed’, in The Framework of the Ntw
Trstctmmt Storir~ (Manchester, 1964), pp. 15 If.
’ Quoted by J. A. Wagenmann in P. Schaff (ed.), RrLigiow Encyrlopardia (New
York, 1894), p. 1286.
’ The first four volumes contained the Hebrew, Latin (Vulgate) and Greek
(Sepruagint) texts of the Old Testament in parallel columns, with the Aramaic
Targum of Onkelos w the Pentaceuch printed at the foot of the appropriate pages,
wirh a Latin translation. The sixth volume contained a Hebrew lexicon and grammar.
242
NEW TESTAMENT CANON IN THE AGE OF PRINTING
exegete, likewise denied the Pauline authorship of Hebrews and
questioned the traditional authorship of James, 2 and 3 John, and
Jude; he defended the apostolic authorship of 2 Peter. Like Valla, he
insisted that the study of the Vulgate was no substitute for the study of
the scriptures in their original languges; for this in particular he was
censured by the University of Paris. 6
LUTHER’S
NEW TESTAMENT
It was Cajetan who, as papal legate, examined Martin Luther at
Augsburg in 1518 and tried in vain to gain his submission to the
authority of the Pope. Luther’s own views on the New Testament
canon gained wide currency with the publication of his German New
Testament in 1522. (The Greek basis for his translation was Erasmus’s
second edition of 1519.) The table of contents suggested that he
distinguished two levels of canonicity in the New Testament: the
names of the first twenty-three books (Matthew- 3 John) are preceded
by serial numbers l-23; the remaining four books-Hebrews, James,
Jude and Revelation-are separated from those by a space and are
given no serial number. Luther did not exclude the last four books
from the canon, but he did not recognize in them the high quality of
‘the right certain capital books’, and expressed his opinion forthrightly
in his individual prefaces to these books. In his preface to Hebrews it is
plain that he had given up the traditional Pauline authorship: it was
written, he says, by ‘an excellent man of learning, who had been a
disciple of the apostles and had learned from them, and who was very
well versed in scripture’. (By 1537 he was sure that this ‘excellent man
of learning’ was Apollos. ‘) It is in his preface to James in his 1522 New
Testament that he calls it ‘an epistle of straw’. He finds that it
contradicts Paul and the other scriptures on justification by faith, and,
while it promotes law, it does not promote Christ. Jude is a superfluous
document: it is an abstract of 2 Peter. (Nowadays it would be
generally agreed that 2 Peter is based on Jude, not vice vevsa.) Moreover,
Jude is suspect because it contains history and teaching nowhere found
in scripture (this is a reference to the Enoch quotation and the dispute
’ On Erasmus and Cajetan see B. Hall, ‘Biblical Scholarship: Editions and
Commentaries’, CHB III, pp.38-93, pa~~ini.
’ Luther ascribes the work to Apollos in a sermon of 1537 on 1 Cor. 3:4ff. (Luther.~
Wrrke, Weimar edition, 45, p.389) and again in his Commentary on Genesis, 1545
(Weimar edition, 44, p.709).
243
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
about the body of Moses). As for Revelation, it ‘lacks everything that I
hold as apostolic or prophetic’.’
Luther knew that those books had been disputed in earlier days:
that, however, is not his main reason for relegating them to a
secondary status. He appears to have had no difficulty with 2 Peter or 2
and 3 John, which had also been disputed. His main reason is that in
the four relegated books he could not find that clear promotion of
Christ which was the principal note of holy scripture. 9 If one asked for
Luther’s criterion of canonicity (or at least primary canonicity), it is
here. ‘That which does not teach Christ is still not apostolic, even if it
were the teaching of Peter or Paul. On the other hand, that which
preaches Christ, that would be apostolic even if Judas, Annas, Pilate
or Herod did it.“’
‘The conclusion’, says Roland H. Bainton, ‘was a hierarchy of
values within the New Testament. First Luther would place the
Gospel of John, then the Pauline epistles and First Peter, after them
the three other Gospels, and in a subordinate place Hebrews, James,
Jude and Revelation. He mistrusted Revelation because of its
obscurity. “A revelation”, said he, “should be revealing”.‘” (There
are some omissions in Bainton’s summary: probably Acts would go
along with the Synoptic Gospels, the Johannine letters with the
Fourth Gospel, and-more doubtfully-2 Peter with 1 Peter.)
The recognition of an ‘inner canon’ within the wider canon has
persisted in the Lutheran tradition to the present day: the ‘inner canon’
is a Pauline canon. As Bainton goes on to say, ‘the New Testament was
for Luther a Pauline book’. ‘* So it was for Marcion, but Luther was no
Marcionite: for him ‘the Old Testament was a Christian book’.13 It
could not be otherwise: it was an Old Testament text that set him on
the road to peace with God: ‘in thy righteousness deliver me’ (Ps
31:1).14
NEW TESTAMENT CANON IN THE AGE OF PRINTING
Luther’s contemporary Karlstadt wrote a little work on the canon of
scripture in which he distinguished three grades in the New
Testament: (1) the Gospels and Acts, (2) the Pauline letters with 1
Peter and 1 John, (3) Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude,
Revelation. To him the authorship of Hebrews was unknown, the
authorship of James was doubtful, while he followed Jerome in
ascribing 2 and 3 John to the elder John, not to the evangelist. ”
TYNDALE’S NEW TESTAMENT
In the later part of 1525 the printing of William Tyndale’s English
translation of the New Testament was begun in Cologne. I6 When ten
sheets (80 quart0 pages) had been printed, the printer (Peter Quentel)
was forbidden by the city authorities to proceed with the work. It had
to be printed again from the beginning-this time by a Worms
printer, Peter Schoeffler, who was able to complete the work by the
end of February 1526. Two copies of this Worms octave survive, but
the table of contents is missing from both. I7 But 64 pages of the
Cologne quart0 are extant in a copy in the British Museum, I8 and they
include the table of contents, which is set out as follows:
i
ii
...
111
....
1111
V
vi
The bokes conteyned in the
newe Testament
The gospel1 of saynct Mathew
The gospel1 of S . Marke
The gospel1 of S. Luke
The gospel1 of S. Jhon
The actes of the apostles written by S. Luke
The epistle of S. Paul to the Romans
(Hebrews), 384f. @roes), 387 (Jude), 404 (Revelation).
9 His expression is w&j Chrisrum treibet, ‘what presses Christ home’, ‘what promotes
Christ’.
lo Preface to James.
I’ R. H. Bainton, Here I Stand: A Lz$ of Martin Luther (New York/Nashville,
1950), p. 332. Luther evidently did not find Revelation to be (as the title of a book by
Vernard Eller puts it) The Mosf Reveahl: Bnok o/rbe Bible (Grand Rapids, 1974).
I* Bainton, ihid.
” Bainton, ihid.
I4 From the preface to the Wittenberg edition of his Latin works, translated in
L~&rr’s Works, American edition, 34 (Philadelphia, 1960), pp.336f.
‘* Karlstadt, De canoniris [ihris lihelh (Wittenberg, 1520); German edition, W&be
Biirher he&g und Bib~irch sind (Wittenberg, 152 1); see B. M. Metzger, The Canon ofthe
Neu Testament, pp.241f.
lb Its basis was the third edition of Erasmus’s Greek New Testament (1522). This
was the first edition in which Erasmus (under protest) included the spurious text about
the three heavenly witnesses (1 John 5:7); accordingly, it appeared in Tyndale’s
version and in succeeding English versions throughout the following century,
including AV/KJV.
” A facsimile edition, W/ham Tyndak’s New Testrmtent 1526, was published by
Paradine Reprints, London, in 1976, to mark its 450th anniversary.
‘s A facsimile of these 64 pages is included in Thr FirIt Punted Eq/nh Near,
Te~tument. ed. E. Arber (London, 187 1).
244
245
R These prefaces are printed in the Weimar edition, Die deursche Bibef, 7, pp. 344f.
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
vii
...
Vlll
ix
X
xi
xii
...
Xl11
....
Xl111
XV
xvi
xvii
...
XV111
xix
xx
xxi
xxii
...
XX111
The fyrst pistle of S. Paul to the Corrinthians
The second pistle ofS. Paul to the Corrinthians
The pistle of S. Paul to the Galathians
The pistle of S. Paul to the Ephesians
The pistle of S. Paul to the Philippians
The pistle of S. Paul to the Collossians
The fyrst pistle of S. Paul vnto the Tessalonians
The seconde pistle of S. Paul vnto the
Tessalonians
The fyrst pistle of S. Paul to Timothe
The seconde pistle of S. Paul to Timothe
The pistle of S. Paul to Titus
Te pistle of S. Paul vnto Philemon
The fyrst pistle of S. Peter
The seconde pistle of S. Peter
The fyrst pistle of S. Jhon
The seconde pistle of S. Jhon
The thryd pistle of S. Jhon
The
The
The
The
pistle vnto the Ebrues
pistle of S. James
pistle of Jude
revelation of Jhon
As in Luther’s table of contents, the last four titles are marked off
from the others by a space and by the omission of serial numbers in
front of them. But we do not know if Tyndale shared Luther’s opinion
of the inferior status of Hebrews, James, Jude and Revelation. The
adoption of Luther’s arrangement and title-page layout may have been
purely mechanical. The Luther-Tyndale sequence of books was
followed by Coverdale’s Bible (1535) and Matthew’s Bible (1537) and
other English editions for the next few years, but the Great Bible of
1539 reverted to the now traditional order with Hebrews and James
coming between Philemon and 1 Peter, and this order has been
followed by most editions of the English Bible since then.
JOHN
CALVIN
Calvin accepted the New Testament canon as it had been handed
down. For him the authority of the New Testament, like that of all
246
N E W T E S T A M E N T C A N O N I N T H E A G E O F F’RINTING
scripture, rested not on any church decree but on the self-authenticating quality of what was written, attested in the receptive heart by the
inward witness of the Holy Spirit. I9 But on questions of authorship he
freely exercised his philological and historical judgment. Hebrews was
undoubtedly canonical, but it was undoubtedly not by Paul:” Calvin
thought of Luke or Clement of Rome as a possible author. *’ Unlike
Luther, he had no difficulty in accepting James: ‘it contains nothing
unworthy of an apostle of Christ.’ But he would not commit himself
positively on the author’s identity: he might be James the Just or
James the son of Alphaeus, one of the twelve (whom he took to be the
‘pillar’ James of Gal. 2:9).‘* As for 2 Peter, if it is canonical and
therefore trustworthy, it must be accepted as having come from
Peter-‘not that he wrote it himself, but that one of his disciples
composed by his command what the necessity of the times
demanded. ‘23 1 John was the work of the beloved disciple.24 When
Jude introduces himself at the beginning of his epistle as ‘the brother
of James’, he refers to James the son of Alphaeus. *’ Calvin’s views on
the authorship of 2 and 3 John and of Revelation are unknown: he
wrote no commentaries on these books, although he quotes occasionally from them.
COUNCIL OF TRENT
When the Council of Trent, at its fourth session (April 1546), dealt
with the canon of scripture, it listed the twenty-seven ‘received’ books
of the New Testament. Its position differed from that of the Reformers
not with regard to the contents of the New Testament canon but with
regard to the according of equal veneration with scripture to the
‘unwritten traditions’ received ultimately ‘from the mouth of Christ
himself by the apostles, or from the apostles themselves at the dictation
of the Holy Spirit’, and also in its specifying the ‘ancient and Vulgate
” Calvin, Institutes ofthe Christiun Relqym, 1.7.1-5.
” Calvin, The Epistle. to the Hebretu and the Fmt andSecond Epistles o/Peter, E. T.
(Edinburgh, 1963), p. 1.
” Ibid., p.216(onHeb. 13.23).
” Calvin, Conmentaries on the Cathofic Epistle, E. T. (Edinburgh, 1855), pp.276f.
” The Epistle, to the Hebrews and the Firit crnd Second Epl.rrlrr of Peter, p, 325,
24 The Go@ according to St. John I l-21 and the Fwt @I.!& of John, E. T.
(Edinburgh, 1961), p.231.
” CommenttrrieJ on tbr Catbohr Epih, pp.428f.
247
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
edition’ of the Latin Bible to be the one authentic text of scripture.26
Some modern interpreters of this decree of Trent suggest that the
Vulgate was here singled out as authoritative over against more recent
Latin versions of the Bible and that it was not intended to affirm its
primacy over the Hebrew and Greek texts. Some members of the
Council, like Cardinal Reginald Pole, thought that the authority of
the Hebrew and Greek originals should be explicitly acknowledged.
‘The majority considered this to be unnecessary’, says E. F. Sutcliffe;
but since he mentions that some members of the Council misinterpreted the decree as giving the Vulgate superior authority to the
originals, such an acknowledgment would have been by no means
superfluous. 27 A century after the Council of Trent the Westminster
Assembly of Divines found it expedient to state that ‘the Old
Testament in Hebrew. . . and the New Testament in Greek. . . , being
immediately inspired by God, and by his singular care and providence
kept pure in all ages, are therefore authentical; so as in all controversies
of religion, the Church is finally to appeal unto them’.28 If this
affirmation was not unnecessary at Westminster, where there was no
antecedent bias in favour of the Vulgate, it was certainly not unnecessary at Trent. In any case, issues of contemporary concern and tension
affected both what was expressed and what was not expressed.
‘ T o d a y , . Catholics like every one else go back to the original
languages and base their translations on the same critical principles’. 29
THE
THIRTY-NINE
ARTICLES
After the detailed listing of the books of the Old Testament and
Apocrypha in Article VI of the Thirty-Nine Articles, there is a brief
statement about the New Testament:30
‘All the books of the New Testament, as they are commonly
received, we do receive, and account them Canonical.’
Lh Actu Con& Tdentrni, Sessio 4: Dwntua de canoniris wiptwu; Decretum de
dtjiaitimw rt NJN J~L~M~N~ lihmrrm.
” E. F. Sutcliffe, ‘The Council of Trent on the Adxntia of the Vulgate’,JTS 49
(194X), pp.3542.
LX Westminster Confession of Faith, 1.8.
2’) Krrvwd
Stadrrrd Vwrum: Nm Tntownt, Catholic Edition (London, 1965).
introduction.
“’ See pp. 105f.
NEW
TESTAMENT
CANON
IN
AGE
OF PRINTING
There was no need to name them one by one: the same twenty-seven
books appeared in all relevant editions of the New Testament, in
Greek, Latin or English, and in the European vernaculars. When the
original Forty-Two Articles were promulgated under Edward VI, the
New Testament books were accessible in the Great Bible and exactly
the same books remained accessible when the Great Bible was superseded under Elizabeth I by the Geneva Bible of 1560 and the Bishops’
Bible of 1568. The churchmen who were responsible for the wording
of this Article no doubt knew that at one time five or even seven of the
twenty-seven books had been disputed; to that extent it was not quite
accurate to say that the canonical books were those ‘of whose authority
was never any doubt in the Church’. They would know also of Luther’s
reservations about four of the New Testament books. But such details
were irrelevant to the situation with which they had to deal: the
recognition of the twenty-seven books went back to Jerome and
Augustine, and indeed to Athanasius.
THE
WESTMINSTER
CONFESSION
OF
FAITH
Unlike Article VI, the Westminster Confession of Faith included in
its first chapter (‘Of the Holy Scripture’) a precise list of New
Testament as well as of Old Testament books. Its list of all the biblical
books has been reproduced earlier in our pages. 31 One point which the
careful reader of the list of New Testament books will observe is that
the Westminster Divines did not commit themselves on the Pauline
authorship of Hebrews. The Pauline letters are headed ‘Paul’s Epistles’,
followed by ‘to the Romans, Corinthians I’, and so forth, without the
repetition of ‘Epistle(s)‘; but after Philemon the heading ‘Epistle’
appears again in ‘The Epistle to the Hebrews’, which is thus marked
off from the thirteen which bear Paul’s name.
In the tradition of Calvin, the Westminster Confession denies that
the authority of scripture rests ‘upon the testimony of any man or
church’; rather, ‘our full persuasion and assurance of the infallible
truth, and divine authority thereof, is from the inward work of the
Holy Spirit, bearing witness by and with the word in our hearts.’
While due allowance is made for the place of reason in the study of
scripture and for the acceptance of whatever may be deduced from it
‘by good and necessary consequence’, yet ‘nothing at any time is to be
‘I Seep. 109
24X
THE
249
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
added’ to it, ‘whether by new revelations of the Spirit, or traditions of
men’. The canon of scripture is a closed canon. ‘Nevertheless, we
acknowledge the inward illumination of the Spirit of God to be
necessary for the saving understanding of such things as are revealed in
the word’, but practical matters like church administration and the
conduct of worship ‘are to be ordered by the light of nature and
Christian prudence, according to the general rules of the word’.32
A FIXED CANON
That the New Testament consists of the twenty-seven books which
have been recognized as belonging to it since the fourth century is not
a value judgment; it is a statement of fact. Individuals or communities
may consider that it is too restricted or too comprehensive; but their
opinion does not affect the identity of the canon. The canon is not
going to be diminished or increased because of what they think or say:
it is a literary, historical and theological datum.
William Whiston (1667-1752), the eccentric polymath who
succeeded Sir Isaac Newton as Professor of Mathematics in Cambridge
and who is probably best known in the English-speaking world as
translator of the works of Josephus, defended the canonical entitlement of a work called the Apostolic Constitzltions. This is a fourthcentury compilation in eight books, including instruction on church
order and worship, which claims to be issued by ‘the apostles and
elders to all those who from among the Gentiles have believed in the
Lord Jesus Christ’. It was first printed at Venice in 1563, and engaged
the interest of several scholars in the west. 33 Its date and character were
discerned by James Ussher, Archbishop of Armagh (1581-1656), a
scholar of uncommon critical ability. Whiston showed his critical
incompetence by taking the claims of the Apostolic Constitutions at face
value: they merited, he said, ‘that caution and awful regard to their
contents which the Authority of the Apostles of Christ, nay of Christ
himself, and of God his Father, so visibly appearing therein does
demand from us’; he received them as ‘Genuine, Sacred, and
Apostolical’. 34
NEW TESTAMENT CANON IN THE AGE OF PRINTING
But even if Whiston’s belief in the authenticity of this work had
been as well founded was it as ill founded, there was no way in which it
could have been added to the accepted canon of the New Testament in
the sixteenth or seventeenth century. The same may be said about
other suggestions which have been made from time to time for the
addition of this document or the removal of that. Theologians may
operate with the concept of an ‘inner canon’, but one person’s inner
canon will differ from another’s. The most disputed of all the disputed
books of the New Testament is probably 2 Peter, but the New
Testament would be poorer without it: there are those who have seen
the high-water-mark of the Christian revelation in its statement that
God’s purpose is that his people should ‘become partakers of the divine
nature’ (2 Pet.,l:4).35
Again, private enterprise will provide editions of the gospels which
include one or more of the Nag Hammadi documents along with some
or all of the canonical gospels; or compilers of gospel harmonies or
synopses will produce handbooks in which passages, say, from the
Go@ of Thomas are presented in parallel columns with comparable
passages from the New Testament books. These works may be useful
to the student; they are irrelevant to the question of the canon. The
literary critic of early Christian writings will probably find little help
in the distinction between those of them which are canonical and those
which are not; but the distinction is important for the theologian and
the church member. Indeed, if the voice of God is heard in the Bible as
it is heard in no other book, the canon has a relevance for all to whom
the word of God is addressed.
” See W. R. Inge, Things NewandO~d(Lnndon, 1933), p.36.
AZ Westminster Confession of Faith, 1.4, 5, 6.
” There is an English translation in ANF, VII, pp.391-505.
A4 W. Whiston, Prtvutizr Chrj.rrlanity Reziz,‘d (London, 17 1 l-12). III, pp. 1 If.,
quoted in S. Neil], ‘fhu Inrq~rrrar~~~ cd.thr N~u, TL.QUMI~ 186 I-1y61 (Oxford, 1964),
p.46, n. 1.
250
251
PART FOUR
CONCLUSION
CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
CRITERIA O F C A N O N I C I T Y
TESTS IN THE APOSTOLIC AGE
The earliest Christians did not trouble themselves about criteria of
canonicity; they would not have readily understood the expression.
They accepted the Old Testament scriptures as they had received
them: the authority of those scriptures was sufficiently ratified by the
teaching and example of the Lord and his apostles. The teaching and
example of the Lord and his apostles, whether conveyed by word of
mouth or in writing, had axiomatic authority for them.
Criteria of a kind, however, were found to be desirable quite early.
When prophets, for example, claimed to speak in the Lord’s name, it
became necessary to ‘discern the spirits’ by which they spoke. Some
members of the church were given ‘the ability to distinguish between
spirits’ (1 Cor. 12: 10). According to Paul, the decisive criterion to
apply to prophets is their testimony to Christ: ‘no one can say “Jesus is
Lord” except by the Holy Spirit’ (1 Cor. 12:3). Somewhat later, John
suggests a more specific test: ‘every spirit which confesses that Jesus
Christ has come in the flesh is of God’ (1 Jn 4:2). Such tests
anticipated the later insistence on orthodoxy as a criterion of canonicity.
Again, when Paul suspected that letters were circulating in his
name which were none of his, he gave his friends a simple criterion by
which his genuine letters could be recognized although he regularly
dictated his letters to amanuenses, he took the pen himself to write
255
THE CANON OF
SCRIPTURE
the final greetings-sometimes, but not necessarily, accompanied by
his actual signature (cf 1 Cor. 16:21; Gal. 6: 11; Col. 4: 18; 2 Thess.
3: 17; also Philem. 19). Paul’s handwriting was evidently so distinctive
that it could not be easily forged. This was, of course, a temporary
criterion of authenticity. No document containing Paul’s handwriting
has survived to our day, and even if one had survived, the handwriting
would not be recognizable as his at this late date.
APOSTOLIC
AUTHORITY
Since Jesus himself left nothing in writing, the most authoritative
writings available to the church were those which came from his
apostles. Among his apostles none was more active in writing (as well
as otherwise) than Paul. There were some in Paul’s own day, and a few
in later generations, who questioned his right to be called an apostle,
but throughout the churches of the Gentiles his apostleship was
generally undoubted-inevitably so, because a number of those
churches would not have existed except for his apostolic ministry. ’
The authority of his authentic letters continued to be acknowledged
after his death, not only by the churches to which they were severally
addressed but by the churches as a whole. It is not surprising that
Paul’s letters were among the first, if not absolutely the first, of our
New Testament documents to be gathered together and to circulate as
a collection.
Letters in antiquity normally began with the writer’s name, and so
did Paul’s letters. But many of the New Testament documents do not
contain the writers’ names: they are strictly anonymous-to us,
completely anonymous. The writer to Theophilus was well enough
known to Theophilus , ’ but his name has not been preserved either in
the Third Gospel or in Acts; to us, therefore, these two works are
anonymous. Traditionally they are ascribed to Luke, but if we wish to
examine the validity of this tradition, we have to consider which Luke
is meant, and what the probability is of their being the work of that
Luke.
Similarly, the recipients of the letter to the Hebrews no doubt were
well acquainted with its author (in that sense they would not have
’ See Paul’s argument in 2 Cor. 3: I-3: the existence of the church ofcorinth was
the only letter of accreditation he needed-at Corinth.
* SeeLk. 1:3;Acts 1:l.
256
CRITERIA OF CANONICITY
regarded it as an anonymous communication), but since it does not
bear his name, his identity was forgotten after ageneration,or two, and
has never been certainly recovered.
From the second century onward, two of the four Gospels were
ascribed to apostles- to Matthew and John. Whether Marcion knew
of this ascription or not we cannot say, but if he did, that in itself
would have deprived them of all Christian authority in his eyes: these
two men belonged to the group which, he believed, had corrupted the
pure message of Jesus. An eccentric churchman like Gaius of Rome
might ascribe the Fourth Gospel to Cerinthus,3 but the views of
eccentric churchmen have never disturbed the general consensus.
It is remarkable, when one comes to think of it, that the four
canonical Gospels are anonymous, whereas the ‘Gospels’ which proliferated in the late second century and afterwards claim to have been
written by apostles and other eyewitnesses. Catholic churchmen found
it necessary, therefore, to defend the apostolic authenticity of the
Gospels which they accepted against the claims of those which they
rejected. Hence come the accounts of the origin of the canonical four
which appear in the Muratorian list, in the so-called anti-Marcionite
prologues, and in Irenaeus. The apostolic authorship of Matthew and
John was well established in tradition. But what of Mark and Luke?
Their authorship was also well established in tradition, but it was felt
desirable to buttress the authority of tradition with arguments which
gave those two Gospels a measure of apostolic validation. As early as
Papias, Mark is said to htive set down in writing Peter’s account of the
sayings and doings of the Lord, and Peter’s apostolic authority was not
in doubt.4 As for Luke’s Gospel, its author was early identified with
the man whom Paul calls ‘Luke, the beloved physician’ (Col. 4: 14).
This meant that he was one of Paul’s associates, and something of
Paul’s apostolic authority rubbed off on him.’ Some, identifying Luke
with the unnamed ‘brother’ of 2 Corinthians 8: 18 ‘whose praise is in
the gospel’, went so far as to see in these words of Paul a reference to
the Gospel of Luke, if they did not indeed go farther still and see a
reference to it in Paul’s mention of ‘my gospel’ (Rom. 2: 16; 16:25; 2
Tim. 2:8).6 Fortunately, the value of Luke’s Gospel can be vindicated
with stronger arguments than these; but the fact that these were the
’ Seep. 168.
4 See pp. 124f., 308-3 IO.
5 ‘Not an apostle but apostolic’, says Tertullian of Luke (AK&M Murum, 4.2 .J).
’ Seepp.161, 226.
257
THE
CANON
OF
arguments used in its defence in the second and third centuries shows
how important some degree of apostolic authorization seemed to be for
the books which the church accepted as uniquely authoritative.
The fortunes of the letter to the Hebrews provide a further example
of the importance attached to apostolic authority (if not authorship).
Those who (like the church of Alexandria) accepted this letter as the
work of Paul recognized it without more ado as canonical. If someone
with a critical faculty like Origen’s realized that, as it stood, this
document was not Paul’s work, a way round this offered itself: the
Greek text indeed was not Paul’s (perhaps it was Luke’s), but a
Hebrew work of Paul lay behind it.’ (An even better developed critical
faculty might have indicated that Hebrews was not written in
translation-Greek.) Those who (like well-informed members of the
Roman church) knew that the work was not Paul’s, esteemed it highly
as an edifying document handed down from the early age of the
church, but did not accept it as apostolic. When at last, in the fourth
century, the church of Rome was persuaded to fall into line with the
other churches and recognize Hebrews as canonical, a natural tendency
followed to treat it as Pauline also- but Pauline with a qualification.
‘I am moved rather by the prestige of the eastern churches’, said
Augustine, ‘to include this epistle too among the canonical writings’;’
but he had reservations about its authorship. Like his older contemporary Jerome, he distinguished between canonicity and apostolic
authorship. 9
Even at an earlier period, apostolic authorship in the direct sense
was not insisted on, if some form of apostolic authority could be
established. Membership of the holy family apparently carried with it
near-apostolic status: Paul indeed seems to include James the Lord’s
brother among the apostles (Gal. I: I$))-but so far as James was
concerned there was the further consideration that to him, as to Paul
himself, the Lord had appeared in resurrection (1 Cor. 15:i’). If
therefore the James who names himself as author of the letter addressed
‘to the twelve tribes in the Dispersion’ was identified with the Lord’s
brother, that was good enough reason for accepting the letter among
the apostolic writings. And if ‘Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and
brother of James’ was indicated in those words to be another member
of the holy family, that was sufficient to tip the balance in favour of
’ See pp. 192f.
’ Augustine, Epistle 129.3; 4On fhr Drrrrt.r dnrl Remrnron r(Sms. 1.50
’ See pp.226f., 232.
258
CRITERIA
SCRIPTURE
OF
CANONICITY
accepting the short letter so superscribed, especially in view of the
‘words of heavenly grace’ of which (as Origen said) it was full. ‘O
The early church knew several works claiming the authority of
Peter’s name. ’ ’ Among these no difficulty was felt about 1 Peter; its
attestation goes back to the first half of the second century, and it was
handed down as one of the undisputed books. I2 There was considerable
hesitation about 2 Peter, but by the time of Athanasius it was no
longer a disputed book in the Alexandrian church or in western
Christendom. Its explicit claim to be the work of the apostle Peter was
probably felt to be supported by the fact that it contained nothing
unworthy of him.
Among the Johannine writings 1 John was always closely associated
with the Fourth Gospel: if the Gospel was acknowledged to be
apostolic and canonical, so was this epistle, although it was as anonymous as the Gospel. Those who doubted the apostolic authorship of 2
and 3 JohnI and the Apocalypse tended to doubt their canonical
status also. The disinclination to accept the Apocalypse was due not
mainly to doubts about the identity of the John who wrote it with
John the apostle; it was due much more to the antipathy which was
widely felt in the Greek world to its millenarianism. l4 Dionysius of
Alexandria, who ascribed it on grounds of literary criticism to another
John than the apostle and evangelist, acknowledged it to be a genuine
work of prophecy. I5
Two aspects of the apostolic criterion were themselves used as
subsidiary criteria-antiquity and orthodoxy.
ANTIQUITY
If a writing was the work of an apostle or of someone closely associated
with an apostle, it must belong to the apostolic age. Writings of later
date, whatever their merit, could not be included among the apostolic
or canonical books. The compiler of the Muratorian list had a high
regard for the Shepherd of Hermas; he recognized it evidently as a
” See pp. 193f.
” In addition to the canonical epistles of Peter there are the GospeL, Acrs, Apnca/yp.re,
Judgment and Preaching uf Peter, the Epistle OfPeter to James (in the pseudo-Clementine
literature), and the Epistle ofPeter to Philip (one of the Nag Hammadi treatises).
” This statement is not affected by its omission from the Muratorian lisr, which is a
problem on any dating of the list.
” See pp. 193, 220.
Is See pp. 195f.
‘* As with Eusebius (seep. 199).
259
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
genuine work of prophecy. However, it had appeared too late to be
included among the canonical prophets; and equally it had appeared
too late to be included among the apostolic writings, for it was written
only the day before yesterday, so to speak. I6
This argument could have been employed more freely than it was in
settling problems of authenticity, at a time when so many works were
appearing which claimed to have been written by apostles and their
associates. But perhaps most of the churchmen who concerned themselves with this problem lacked the information or the expertise to
appeal confidently to the evidence for dating such documents: they
preferred to judge them by their theology.
ORTHODOXY
In other words, they had recourse to the criterion of orthodoxy. By
‘orthodoxy’ they meant the apostolic faith- the faith set forth in the
undoubted apostolic writings and maintained in the churches which
had been founded by apostles. This appeal to the testimony of the
churches of apostolic foundation was developed specially by Irenaeus. ”
Whatever differences of emphasis may be discerned by modern students
within the corpz/s of New Testament writings, these are irrelevant to
the issues which confronted churchmen of the second and third
centuries. They had to defend the apostolic teaching, summed up in
the rule of faith, I8 against the docetic and gnostic presentations which
were so attractive to many in the climate of opinion at that time.
When previously unknown Gospels or Acts began to circulate under
the authority of apostolic names, the most important question to ask
about any one of them was: What does it teach about the person and
work of Christ? Does it maintain the apostolic witness to him as the
historical Jesus of Nazareth, crucified and raised from the dead,
divinely exalted as Lord over all?
A good example of the application of this test is provided by the case
of Bishop Serapion and the Gospel of Peter. When Serapion found that
this document was being read in the church of Rhossus, he was not
greatly disturbed; he certainly did not examine its style and vocabulary
(as Dionysius of Alexandria might have done) to see if its claim to be
the work of Peter or a product of the apostolic age was well founded or
not. But when he discovered that its account of the Lord’s death was
i6 Seep. 166.
” See pp. 17 If.
‘” Seep. 150.
260
CRITERIA
OF
CANONICITY
tinged with docetism (it implies that he did not really suffer), then he
decided that he ought to pay the church of Rhossus a pastoral visit to
make sure that it had not been led astray by this heterodox teaching. I9
Other ‘Petrine’ literature circulating among the churches was
equally unauthentic, but since it did not inculcate heresy, it caused no
great concern. The Muratorian compiler, for example, seems to draw
upon the Acts of Peter (which gave an account of the apostle’s Roman
ministry and execution)20 and he expressly includes the Apocalypse of
Peter in his list (although he concedes that some refused to let it be read
in church). 21 But in due course the non-apostolic character of these
works became sufficiently evident to ensure that they did not find a
permanent place in the New Testament canon.
It is doubtful if any book would have found a place in the canon if it
had been known to be pseudonymous. The Acts of Paul, one of the
earliest exercises in Christian novel-writing, dating from shortly after
the middle of the second century, was orthodox enough, and indeed
quite edifying (especially to those who believed that celibacy was a
superior state of life to matrimony). It was not pseudonymous, for its
author was known; but it was fictitious, and unworthy of the great
apostle for love of whom it was said to have been written; the author
was therefore deposed from his office as presbyter in one of the
churches of Asia. 22 Anyone who was known to have composed a work
explicitly in the name of an apostle would have met with even greater
disapproval.
CATHOLICITY
A work which enjoyed only local recognition was not likely to be
acknowledged as part of the canon of the catholic church. On the other
hand, a work which was acknowledged by the greater part of the
catholic church would probably receive universal recognition sooner
or later. We have seen how the Roman church ultimately consented to
receive Hebrews as canonical so as not to be out of step with the rest of
orthodox Christendom. 23
It might have been argued that the letters of Paul were too local and
” Eusebius, Hbr. Ed. 6.12.3 (see pp.2OOf.)
*’ Seep. 163.
*’ See p. 164. According to the church historian Sozomen (writing between 439
and 450). the Apmziyp~e o/Pter was read in his day on Good Friday in some Palestinian
churches (Hi.rt. Ed. 7. 19).
” Seep. 163, 202.
” Seep.221, 258.
261
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
occasional in character to be accepted as universally and permanently
authoritative. 24 The issues to which he addressed himself in the letters
to the Galatians and the Corinthians, for example, were of temporary
urgency in the churches to which those letters were sent. How could
their inclusion among the scriptures of the catholic church be justified?
The earliest answer given to this question was one which was evidently
found satisfactory at the time, although to us it seems curiously
far-fetched. It was this: Paul wrote letters to seven churches, and in
view of the symbolic significance of the number seven, that means that
he wrote for the church universal.2s The same conception of seven as
the number of perfection was applied to the seven churches addressed
in the Apocalypse. Indeed, the compiler of the Muratorian list preposterously regards John as setting the precedent in this regard which
Paul followed: in both sets of letters, what was written to seven was
spoken to all. Even Paul’s letters to individuals have an ecumenical
reference, says the Muratorian compiler: ‘they have been hallowed for
the honour of the catholic church in the regulation of ecclesiastical
discipline. ‘26
Each individual document that was ultimately acknowledged as
canonical started off with local acceptance- the various epistles in the
places to which they were sent, the Apocalypse in the seven churches
of Asia, even the Gospels and Acts in the constituencies for which they
were first designed. But their attainment of canonical status was the
result of their gaining more widespread recognition than they initially
enjoyed.
TRADITIONAL
USE
CRITERIA
OF
CANONICITY
early Christian centuries with the recognition of certain books as holy
scripture, and it is still so (whether this is consciously realized or not).
The reading of ‘memoirs of the apostles’ in church along with the Old
Testament writings (to which Justin Martyr bears witness)28 became
an established practice which made it easy to accord to those ‘memoirs’
the same formal status as that accorded from the church’s earliest days
to the law and the prophets. If any church leader came along in the
third or fourth century with a previously unknown book, recommending it as genuinely apostolic, he would have found great difficulty
in gaining acceptance for it: his fellow-Christians would simply have
said, ‘But no one has ever heard of it!’ (We may think, for example, of
the widespread hesitation in accepting 2 Peter.) 29 Or, even if the book
had been known for some generations, but had never been treated as
holy scripture, it would have been very difficult to win recognition for
it as such.
When William Whiston, in the eighteenth century, argued that
the Apostolic Constitlctions should be venerated among the New
Testament writings, few if any took him seriously.” For one thing,
Whiston’s eccentricities were well known; for another thing, better
judges than he had discerned its fourth-century date. But, even if
Whiston had been a model of judicious sobriety, and even if strong
reasons could have been adduced for dating the Apostolic Constitzltions in
the first century, there would have been no possibility of the work’s
being added to the canon: the tradition of all the churches would have
been too strong.
INSPIRATION
Catholicity has been classically defined in the fifth-century
‘Vincentian canon’ as ‘what has been believed everywhere, always, by
all’. 27 What has always been believed (or practised) is the most potent
factor in the maintenance of tradition. Suggested innovations have
regularly been resisted with the argument ‘But this is what we have
always been taught’ or ‘what we have always done’. It was so in the
For many centuries inspiration and canonicity have been closely bound
up together in Christian thinking: books were included in the canon,
it is believed, because they were inspired; a book is known to be
inspired because it is in the canon.
How far was this so in the early church? One distinguished student
of the early history of the canon has said that ‘apostolicity was the
L4 See N. A. Dahl, ‘The Particularity of the Pauline Epistles as a Problem in the
Ancient Church’, in Neoterranrmtica et Patrika. ed. W. C. van Unnik = NovTSup 6
@den, 1962), pp.261-271.
” See pp. 160, 164.
*s See pp. 164, 184.
” Vincent of L&ins, Commonitorium (‘Notebook’), 2.3: quoJ ubique, quad wmpw,
qd ub omnlbrrs t-reditum est.
a* See pp. 126f.
29 Cf Eusebius, Hist. Ecd. 3.3.1: ’ B u t the so-called second epistle [of Peter] we
have not received as canonical (“intestamented”); nevertheless it has appeared useful to
many, and has been studied with the other scriptures.’
” See p.250.
262
26.3
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
principal token of canonicity for the west, inspiration for the east’not indeed in a mutually exclusive sense, since ‘in the west apostolicity
to a certain extent includes inspiration, while in the east apostolicity
was an attendant feature of inspiration’. In Origen’s view, for example,
‘the crucial point. . . is not apostolicity but inspiration’.31
By inspiration in this sense is meant that operation of the Holy
Spirit by which the prophets of Israel were enabled to utter the word of
God. The vocabulary was theirs; the message was his. Only to certain
individuals, and only occasionally to them, was this enablement
granted. But in the New Testament age the situation was different.
On one occasion, when Moses was told that two men were
prophesying who had not received any public commission to do so, he
replied, ‘Would that all the Lord’s people were prophets, that the Lord
would put his spirit upon them!’ (Num. 11:29). The New Testament
records the answer to Moses’ prayer, telling how, on the first Christian
Pentecost, God initiated the fulfilment of his promise to pour out his
Spirit ‘on all flesh’ (Joel 2:28, quoted in Acts 2: 17). All members of
the new community of believers in Jesus received the Spirit: ‘any one
who does not have the Spirit of Christ’, says Paul, ‘does not belong to
him’ (Ram. 8:9). This did not mean that all of them received the
specific gift of prophecy: the gift of prophecy-of declaring the mind
of God in the power of the Spirit- was but one of several gifts of the
Spirit distributed among members of the church.3z
Only one of the New Testament writers expressly bases the authority
of what he says on prophetic inspiration. The Apocalypse is called ‘the
book of this prophecy’ (e.g., Rev. 22: 19); the author implies that his
words are inspired by the same Spirit of prophecy as spoke through the
prophets of earlier days: it is in their succession that he stands (Rev.
22:9). ‘The testimony ofJesus is the Spirit ofprophecy’ (Rev. 19: 10):
the prophets of old bore witness to Jesus in advance, and the same
witness is still borne, in the power of the same Spirit, not only by a
prophet like John but by all the faithful confessors who overcome the
enemy ‘by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony’
(Rev. 12: 11). The readers of the seven letters at the outset of the book
are expected to hear in them ‘what the Spirit says to the churches’
(Rev. 2:7, etc.). Whether the seer ofPatmos was the son ofzebedee or
C R I T E R I A O F CANONICITY
not, his appeal throughout the Apocalypse is not to apostolic authority
but to prophetic inspiration.
It is plain that at the beginning of the Christian era the inspiration
of the prophetic oracles of the Old Testament was believed to extend to
the Old Testament scriptures as a whole. The writer to the Hebrews
sees the Holy Spirit as the primary author not only of the warning of
Psalm 95:7-11, ‘Today, whenyouhearhisvoice.. .‘(Heb. 3:7-II),
but also of the structure and ritual of the Mossaic tabernacle (Heb.
9:s). Timothy is reminded, with regard to the sacred writings which
he has known from childhood, that ‘all scripture is inspired by God
and profitable’ for a variety of purposes (2 Tim. 3: 15 - 17). When the
New Testament writings were later included with the Old Testament
as part of ‘all scripture’, it was natural to conclude that they too were
‘inspired by God’. That they were (and are) so inspired is not to be
denied, but most of the New Testament writers do not base their
authority on divine inspiration.
Paul, for example, claims to have ‘the mind of Christ’; his gospel
preaching, he says, was attended by ‘demonstration of the Spirit’
(which was the secret of its effectiveness), and his instruction was
imparted ‘in words not taught by human wisdom but taught by the
S p i r i t ’ ( 1 Cot-. 2:14- 16).33 But when he needs to assert his
authority-authority ‘for building up and not for tearing down’ (2
Cor. 13: lO)-he rests it on the apostolic commission which he had
received from the exalted Lord. In his exercise of this authority, he
told the Corinthian Christians, they would find the proof which they
demanded ‘that Christ is speaking in me’ (2 Cor. 13:3).
John the evangelist implies, by his report of the Lord’s promises
regarding the Paraclete in the upper-room discourses, that he himself
in his witness experiences the Spirit’s guidance ‘into all the truth’ as he
brings to the disciples’ remembrance what the Lord had said and
makes its meaning plain (Jn 14:26; 16:12-15). Luke, for his part,
claims no more than to give a reliable account in his twofold work,
based on eyewitness testimony and on his own participation in the
course of the events which he narrates (Lk. 1: 1-4). The patristic idea
that his Gospel owes something to the apostolic authority of Paul is
‘I Ellen Flesseman-van Leer, ‘Prinzipien der Sammlung und Ausscheidung bei der
Bildung des Kanons’, ZTK 6 1(1964), pp.415/1 For Origen see p. 195 above.
” See 1 Cor. 12:4, 7- 11.
33 Compare his semi-ironical remark, ‘I think that I have the Spirit ofGod’ (1 Cor.
7:40). But when he charges discerning Christians at Corinth to acknowledge that
what he writes ‘is a command of the Lord’ (1 Cor. 14:37), this is an exercise of
apostolic authority.
264
205
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
quite unfounded. 34 As for Mark, the tradition that his record is based
(in part at least) on the preaching of Peter may have a foundation in
fact,35 but no appeal is made to Peter’s authority in the course of the
record. Neither is any appeal made to divine inspiration.
‘If the writings of Mark and Luke are to be j’udged canonical’, said
N . B . Stonehouse, ‘it must be because these evangelists were controlled
by the Spirit of the Lord in such a manner that their writings, and not
merely the apostolic message which they set forth, are divine. In other
words, it is Mark’s inspiration (which, to be sure, is not to be isolated
from his historical qualifications), and not Peter’s inspiration, which
provides the finally indispensable ground for the acceptance of that
work as canonical.‘36 On this be it said, again, that the divine
inspiration of the Gospels of Mark and Luke is not to be denied, but
these works were accepted, first as authoritative and then as canonical
scripture, because they were recognized to be trustworthy witnesses to
the saving events.
Clement of Rome acknowledges that Paul wrote ‘with true
inspiration ’ .37 But he makes similar claims for his own letter. ‘You
will give us joy and gladness’, he tells the Corinthians as he draws to a
conclusion, ‘if you are obedient to the things which we have written
through the Holy Spirit. ‘38 He is far from putting himself on a level
with ‘the blessed Paul the apostle ’ ,39 but he and Paul had received the
same Spirit. The high authority which he recognizes in Paul is his
apostolic authority.
Similarly Ignatius claims to speak and write by the Spirit: he,
34 See pp. 161, 257.
‘s Internal evidence in support of this tradition was presented in C. H. Turner,
‘Marcan LJsage’,JTS 25 (1923-24), pp.377-386; 26(1924-25X pp. 12-20, 145156, 225-240; 27 (1925-26), pp.58-62; 28 (1926-27), pp.9-30, 349-362; 29
(1927-28), pp.275-289, 346-361; and in A Ntw Commentary on Holy Scriptwe, ed.
C. Gore (London, 1928), Part II, pp.42-122; see also T. W. Mattson, Studiu in the
Gospels and Epistles (Manchester, 1962), pp. 28-45.
s6 N. B. Stonehouse, ‘The Authority of the New Testament’, in The lfallible
Word, ed. N. B. Stonehouse and P. Woolley (Philadelphia, 1946), p. 115.
j7 1 Clem. 47.3.
‘* 1 Clem. 63.2; cf 59.1, where he describes the contents of his letter as ‘words
spoken by Christ through us’. The freedom with which the idea of inspliration was
used by some of the church fathers is well illustrated by a letter from Augustine to
Jerome, in which Jerome’s biblical interpretation is said to be carried through ‘not
only by the gift but at the dictation of the Holy Spirit’ (Augustine, Epistle 82.2 =
Jerome, Ep~stlr 116.2). Seep.281 belowwith nn.$,‘7.
” I Clem. 47.1.
266
CRITERIA
OF CANONICITY
indeed, had the gift of(occasional) prophecy. ‘It is not according to the
flesh that I write to you’, he tells the Roman church, ‘but according to
the mind of God. ‘40 But, as bishop of another church, he has no
thought of imposing his authority on the Romans, as he might have
done on the Christians of Ant&h. ‘I do not command you like Peter
and Paul’, he says: ‘they were apostles; I am a convict.‘4’ Peter and
Paul were also convicts at the end of their time in Rome, it might have
been said; but the point is that, even as convicts in the eyes of Roman
law, they were apostles in the eyes of the Roman church, and as such
entitled to exercise the authority which the Lord had entrusted to
them.
When the Muratorian list makes Paul follow the precedent of John
in writing to seven churches, it may imply further that the precedent
of John’s Apocalypse, as a prophetic writing, validated the acceptance
of Paul’s letters as also prophetic. This has been argued in a wellknown essay by Krister Stendahl. 42
To those who argued that the apostles and evangelists spoke before
they possessed ‘perfect knowledge’ (so that their works required
gnostic amplification and interpretation) Irenaeus replied that they
wrote after Pentecost: the power of the Holy Spirit with which they
were invested then imparted the ‘perfect knowledge’ necessary for the
execution of their commission. 43 The evangelists were the antitype of
Ezekiel’s four living creatures, animated by the same Spirit.44
Irenaeus in some degree, and Origen to a much greater extent, show
their belief in the divine inspiration of the New Testament (as well as
of the Old Testament) by their allegorical treatment of it. According
to R. P. C. Hanson, ‘Irenaeus is the first writer to allegorize the New
Testament’, and he feels free to do so ‘because he is among the first
writers to treat the New Testament unreservedly as inspired
Scripture’.45 Origen allegorizes both Testaments alike as liberally as
his fellow-Alexandrian Philo allegorized the Old Testament two
centuries earlier. This means that, instead of reading out of the
inspired text what is actualiy there, he often reads into it what is not
4o Ignatius, To the Romun~, 8.3.
4’ To the Romam, 4.3.
42 K. Stendahl, ‘The Apocalypse of John and the Epistles of Paul in the Muratorian
Fragment’, in Cuwent Is.rueJ in New Testament Interpretation, ed. W. Klassen and G. F.
Snyder (New York, 1962), pp.239-245.
43 Irenaeus, Against Heresres, 3.1.1.
44 Against Here&, 3. 11.8 (seep. 175 with n.29).
4J R. P. C. Hanson, Al/egwy andEl,etit (London, 1959), pp. 112f.
267
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
there.
With Origen, as with Philo, this allegorizing treatment was
based on the conviction that the text under consideration was inspired
word for word: only such an inspired text had a deeper meaning of a
kind that allegorization alone could bring out.46
But at this stage inspiration is no longer a criterion of canonicity: it
is a corollary of canonicity. ‘It was not until the red ribbon of the
self-evident had been tied around the twenty-seven books of the New
Testament that “inspiration” could serve theologians as an answer to
the question: Why are these books different from all other books?‘47
OTHER ISSUES
There were other, more practical, corollaries of canonicity. As we have
seen, it was helpful for church officials in times of persecution to
distinguish between those books which might, as a last resort, be
handed over to the police and those which must be preserved, if need
be, at the cost of life itself.48
Then there was the question of those books which might properly
be read in church. Those which were recognizably vested with the
authority of the Lord and the apostles were prescribed for public
reading; but in some churches at least other works were read which,
although they lacked apostolic authority, were orthodox and edifying.
Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, wrote to the bishop of Rome about A D
170 to express the thanks of his church for a letter and a gift which had
been received from the Roman church. ‘Today’, he says, ‘we observed
the Lord’s holy day, and we read out your letter, which we shall keep
and read from time to time for our admonition, as we do also with the
letter formerly written to us through Clement.‘49 So, between seventy
and eighty years after it was sent, 1 Clement continued to be read at
services of the Corinthian church. Neither it nor the more recent letter
from Rome carried anything like the authority of the letters which the
Corinthian church had received from Paul; but they were helpful for
the building up of Christian faith and life.”
CRITERIA OF CANONICITY
An issue of high importance for theologians in the church was the
distinguishing of those books which might be used for settling
doctrinal questions from those which were generally edifying. Only
those books which carried apostolic authority (together with the Old
Testament writings as interpreted in the New) were to be appealed to
either for the establishing of truths to be ‘most surely believed’ in the
church or for deciding disputed points in controversies with heretics.
In such controversies it was naturally most satisfactory if appeal was
made to those writings which both sides acknowledged in common.
Tertullian in a legalistic mood might deny the right of heretics to
appeal to the holy scriptures,” but when he himself engaged in
controversy with them, it was on those scriptures that he based his
arguments (he could do no other) and he expected his opponents to
follow his arguments and admit their force. If the heretics refused to
acknowledge the books to which orthodox churchmen appealed, or if
they appealed to writings of their own, their error in these respects too
had to be exposed; but the unique authority of the canonical writings
must be preserved inviolable.
also what he and Jerome say about the use of the Old Testament Apocrypha (pp.79,
9 If.), and the permission given by the Third Council ofcarthage to read the accounts
of martyrdoms on the appropriate saints’ days (p.233).
s’ On the Prescription ofHeretics (seep. 15 1). Tertullian felt at times that there was no
point in appealing to scripture when dealing with those whose allegorical interpretation
was always able to extract from scripture the meaning they desired to find, in defiance
of its plain sense. But the language of legal injunction was not the wisest course to
adopt with them.
46 See Hanson, Alle,qq andE~vnf, pp. 187-209. Cfpp.73, 195 above.
47 K. Stendahl, ‘The Apocalypse of John and the Epistles of Paul.. .‘, p.243. See
also P. Achtemeier, The lnspivation
Scrrpture: Problem and Propo.rah (Philadelphia,
1980); A. C. Sundberg, Jr., ‘The Bible Canon and the Christian Doctrine of
Inspiration’, Interprefation 29 (1975). p.352-37 1.
4* See pp.2 l6f.
+I In Eusebius, Hi.\t. h/. 4.23.11.
“’ ComIyare Athanasius’s commendation of the Dir/u& and the Sh&erd (p. 209),
of
26X
269
A C A N O N W I T H I N T H E C;ANON
CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO
A CANON WITHIN
THE CANON?
THE ‘INNER CANON’
In our survey of the canon of scripture thus far, occasional mention has
been made of the idea of a ‘canon within the canon’. ’ This is an idea
that has received wider support and publicity in more recent times.
In a lecture delivered at Oxford in 1961 Professor Kurt Aland
expressed the view that, as the Old Testament canon underwent a de
facto narrowing as a result of the new covenant established in Christ, so
also the New Testament canon ‘is in practice undergoing a narrowing
and a shortening,’ so that we can recognize in the New Testament as in
the Old a ‘canon within the canon’.2 This is a not unexpected attitude
on the part of a scholar in the Lutheran tradition; it is common form,
for example, for theologians in that tradition to pass a depreciatory
judgment on those parts of the New Testament which smack of
‘emergent Catholicism or ‘incipient catholicism’.3 The ‘actual living,
’ Seepp.244, 251.
’ K. Aland, The Pvohh o(/ the Neu Tettanmt Canon, E. T. (London, 1962).
pp.27-29.
’ G e r m a n Frtihkatholizimw, a term given to the tendency towards the
institutionalizing of church belief and practice. It appears ‘again and again in German
theology of this century, and always as a term of reproach-a curious example of the
way in which we are all influenced by our prepossessions-‘“Catholic” in English is
not ordinarily a term of reprobation’ (S. Neill, Thr Intrrprrtation (4 the New ‘Testcrmmt
/861-196I [Oxford, 19641, p.160, n.l).
270
effective Canon’, as distinct from the formal canon, ‘is constructed
according to the method of “self-understanding”.‘4
But if it is suggested that Christians and churches get together and
try to reach agreement on a common effective canon, it must be
realized that the ‘effective’ canon of some groups differs from that of
others. Professor Aland wisely spoke of the necessity to question one’s
own actual canon and take the actual canon of others seriously.’
If in the Lutheran tradition, and indeed in the evangelical tradition
generally, the four chief Pauline epistles (Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians,
Galatians) play a leading part in the effective canon, there are other
Christians for whom Paul’s ‘captivity epistles’ are the New Testament
documents most directly relevant to the present age.6 Others would
give the Synoptic Gospels pride of place, and yet others the Johannine
writings.
The late Norman Snaith, in his day a distinguished Methodist Old
Testament scholar, found pre-eminently in the great prophets of Israel
those features of true religion which were to find their finest flowering
in the Pauline gospel of justification by faith (later embraced and
proclaimed by Luther and the Wesleys). But the message of the
prophets had been encased in an iron binding of babdalah, ‘separation’,
consisting of the priestly legislation of the Pentateuch at one end and
the work of Ezra at the other, which (in his eyes) anticipated those
elements in first-century Judaism which were inimical to the gospel of
Christ (especially as expounded by Paul).’ There are others, however,
who find in the priestly legislation, especially in its sacrificial and
other cultic ordinances, allegorically interpreted, the most wonderful
adumbration of the gospel to be found anywhere in the Old Testament.
The suggestion has even been made (more in popular Bible exposition
than in serious exegesis) that, when the risen Lord on the Emmaus
road opened to the two disciples ‘in all the scriptures the things
concerning himself (Lk. 24:27), he took up the successive forms of
sacrifice prescribed in the opening chapters of Leviticus- the burnt
offerings, the cereal offerings, the peace offerings, the sin and guilt
offerings-and showed them how each in its own way foreshadowed
his own sacrifice.’ To some of us such an idea seems incredibly
4 Aland, Prot!du~~. p.29.
’
the
’
”
s Aland, Pml,lm. pp. 1 If.
This is the position taken, for example, by the Brwzn Expwrtovand publications of
Berean Publishing Trust, London.
N. H. Snaith, ?‘/I, Di~tmctiw ldtm ofthr Old Trctamnt (London, 1944).
Among those who have developed this christological typology of the lewtical
271
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
A CANON WITHIN THE CANON
far-fetched, but there are other Christians to whom it is self-evident,
and if the priestly legislation belongs to their inner canon, it must be
allowed its place within the church’s canon.
There are those who see the difficulties inherent in the idea of an
‘inner canon’ and try to avoid them by using such an expression as
‘material centre’ (in German, Sacbmitte). What they usually have in
mind, however, is ‘some passage or group of passages which “really”
express and grasp this central matter; so that indirectly we are back
again with a sort of inner canon’.’ Such a ‘material centre’ might be
compared to the ‘rule of faith’ to which the early Christian fathers
appealed; but the rule of faith was not any kind of inner canon; it was
rather a summary of the essence of scripture, properly interpreted.
One may think of the Reformers’ principle of biblical interpretation
according to the ‘analogy of faith’- the analogy of faith being the
main thrust of scripture, as they understood it. lo
coextensive with the canon. The canon, to adapt Luther’s metaphor, is
the cradle in which the gospel is laid.
To KZsemann’s essay a reply was made by Hans Kung. Kiing
maintains that the catholicity of the canon is a good thing in itself.
The multiplicity which K5semann finds in the New Testament is a
multiple expression of the gospel. ‘The Catholic attitude is to be, in
principle, open in every direction that the New Testament leaves open;
not to exclude, either in principle or in practice, any line that belongs
to the New Testament. . . . By including Paul along with Acts, Paul
along with James; by, in short, making the whole New Testament
canonical’, the church carried out her duty of ‘discerning the spirits’.
As for ‘the bold programme of “a Canon within the Canon”,’ it
amounts to a demand to be ‘more biblical than the Bible, more
New-Testament-minded than the New Testament, more evangelical
than the Gospel, more Pauline, even, than Paul’. I2
It would be hazardous to try to name any part of scripture-even
the genealogical tables! -in which some receptive reader or hearer has
not recognized an effective and redeeming word from God. In the
nineteenth century William Robertson Smith, called to account before
a church court, affirmed his belief in the Bible as the Word of God and
gave this as his reason: ‘Because the Bible is the only record of the
redeeming love of God; because in the Bible I find God drawing near
to me in Jesus Christ, and declaring to me, in Him, His will for my
salvation. And this record I know to be true by the witness of His
Spirit in my heart, whereby I am assured that none other than God
Himself is able to speak such words to my ~0~1.“~ This was expressed
in the genuine tradition of Calvin and the Westminster divines. If
Robertson Smith had been asked just where in the Bible he recognized
this record and experienced this witness, he would probably not have
mentioned every book, but he might well have said that the record of
God’s love and the witness of the Spirit were so pervasive that they
gave character to the Bible as a whole. Others might bear the same
testimony, but might think of other parts of the Bible than Robertson
Smith had in mind.
If those who adhere to the principle of an inner canon concentrate on
that inner canon to a point where they neglect the contents of the
MANY WITNESSES, ONE CHURCH, ONE LORD
‘Does the canon of the New Testament constitute the unity of the
church?’ This was the title of a well-known essay by Ernst Kasemann;
he gave his question the answer ‘No’. He based his answer on the
ample witness which the canon bears, in his view, to the disunity of the
first-century church. If Galatians and Acts, Romans and James, the
Fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse are brought together (as we have
them) in one authoritative collection, then this collection ‘provides
the basis for the multiplicity of the confessions’. This multiplicity
need not be accepted as binding: the New Testament canon imposes
the duty of ‘discerning the spirits’, even within its own component
writings. If justification by faith be taken as the criterion for such
discernment, Kasemann implies, then ‘emergent catholicism’ will be
recognized for the secondary development that it is. ”
The gospel, that is to say, is contained in the canon, but is not
offerings ate A. Jukes, The Lauj of the Oj‘ving~ (London, 1854); H. Law, Chrisf is All:
Lnvtim (London, 1857); A. A. Bonar, A Comrrmtar~ on the Book r~ltiitzcrrs (London,
“1861); C. H. Mackintosh, Nora ow the Book //I,fldvitic./rr (London, ‘1861).
’ J, Barr, The Bil,lr rn rhr Modern WorlJ(L.ondon, 1973), pp. 16O- 162.
I” See p. 249f.
I’ E. Kiisemann, ‘The Canon of the New Testament and the Unity of the Church’,
E.T. in 1:‘.1qt on Nru’ Tr~/arurr~r ‘f’hwtn (London, I964), pp.95- 1 17.
272
” H. Kiing, ?;hr Lilwg Chxrth, E.T. (London, 1963), pp.233-293; Structwr~ ?/
/hrCh~~rth. E.T. (London, 1965). pp. 135-147.
‘.’ W R Smith, Ansuw to fhr Form ot Lihd mu’ h/ore the Free Chnh Prdptrr) (4
Alirvdw~ (Edinburgh, 1878), p.21.
273
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
‘outer canon’ (as they might call it), they deny themselves the benefits
which they might derive from those other books. N.B. Stonehouse
gave as his ‘basic criticism’ of Luther’s viewpoint ‘that it was narrowly
Christocentric rather than God-centred, and thus involved an
attenuation and impoverishment of the message of the New
Testament. However significant was Christma treibet may be for the
understanding of the New Testament, it lacks the breadth of
perspective and outlook given by understanding it, for example, in
terms of the coming of the kingdom of God’. But, ‘formulating his
criterion in narrow terms, and insisting upon the same manifestation
of it in each writing of the New Testament’, Luther ‘missed much of
the richness of the revelation of the New Testament organism of
Scripture’. I4
With a rather different emphasis, but to much the same effect,
Ernest Best (probably with Rudolf Bultmann and other ‘existential’
exegetes in mind) has put it this way:
The New Testament contains a variety of interpretations from a
variety of contexts.. . . The Gospel of Luke and the Pastoral
Epistles with their non-existentialist interpretation clearly met
a need of the late first century and the beginning of the second
and it can be argued that they have met the need of many
Christians since then. They have sustained the church through
many difficulties and have enabled it to take care of itself not
only in time of persecution but also in time of heresy. Had we
only the existentialist interpretation of Paul and John, supposing
that their interpretations are purely existentialist, the church
might well have lacked an essential element for its continued
existence. I5
The multiplicity of witness discernible in the New Testament is a
multifilicity of witness to Christ. To quote the title of a helpful work
by William Barc1ay, it presents us with ‘many witnesses, one Lord’. I6
In his more academic work, Unity and Diversity in the New Testament, J.
D. G. Dunn does not play down the diversity, but finds the unity
which binds it together in the witness which it bears to the Jesus of
I4 N. B. Stonehouse, ‘Luther and the New Testament Canon’, in Pauf Erfire the
Arwpa~~.~ and Othrv New ?‘crta~m/ Sr~die.c (Grand Rapids, 1957). pp. 196f.
” E. Best, ‘Scripture, Tradition and the Canon of the New Testament’, BJRL 61
(1978-79), p.286.
274
A CANON WITHIN THE CANON
history who is identical with the exalted Lord of the church’s faith and
preaching. I7 What Jesus said of the Hebrew scriptures is equally
applicable to the New Testament writings, ‘outer canon’ as well as
‘inner canon’: ‘it is they that bear witness to me’ (Jn. 5:39).
In short, it must be acknowledged that the churchmen of the age
after Marcion were right when they insisted on a catholic collection of
Christian scriptures in opposition to his sectarian selection. I8
CRITERIA T O D A Y
Dr Ellen Flesseman-van Leer has argued that those who accept the
traditional canon of scripture today cannot legitimately defend it with
arguments which played no part in its formation. l9 She is supported
by Hans von Campenhausen, who maintains nevertheless that ‘the
Scripture, read in faith and with the aid of reason, still remains the
canon, the “standard”. Without adherence to the Canon, which-in
the widest sense-witnesses to the history ofchrist, faith in Christ in
any church would become an illusion. ‘*’ Of course it would, because
the written testimony to Christ on which that faith is based would
have disappeared.
This written testimony is enshrined in both Testaments, and both
remain indispensable. ‘Even an Old Testament read with critical
eyes’, says von Campenhausen, ‘is still the book of a history which
leads to Christ and indeed points toward him, and without him cannot
itself be understood.“’ Adolf von Harnack showed a strange
insensitivity when he said that the Protestant church’s continuing in
his day to treasure the Old Testament as a canonical document was ‘the
result of a paralysis which affects both religion and the church’.**
Those who are interested in the Bible chiefly as historians of
religious literature have naturally little use for the concept of a canon.
Old Testament apocrypha and pseudepigrapha are as relevant to their
studies as the contents of the Hebrew Bible; for them there is no
” J. D. G. Dunn, Unity and Dizwsity in the New Testament (London, 1977).
pp.205-216 rtpassinr.
‘” See pp. 150- 154.
” ‘Prinzipien der Sammlung und Ausscheidung bei der Bildung des Kanons’, ZTK
61 (1764), p.417.
XJ The Formatron o/h Chrirtlan Bzblr, E.T. (London, 1972), p. 333
” lbrd.
” Harnack, Marmn: Da3 Et,angelium zwu frmdtw Gotr (Leipzig, 1921), p.2 17
_I
275
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
A CANON WITHIN THE CANON
distinction in principle between the New Testament writings and
other early Christian literature from (say) Clement of Rome to Clement
of Alexandria. But for theologians, and indeed for members of
Christian churches in general, the principle of the canon is one of
abiding importance.
Some may say that they receive the traditional canon as God’s Word
written because it has been delivered to them as such. Others will say
that, if the traditional canon is indeed God’s Word written, there will
be recognizable criteria which mark it out as such. If the criteria which
satisfied men and women in the early church are no longer so convincing
to us as they were to them, on what grounds (apart from the bare fact
that this is the canon which we have received) can we justify our
acceptance of the traditional canon? It is not only legitimate but
necessary to know what these grounds are and to state them.
So far as the Old Testament is concerned, this is a heritage with
which the Christian church was endowed at its inception. Its contents
meant much in the life of the church’s Lord; they cannot mean less in
the life of the church. ‘What was indispensable to the Redeemer must
always be indispensable to the redeemed.‘23 Differences may persist
over matters of detail, such as the relation of the deuterocanonical
books to those which belong to the Hebrew Bible, or the right of
books like Esther, Ecclesiastes or the Song of Songs to be included in
the canon. But these differences do not affect the main point-the
essential place that the Old Testament has in the church’s scriptures.
And if questions arise about the inclusion of certain books which at
one time were disputed, such questions may best be given a comprehensive answer. It is probable that the considerations which led to the
inclusion of the Song of Songs in the canon would be dismissed by us as
quite misguided. But with hindsight it is a matter for satisfaction that
the Christian canon does include this exuberant celebration of the joy
that man and woman find in each other’s love.
Where the New Testament is concerned, the criterion of apostolicity
can still be applied, but in a different way from its second-century
application. Luke’s Gospel, for example, does not seem to be in any
way indebted to Paul, and has no need to be validated by his apostolic
authority: Luke’s access to the testimony of eyewitnesses and other
primitive ‘ministers of the word’, with his own handling of the
material he received, may well give the reader confidence that his
record is based on the authentic apostolic preaching.24 The letter to
the Hebrews needs no apostle’s name to certify its credentials as an
original first-century presentation of the significance of the work of
Christ as his people’s sacrifice and high priest. ‘Whether then it was I
or they’, says Paul, referring to others to whom the Lord appeared in
resurrection, ‘so we preach and so you believed’ (1 Cor. 15: 1 l)*“-and his ‘they’ can properly be extended to include all the New
Testament writers. With all the diversity of their witness, it is witness
to one Lord and one gospel. There is a directness about the authority
investing their words which contrasts with the perspective of Clement
of Rome and his second-century successors, who look back to the
apostolic age as normative. Not that a hard-and-fast line is drawn in
this respect between the latest New Testament writings and the
earliest of the Apostolic Fathers: the latest New Testament writings
urge their readers to ‘remember. . . the predictions of the apostles of
our Lord Jesus Christ’ (Jude 17; c/ 2 Pet. 3:2).26 But the reasons
which led to the overcoming of doubts once felt about these and other
disputed catholic epistles were probably sound: in any case, the
majority of the New Testament books, with their self-authenticating
authority, can easily carry these, which form part of the same traditional canon.
It is sometimes said that the books which made their way into the
New Testament canon are those which supported the victorious cause
in the second-century conflict with the various gnostic schools of
thought. There is no reason why the student of this conflict should
shrink from making a value-judgment: the gnostic schools lost because
they deserved to lose. A comparison of the New Testament writings
with the contents of The Nag Hammadi Library should be instructive,
once the novelty of the latter is not allowed to weigh in its favour
against the familiarity of the former. Diverse as the gnostic schools
were from one another, they all tended to ascribe creation and
redemption to two separate (not to say opposed) powers. They fostered
an individualist rather than a social form of religion- ‘he travels the
L3 G. A. Smith, Modtw Critrcirru rend the Prerrhz~ o/the Old Testanmt (London,
1901), p. 1 I.
276
I4 See I. H. Marshall, Luke; Hisfovim clnd Thrrhgum (Exeter, 1970).
*’ Paul’s repeated ‘so’ refers to the foundation of the gospel in the death, burial and
well attested resurrection of Christ.
” In the similar language of Eph. 3:5 ‘the mystery of Christ. has now been
revealed to his holy apostles and prophets by the Spirit’; they are not yet figures
a
past generation. See p.59.
of
277
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
A CANON WITHIN THE CANON
fastest who travels alone’. They not only weakened a sense of
community with other contemporaries but a sense of continuity with
those who went before. True Christianity, like biblical religion in
general, looks to one God as Creator and Redeemer, knows nothing of
a solitary religion, and encourages among the people of God an
appreciation of the heritage received from those who experienced his
mighty acts in the past. And the documents which attest this true
Christianity can claim, by the normal tests of literary and historical
criticism, to be closer in time and perspective to the ministry of Jesus
and the witness of his first apostles than the documents of the gnostic
schools. Gnosticism was too much bound up with a popular but
passing phase of thought to have the survival power of apostolic
Christianity.*’
The New Testament writings provide incontrovertibly our earliest
witness to Christ, presenting him as the one in whom the history of
salvation, recorded in the Old Testament, reached its climax.*’ What
Hans Lietzmann said of the four gospels in the early church may be
said of the New Testament writings in general: ‘the reference to their
apostolic authority, which can only appear to us as a reminder of sound
historical bases, had the deeper meaning that this particular tradition
of Jesus-and this alone- had been established and guaranteed by
the Holy Spirit working authoritatively in the Church.‘29 Within ‘this
particular tradition’ different strands of tradition may be recognized,
but the church, in earlier and in more recent days, has been more
conscious of the overall unity than of the underlying diversity, and has
maintained ‘this particular tradition’ over against others which conflict
with the New Testament witness but cannot establish a comparable
title to apostolic authority. 3o
comparable with that of the New Testament writings? Some years ago
a piece of writing was discovered in a Palestinian monastery which
purported co be a copy of part of a letter written by Clement of
Alexandria. 31 Some well-known students of Clement’s work examined
this piece of writing and agreed that it might well be a genuine
fragment of his. Suppose a piece of writing were discovered somewhere
in the Near East which purported to be part of a letter of Paul’s_ say
his lost ‘previous’ letter to the Corinthian church (to which he refers in
1 Cor. 5~9). Suppose, too, that students of the Pauline writings who
examined it were agreed for the most part that it was genuine, that it
really was what it purported to be.32 What then? Should it be
incorporated in the New Testament forthwith?
The criteria which lead scholars to conclusions about the date and
authorship of a document are different from the criteria leading to
canonical recognition. A newly discovered document could not be
treated as something accepted ‘everywhere, always, by all’ and so,
initially, could satisfy the criteria neither of catholicity nor of tradition.
Moreover, who is there today who could make a pronouncement on its
canonicity with such authority as would be universally followed? Even
if the Pope, the Ecumenical Patriarch and the Presidents of the World
Council of Churches were to issue a joint pronouncement, there are
some people of independent temper who would regard such a
pronouncement as sufficient cause for rejecting this candidate for
canonicity. Unless and until such a discovery is made, it is pointless to
speculate. But the precedent of earlier days suggests that it would first
be necessary for a consensus to develop among Christians in general;
any papal or conciliar pronouncement that might come later would be
but a rubber-stamping of that consensus.
WHAT
I F . . .?
What would happen if a lost document from the apostolic age were to
be discovered, which could establish a title to apostolic authority
ORTHODOXY
The time has long
be judged by an
document such as
other things, by
would add, by its
since gone by when the contents of the Bible could
accepted ‘rule of faith’. No doubt a hypothetical
has just been discussed would be judged, among
its consistency with the existing canon-some
consistency with the ‘inner canon’ (whatever their
” See P. Henry, Nm Directions in New Testament Study (London, 1980), pp.93119.
” See H. van Campenhausen, The Form&on ofthe Christian Bible, pp.327-333.
29 H. Lietzmann, The FoundqoftheChurcb Universal, E.T. (London, 1950), p.97.
” See also E. Best, ‘Scripture, Tradition and the Canon of the New Testament’,
BJRL 61 (1978-79), pp.258-289 (especially pp.288f.) for the sense in which the
New Testament is both primary and essential: ‘Every understanding of God through
Christ is funnelled back through scripture to God and then forward again to us.’
” Seepp.298-315.
” The delicate nature of proof in such a matter may be illustrated by the
publication in recent years of what purported to be Hitler’s diaries--a fabrication
which for a short time deceived one of our most eminent modern historians.
278
279
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
criteria for the inner canon might be). Oscar Cullmann has maintained
that ‘both the idea of a canon and the manner of its realization are a
crzlcialpart of the salvation history of the Bible’. It is in its recording of
the history of salvation that he finds the unity of the biblical message
(in Old and New Testaments together); ‘through the collection together
of the various books of the Bible, the whole history of salvation must
be taken into account in understanding any one of the books of the
Bible. ‘33 The history of salvation was consummated in the once-for-all
saving event; but that event can be appreciated only when one considers
the process of which it is the fulfilment (documented in the Old
Testament) and the unfolding of its significance (in the writings of
the New Testament). Cullmann may press his thesis too far, but in his
exposition of the principle of salvation history he presents a very
attractive account of the coherence of the canon of scripture. This
coherence is specially to be found in the witness borne to the author of
salvation, the way of salvation, and the heirs of salvation. Even those
parts of the Bible in which salvation is not so central as it is in others
make their contribution to the context in which the history of salvation
can be traced.
INSPIRATION
Inspiration-more particularly, prophetic inspiration-was
identified by many as the distinguishing feature of the Old Testament
collection when once it was reckoned to be complete. The collection
was complete in principle, according to Josephus, when ‘the exact
succession of prophets’ came to an end in Israel. 34 The rabbis assigned
prophets as authors for the principal historical books (Joshua, Judges,
Samuel, Kings) as well as for the Pentateuch and the Psalms.3s
According to the later books of the New Testament, the whole of
Hebrew scripture (whether the original text or the Greek version) ‘is
inspired by God’ (2 Tim. 3: 16), for ‘men moved by the Holy Spirit
spoke from God’ (2 Pet. 2:21).
Christians have been right in discerning the Holy Spirit similarly at
work in the New Testament scriptures, although (as has been said)
only one book of the New Testament explicitly claims prophetic
” 0. Cullmann, Scrlwz~~n zn Hidory, E.T. (London, 1967), pp.294,297.
j4 Josephus, Apmt Apm, 1.4 1 (see p. 33).
I5 See p.30. Ezra and Job also ranked as prophets.
2x0
A CANON WITHIN THE CANON
inspiration. But there has been a tendency to isolate the work of the
Spirit in the composition of the individual New Testament scriptures
from his subsequent work in relation to them. The Christians of the
early centuries did not think that inspiration had ceased with the last
book of the New Testament; they continued consciously to enjoy
inspiration themselves (albeit not in conjunction with the apostolic
authority which puts the New Testament writings on a level all their
own). The strong word ‘God-breathed’ (Greek theopneutos) which is
used in 2 Timothy 3:16 was occasionally used of post-apostolic
writings-of the metrical inscription of Avircius, for example
(describing his visit to churches between Rome and Mesopotamia),36
and even of the decision of the Council of Ephesus ( AD 4 3 1 )
condemning Nestorius!37
It is not the usage of words that is important, however, but the
realities of the situation. The theological aspect of canonization has
not been the subject of this book, which has been concerned rather
with the historical aspect, but for those who receive the scriptures as
God’s Word written the theological aspect is the most important. The
Holy Spirit is not only the Spirit of prophecy; he is also the witnessing
and interpreting Spirit. In the fulfilment of Jesus’ promise that the
Spirit would be the disciples’ teacher and bring his own words (with
their significance) to their remembrance,3s the scriptures have been,
and continue to be, one of the chief instruments which the Spirit uses.
That the promise was not understood as applying only to those who
were actually present with Jesus in the upper room is plain from
1 John 2:20,27, where Christians of a later generation are assured that
the ‘anointing’ which they have received from ‘the Holy One’ teaches
them about everything (guides them ‘into all the truth’, in the sense of
John 16: 13).
The work of the Holy Spirit is not discerned by means of the
common tools of the historian’s trade. His inner witness gives the
assurance to hearers or readers of scripture that in its words God
himself is addressing them; but when one is considering the process by
which the canon of scripture took shape it would be wiser to speak of
the providence or guidance of the Spirit than of his witness. It is
unlikely, for example, that the Spirit’s witness would enable a reader
” See p.22.
17 E. Schwartz (ed.), Actu Conciliurm Oerzu~m~orum, I. 1.2 (Berlin/Leipzig, 1927),
p.70. See p.266 above with 11.38.
38 John 14:26.
281
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
to discern that Ecclesiastes is the word of God while Ecclesiasticus is
not: indeed, we have seen how John Bunyan heard the reassuring voice
of God in the latter book, although it was not one of the books which
he had been taught to receive as ‘holy and canonical’.39 Certainly, as
one looks back on the process of canonization in early Christian
centuries, and remembers some of the ideas of which certain church
writers of that period were capable, it is easy to conclude that in
reaching a conclusion on the limits of the canon they were directed by
a wisdom higher than their own. It may be that those whose minds
have been largely formed by scripture as canonized find it natural to
make a judgment of this kind. But it is not mere hindsight to say,
with William Barclay, that ‘the New Testament books became
canonical because no one could stop them doing ~0’~’ or even, in the
exaggerated language of Oscar Cullmann, that ‘the books which were
to form the future canon forced themselves on the Church by their intrinsic
apostolic authority, as they do still, because the Kyrios Christ speaks in
them’.41
A further point to be made on the criterion of inspiration is that, in
the words of H. L. Ellison, ‘the writing of the Scriptures was only the
half-way house in the process of inspiration; it only reaches its goal and
conclusion as God is revealed through them to the reader or hearer. In
other words, the inbreathing of the Holy Spirit into the reader is as
essential for the right understanding of the Scriptures as it was in the
original writers for their right production of them.‘42 If his
‘inbreathing’ into the authors is called inspiration and his ‘inbreathing’
into the hearers or readers is called illumination, this verbal distinction
should not obscure the fact that at both stages it is one and the same
Spirit who is at work.
The suggestion is made from time to time that the canon of
scripture might be augmented by the inclusion of other ‘inspirational’
literature, ancient or modern, from a wider cultural spectrum.43 But
A CANON WITHIN THE CANON
this betrays a failure to appreciate what the canon actually is. It is not
an anthology of inspired or inspiring literature. If one were considering
a collection of writings suitable for reading in church, the suggestion
might be more relevant. When a sermon is read in church, the
congregation is often treated to what is, in intention at least,
inspirational literature; the same may be said of prayers which are read
from the prayerbook or of hymns which are sung from the hymnbook.
But when the limits of the canon are under consideration, the chief
concern is to get as close as possible to the source of the Christian faith.
By an act of faith the Christian reader today may identify the New
Testament, as it has been received, with the entire ‘tradition of
Christ’. But confidence in such an act of faith will be strengthened if
the same faith proves to have been exercised by Christians in other
places and at other times- if it is in line with the traditional ‘criteria
of canonicity’. And there is no reason to exclude the bearing of other
lines of evidence on any position that is accepted by faith.
In the canon of scripture we have the foundation documents of
Christianity, the charter of the church, the title-deeds of faith. For no
other literature can such a claim be made. And when the claim is
made, it is made not merely for a collection of ancient writings. In the
words of scripture the voice of the Spirit of God continues to be heard.
Repeatedly new spiritual movements have been launched by the
rediscovery of the living power which resides in the canon of Scripture
-a living power which strengthens and liberates.
.
39 Seep. 100.
4” W. Barclay, The Making ofthe Bible (London, 1961), p.78.
41 0. Cullmann, ‘The Tradition’ in The Ear/y Church, E.T. (London, 1956), p.91
(his italics). It would be difficult to give a precise definition of ‘inrrinsic apostolic
authority’.
42 H. L. Ellison, ‘Some Thoughts on Inspiration’, EQ 26 (1954), p.2 14.
” B. M. Metzger reports that, shortly after Martin Luther King, Jr., was
assassinated in 1968, a group of ministers seriously proposed that his ‘Letter from a
Birmingham Jail’ (I 964) should be added to the New Testament (The Canon ofthe NW
Tnircrnmt {Oxford, 19871, p. 27 1).
282
283
CANON,
CHAPTER
TWENTY-THREE
CANON, CRITICISM, AND
INTERPRETATION
CANONICAL
CRITICISM
When writings are gathered together into a collection with a unifying
principle, some critical questions arise with regard to the collection as
such, in the light of that unifying principle, which do not arise in the
same way with regard to the individual writings which make it up.
Where the canon of scripture is concerned, these critical questions
have been comprehensively termed ‘canonical criticism’.
One of the most important critical questions has been formulated
thus: ‘Which form of the text is canonical?” The question is often
asked in relation to the New Testament, and some of those who ask it
are prepared themselves to give it a quite confident answer. But when
it is asked in relation to the New Testament, it is helpful first to
consider it in relation to the Old Testament.
Which form of the Old Testament text is canonical? If the question
is put to orthodox Jews, their answer is not in doubt: it is the
traditional form, the Masoretic text of the Hebrew scriptures. And
many scholars, Jews and Gentiles alike, will agree that, of all the
extant varieties of text, the Masoretic is most reliable. It is no doubt
’ This question forms the heading ofa section in the last chapter ofB. M. Metzger,
The Ccrrton ~,lthrNtw Temcnt (Oxford, 1987). p.267.
284
C R I T I C I S M A N D INTERPKETATION
subject to correction here and there, but no rival variety of Hebrew
text-for example, that which appears to underlie the Septuagint
version- can hold a candle to it.
But which form of the Old Testament text was recognized as
canonical, or at least authoritative, by our Lord and his apostles, or by
the New Testament writers in general? No one form.
One might expect that writers in Greek would use an accessible
Greek version of the ancient scriptures, that is to say, the Septuagint.
The New Testament writers did this to a very considerable extent.
Luke and the writer to the Hebrews in their biblical citations and
allusions adhere quite closely to the Septuagint wording. But other
New Testament writers exercise greater freedom.
In Matthew 12: 18-2 1 there is a quotation from Isaiah 42: l-4 in a
Greek form which is markedly different from the Septuagint. The
Septuagint version of Isaiah 42:l identifies ‘my servant’ as Israel,’
which would not have suited Matthew’s purpose. A New Testament
writer may quote the Old Testament in a form closer to the Hebrew
construction; he may even quote it in a form paralleled neither in the
Septuagint nor in the traditional Hebrew text, but in an Aramaic
paraphrase or targum. For example, both Paul and the writer to the
Hebrews quote Deuteronomy 32:35 in the form ‘Vengeance is mine, I
will repay’ (Rom. l2:l9; Heb. 10:30). This follows neither the
familiar Hebrew wording (‘Vengeance is mine, and recompense’) nor
the Septuagint (‘In the day of vengeance I will repay’), but it agrees
exactly with the targumic version. Occasionally, indeed, there is
evidence of the use of a text resembling the Samaritan edition of the
Pentateuch.3 It looks at times as if the New Testament writers enjoyed
liberty to select a form of Old Testament text which promoted their
immediate purpose in quoting it: certainly they did not regard any one
form of text as sacrosanct.
In this they have provided a helpful precedent for us when we are
told (especially on theological, not critical, grounds) that one form of
New Testament text is uniquely authoritative. In the eighteenth
century William Whiston maintained that what we call the ‘Western’
’ ‘Jacob my servant, I will help him; Israel my chosen one, my soul has accepted
him.’
3 The statement in Acts 7:4 that Abraham left Harran for Canaan ‘after his father
died’ agrees with the chronology of the Samaritan text of Gen. 11:26- 12:4 rather
than with that of the Masoretic text or Septuagint version. See p.54.
285
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
text was the true, ‘primitive’ form of the New Testament.4 In the
second half of the nineteenth century John William Burgon vigorously
defended the exclusive right of the ‘Byzantine’ text (the text exhibited
by the majority of Greek manuscripts from the fifth to the fifteenth
century) to be recognized as authentic and ‘inspired’.’ There are some
who continue to maintain this position.6 In his day there were those
who held, on the other hand, that the text established by a succession
of leading scholars on the basis of the earliest manuscripts should
displace the Byzantine or ‘majority’ text as ‘canonical’. A Scats Bible
teacher of a past generation used to affirm in public that ‘where
Lachmann, Tregelles, Tischendorf and Westcott and Hort agree,
there you have verily what the Spirit saith’.’ That viewpoint was
widely shared; nowadays few would venture to speak so positively,
even on behalf of such an excellent publication as K. Aland’s revision
of E. Nestle’s edition of the Greek New Testament.*
In more recent times the topic of ‘canonical criticism’ has been
introduced, especially by B. S. Childs.’ In canonical criticism the
techniques of critical study are practised in relation to the Old or New
Testament canon as such, or to the form in which any one of the
individual books was finally included in the canon. It is true that, for
nearly all books of the Bible, the final canonical form is the only one
directly accessible to us: any earlier form must be in some degree a
matter of speculation or reconstruction. (Occasionally one can distin4 W. Whiston, The Primitive New Testament Restor’d(I_ondon, 1745). The ‘Western’
text is represented by Codex Bezae (D) of the Gospels and Acts (seep. 12) and by Co&x
CfaromontanuJ (g) of the letters of Paul (see p.218), as well as by a variety of other
witnesses.
s Burgon’s best-known statement of this position is his learned work, The Revision
Revised (London, 1883).
6 E.g. E. F. Hills, The King James Version Defended.’ (Des Moines, 1956); J. van
Bruggen, The Ancient Text of the New Testament, E.T. (Winnipeg, 1976); W. N.
Pickering, The Identity ofthe New Testament Text (Nashville/New York, 1977).
’ The Bible teacher was John Brown (1846-1938), once well known among
Christian Brethren in Scotland. K. Lachmann, S. P. Tregelles, C. van Tischendorf,
and (together) B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort between 1831 and 1881 published
successive editions of the Greek New Testament based on the text of the earliest
witnesses then available.
s Nestle-Aland, Nmtum Trrtamentum Graece (Stuttgart, 1979). The critical apparatus
of this edition is the work ofK. and B. Aland; the text is practically identical with that
of The Greek New Testament (United Bible Societies, ’ 1975).
9 See B. S. Childs, Introduction to the Old Te.rtament as Scripture (London, 1979),
pp.74- 105; The New Testament ar Canon: An Introduction (London, 1984), pp.521530.
280
CANON,
CRITICISM
AND
INTERPRETATION
guish two ‘canonical’ forms of a book, as in the book of Jeremiah: there
is the longer form preserved in the Masoretic text and a shorter Greek
form preserved in the Septuagint, and both were canonized.)”
It may be argued that the final canonical form is that which should
be acknowledged as the valid standard of authority in the church. But
the textual or historical critic will not be deterred from working back
to the form in which the document first appeared, or as nearly as it is
possible to get to that form. And it may equally be argued that, if
apostolic authority is the chief criterion of canonicity in the New
Testament, the form of the letter to the Romans (say) as Paul dictated
it and Tertius wrote it down must be its most authoritative form. To
be sure, where the Pauline letters’are concerned, textual critics would
be happy if they could establish the wording of the first edition of the
Pauline corpus, but even that (ifattainable) would be pre-canonical. ”
‘AS ORIGINALLY GIVEN’
It might be thought at first blush that insistence on the final canonical
form stands at the opposite pole from insistence on the text ‘as
originally given’, which finds expression in some present-day statements of belief. The Universities and Colleges Christian Fellowship,
for example, confesses its faith in ‘the divine inspiration and infallibility
of Holy Scripture, as originally given, and its supreme authority in all
matters of faith and morals’. I2 The phrase ‘as originally given’ does not
imply that the qualities of inspiration and infallibility belong to some
lost and irrecoverable stage of the biblical text; it implies rather that
these qualities should not be ascribed to defects of transmission and
translation.
In another context the phrase ‘as originally given’ might refer to
earlier forms of a biblical book which have been discerned by the
exercise of literary or historical criticism. For example, it has been
argued persuasively by David Clines that the ‘proto-Masoretic’ book of
Esther comprised the first eight chapters only; not only so, but he goes
farther back and envisages a ‘pre-Masoretic’ form of the book. I3 Could
one say that one or other of these forms should be identified with the
” The shorter form was originally a variant Hekrew edition, which is represented
by a fragmentary manuscript from Qumran (4QJer ). As the Septuagintal form it was
‘canonized’ by the Greek-speaking church.
” See pp. 129f.
” See Et~angehl Be/zef(Inter-Varsity, 1935; ’ 1961).
I3 D. J. A. Clines, The Eher ScrolL: TheStory oftbe Story (Sheffield, 1984).
287
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
book of Esther ‘as originally given’? Or, to take a New Testament
example, some scholars have held that, when Pap& wrote of Matthew’s
compilation of ‘the oracles in the Hebrew speech’,14 he referred not to
our Gospel of Matthew but to an early collection of sayings of Jesus
which constituted a major source for the evangelists Matthew and
Luke (the source of the so-called ‘Q’ material). is If they are right,
could one say that this collection should be identified with the Gospel
of Matthew ‘as originally given’? It is safe to say that such possibilities
were not contemplated by the authors of the UCCF doctrinal basis. In
fact, they had in view the canonical forms of the biblical books, with
errors of transmission or translation removed. There is not so much
difference as might appear at first blush between this position and that
of Professor Childs (which is not to say, of course, that he takes the
UCCF line on inspiration and infallibility).
In the ‘received text’ of the New Testament there are some passages
which find no place in modern critical editions of the Greek Testament
(or in translations based on these). Should such passages be recognized
as canonical? There is no person or community competent to give an
authoritative ruling on this question; any answer to it must be largely
a matter of judgment. I6
There is, for example, the text about the three heavenly witnesses
which appears in AV/KJV at 1 John 5:7. This passage is a late intruder;
it has no title to be considered part of the New Testament or to be
recognized as canonical. ”
What of the last twelve verses of Mark’s Gospel (Mk. 16:9--20)?
These verses- the longer Marcan appendix- were not part ofMark’s
work. That in itself would not render them uncanonical- as we have
seen, canonicity and authorship are two distinct issues-but their
contents reveal their secondary nature. They seem to present, in the
main, a summary of resurrection appearances recorded in the other
Gospels. Some readers may like to have in verse 18 canonical authority
for snake-handling; the clause ‘they will pick up serpents’, however, is
probably based on Paul’s encounter with the viper on Malta (Acts
I4 Seep. 125.
‘s So, e.g., T. W. Manson, Studies in the Gospelr and Epides (Manchester, 1962),
pp.68- 104.
” At one time the Holy See reserved to itself the right ofp’assing final judgment on
such questions: little has been heard of this right since the issue of Pope Pius XII’s
encyclical Dwzno u/&nrr Sprrztn (‘by the inspiration of the divine Spirit’) in 1943.
” See F. F. Bruce, Thr Epnth o/Jdm (London, 1970), pp. 129f.
CANON, CRITICISM AND INTERPRETATION
28:3 -6). The following words about drinking poison without harmful
consequences are reminiscent of a story which Philip’s daughters are
said to have told of Joseph Barsabbas, surnamed Justus (one of the
nominees for the succession to Judas Iscariot, according to Acts
1:23). I8 The right of these twelve verses to receive canonical recognition
is doubtful. I9
Then there is the story of the woman taken in adultery (Jn.
7: 5 3 - 8: 11). This certainly does not belong to the Gospel of John. It
is an independent unit of gospel material, of the same general character
as the Holy Week incidents in the temple court recorded in Mark
12: 13-37. ‘The account has all the earmarks of historical veracity’,20
and as a genuine reminiscence of Jesus’ ministry is eminently worthy
of being treated as canonical. 21
STAGES OF COMPOSITION
Even in its canonical form a biblical document may be better understood if account be taken of successive stages in its composition.
There can be no doubt, for example, of the canonical form of the
Gospel of Matthew, nor yet of its canonical position. Ever since the
fourfold gospel was brought together, the Gospel of Matthew has
stood at its head. A few modern editors have displaced it--be
Twentieth Centuy New Testament, for example, put Mark first and
Ferrar Fenton put John first- but Matthew’s traditional primacy has
not been imperilled. That primacy is due not to chronological considerations but to Matthew’s character: it is a proper catholic introduction to a catholic gospel collection and, in due course, to a catholic
New Testament. 22
If we had no other gospel than Matthew, we should have to exercise
our critical faculties on its own internal evidence as best we might.
Happily, however, we can compare it with the other gospels (especially
Mark and Luke) and thus reach firmer conclusions about its composi” Eusebius, Hist. Ecci. 3.39.9f.
I9 Their authenticity has been defended by J. W. Burgon, Thp Lasr Twelve Verses o/’
the Gospel amrding to S. Mark (London, 187 1); cf W. R. Farmer, The Last Tweiue Verses
ofMark (Cambridge, 1974).
LO B. M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Tcstmmt (London/New
York, 1971), p.220.
” See F. F. Bruce, The Gospel o/John (Basingstoke/Grand Rapids, 1983), pp.41 3418.
** Seep.153.
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
tion. We may conclude, as many have done, that this evangelist used
at least two written sources-one being the Gospel of Mark or
something very like it, and the other being the sayings collection
which underlies the ‘Q’ material (‘Q’ being a convenient shorthand
symbol for the non-Marcan material common to Matthew and Luke).
Other sources have been discerned behind Matthew’s record: whether
they were written or not is difficult to determine. One of these may
have been a second collection of sayings of Jesus, preserved in a more
conservative Jewish-Christian circle than the circle in which the other
collection circulated. But, whatever sources lay at Matthew’s disposal,
he treated them as an independent author, arranging his sayings
material so as to form five bodies of teaching, each prefaced by a
narrative section; the whole was introduced with a nativity narrative
and concluded with an account of the passion of Jesus and his resurrection appearances (the main outlines of this last account having been
largely fixed at an early stage in the church’s life). A consideration of
the evangelist’s probable sources and of his treatment of them thus
helps one to appreciate his workmanship, together with the value of
his distinctive witness to Jesus and his special contribution to the New
Testament. 23
VARIETY IN UNITY
When all the books of the Bible are brought together as parts of one
canon, bound in one volume and recognized as the product of one
divine Spirit, there is an inevitable tendency to emphasize the unity of
the whole in such a way that differences of idiom and perspective
between one writer and another are overlooked. This is the tendency
that Harnack had in mind when he remarked that the process of
canonization ‘works Ii&e whitewash; it hides the original colours and
obliterates all the contours’. 24 But there is no good reason for allowing
canonicity to efface differences of date, authorship, outlook and so
forth. Critical and exegetical study can be pursued as intensively with
canonical literature as with uncanonical; indeed, the fact that a body of
literature is acknowledged as canonical should serve as a specially
powerful incentive to such study.
However, it is not always so. The danger of failing to give sufficient
” See R. H. Gundry, Matthew: A Commntary wz his Litermy and Tbedq+al Art
(Grand Rapids, 1982).
l4 A. van Harnack, TheOri~/nofthrNru,Ttstument,
E.T. (London, 1925), p.141.
290
CANON,
CRITICISM AND
INTERPRETATION
weight to such differences between one writer and another is one
against which exponents of the theology of the New Testament should
be on their guard, not to speak of exponents of biblical theology as a
whole. Indeed, even a work on the theology of Paul may fail to do
justice to the progress of Paul’s thought as it finds expression in his
chief epistles, read in chronological order. Similarly, any one who
would write on the teaching of Jesus must remember that his teaching,
as we have it, is mediated through several witnesses. Quite apart from
the issues raised by differences of emphasis among the synoptic
evangelists, the difficulty of weaving his teaching according to them
and his teaching according to John into a coherent whole makes most
writers on the subject decide to concentrate on the synoptists’
testimony and leave John’s on one side-at least for the time being.25
CANONICAL EXEGESIS
Canonical exegesis may be defined as the interpretation of individual
components of the canon in the context of the canon as a whole.
Even in the pre-canonical period evidence of intra-biblical interpretation is not lacking. In the Old Testament it can be seen how later
law-codes took over the provisions of earlier codes and applied them to
fresh situations, or how later prophets took up and reinterpreted the
oracles of their predecessors. Ezekiel, for example, makes it plain that
Gog (under other names) was the subject of earlier prophecy in Israel
(Ezek. 38: 17): what had been said about him before was repeated and
given fresh point with regard to a new situation. In Daniel’s visions
especially one can see oracles of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel reinterpreted. Jeremiah’s prediction of seventy years’ desolation for Jerusalem
(Jer. 25: 1 If.; 29: 10)IS reinterpreted to cover a period seven times as
long (Dan. 9:2, 24-27)-for Daniel, Jeremiah belongs to a collection
called ‘the books’. The forecast of the decline and fall of Antiochus
Epiphanes in Daniel 11:40-45 is a re-presentation of the downfall of
the Assyrian invader as foretold by Isaiah (Is. 14:24-27; 31:8f.) and
‘s Because ‘the modern student cannot but feel that to turn from the Synoptics to
the Fourth Gospel is to breathe another atmosphere, to be transported to another
world’ (H. Latimer Jackson, The Probh of the Fourth Gmpe( [Cambridge, 1918],
p.82), words which would still be widely echoed. But now that the tradition ofJesus’
ministry preserved by John is increasingly recognized to be parallel to the synoptic
traditions, although independent of them, it cannot properly be left out ofaccount in
any presentation ofJesus’ life and teaching.
291
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
of Gog as foretold by Ezekiel (Ezek. 39: l-8).
In the New Testament writings many Old Testament texts are
adduced and interpreted in the light of their fulfilment in the work of
Christ and its sequel. Within the New Testament itself we find earlier
gospel material reinterpreted by later evangelists, and we can see 2
Peter revising and reapplying Jude, omitting its allusion to the
Asszlnzption of Moses and its quotation from 1 Enoch, but retaining the
reference to the fallen angels Uude 6) who provide the main theme of
the relevant section of 1 Enoch.26 Moreover, 2 Peter (as has been
mentioned before) refers to a collection of letters of Paul, which are
associated with ‘the other scriptures’, and warns against their misuse
(2 Pet. 3:15f.).27
If this tendency is visible even before the documents finally formed
part of a canonical collection, it is intensified after the completion of
the canon, or even after the formation of smaller collections, such as
the fourfold gospel or the Pauline corpzls.
An individual gospel might have been designed as the gospel for a
particular community, but when it was included in a collection with
other writings of the same genre, the individual writings were viewed
as complementary one to another, each presenting a distinctive aspect
of the ministry of Jesus. Each was then interpreted in the light of the
others. In the course of copying them, scribes tended to conform the
text of the less frequently read to that of the more frequently read.28
Uncritical readers or hearers might be unaware of any problems raised
by the coexistence of the four accounts: the impression left on their
minds would take the form of a composite picture of Jesus and his
ministry. Those who discerned the problems were moved to give some
explanation of them. Clement of Alexandria explained the differences
between the synoptic records and John’s by saying that the first three
evangelists set forth the ‘bodily’ facts whereas John composed a
‘spiritual’ gospel.29
Others tackled the problem of harmonization in different ways.
Tatian tackled it by weaving the material of all four records into a
continuous narrative. Eusebius and Augustine addressed themselves
27 seep. 120.
” In particular, there was a tendency to conform the text ofMark and Luke to that
ofMatthew; compare the wording of the Lord’s Prayer in Lk. 11:2-4, AV/KJV (where
it is conformed to the wording of Mr. 6:‘+- 13a), with the original Lucan wording
preserved in RSV, NEB, NIV and ocher modern versions.
z9 Quoted by Eusebius, Hlsr. EccY. 6.14.7 (seep. 189).
26 See p.85.
292
CANON, CRITICISM AND I N T E R P R E T A T I O N
to the issue of detailed discrepancies, and endeavoured to solve them
by chronological and other arguments. Eusebius, for example, points
out that the ministry of Jesus in the synoptic accounts includes only
what happened after John’s imprisonment (cf Mk. 1: 14, etc.), while
John relates much that Jesus did before that event (cf Jn. 3:22).30
Augustine deals seriously, among other things, with the chronology
of the resurrection appearances reported by various evangelists. 3’
Another kind of harmonization was achieved by means of the
allegorical method of Origen and others. Convinced as he was of the
divine inspiration of the four gospels (as of all scripture), Origen
concluded that spiritual allegorization was the only worthy means of
bringing their full meaning to light. But when discrepancies were
allegorized, they ceased to be discrepancies: they were seen to be
complementary aspects of higher truth.
But it was the formation of the fourfold gospel that made these
harmonizing exercises necessary: Christians who used only one gospel
had no such problems to concern themselves with.
Similarly, when the letters of Paul were gathered into one corpus,
each of them began to be read in the context of the whole corpzls. At one
time the only letters of Paul known (say) to the church of Corinth were
those which it received from him-four or five, probably, within the
space of two or three years. Not all of these have come down to us, and
at certain points in the surviving Corinthian correspondence there are
problems of interpretation which might be solved without more ado if
we could consult the missing letters or parts of letters. For example,
the letter which Paul says he wrote ‘with many tears’ (2 Cor. 2:4) seems
to have been lost; if it were still available, there are passages in 2
Corinthians which we should understand better than we do. But when
Paul’s surviving Corinthian correspondence formed part of the same
corpzls as his letters to the Thessalonians, Galatians, Romans,
Philippians and others, fresh problems began to appear. Some readers
have felt that the ethical guide-lines set out in (say) 1 Corinthians are
in tension with the more libertarian tone of (say) Galatians.32 This
tension is fairly easily resolved when the different occasions of the two
letters are taken into account; but if both are read as holy scripture on
one undifferentiated level, without regard to their historical back30 Hist. Eccl. 3 . 2 4 . 7 - 1 3 .
” On the Consenscl~ ofthe Ewut&sts, 3.X-86 (see also p.232).
32 &e J. W. Drane, Paul: Libertine or Legah? (London, 1975).
293
THE
CA NO
N
OF
SCRIPTURE
ground, problems are created with which the Corinthians and Galatians
themselves did not have to cope. The injunctions in such occasional
documents as Paul’s letters were never intended to be applied as canon
law to personal or communal Christian life at all times and in all
places.
Such tensions were multiplied when the earlier corpzls of ten letters
was enlarged to accommodate the Pastoral Epistles, because these
three documents share a distinctive ethos and range of interest which
is not found in the other letters. They were multiplied still more
when, toward the end of the second century, the corpzrs was further
enlarged to take in the letter to the Hebrews, a document which did
not originally belong to the Pauline tradition.
‘ALL SCRIPTURE’
When the New Testament collection was received as a whole, whether
in twenty-two or in twenty-seven books, further exegetical adjustments
were made. When the Acts of the Apostles preceded the epistles, it
was natural that the epistles, especially Paul’s earlier ones, should be
read in the light of Luke’s narrative-although, when it is considered
that Acts is later than Paul’s epistles, a strong case can be made out for
reading Acts in the light of Paul’s epistles and testing its historical
value by means of their evidence. 33
When the New Testament collection was read as part of the same
Bible as the Old Testament writings, especially when both Testaments
were bound together in one codex, ‘all scripture’ provided a still wider
context within which ‘every scripture’ was to be understood.
For example, since New Testament times Christians have been
familiar with what we have come to call the ‘Servant Songs’ of Isaiah
40-55, and in particular with the fourth Servant Song (Is. 52:1353: 12), and have without further thought identified the Servant
whom they portray with Jesus. Why should they do this? Because,
from the beginnings of the Christian faith-indeed, from the teaching
of Jesus himself 34- this identification has been standard in the church.
One would not expect it to be standard in the synagogue: indeed, the
synagogue seems to have reacted vigorously against it. At one time an
” See F. F. Bruce, The AL-O of the Aposth (Grand Rapids/Leicester, ‘1989),
Introduction (‘Acts and the Pauline Epistles’).
‘4 But see M. D. Hooker,JrJus rrnJ the Servant (London, 1959).
294
CANON,
CRITICISM
AND
INTERPRETATION
acceptable Jewish interpretation identified some at least of the Servant
references with the expected Messiah,35 and this could well have been
in line with the prophet’s intention.36 But, because the church adopted
this interpretation (with the corollary that the Messiah was Jesus), the
messianic interpretation of the Servant Songs fell out of favour with
the synagogue.”
When both Testaments are read together as part of holy scripture,
the importance for the church of reading the Old Testament in the
light of the New might be regarded as axiomatic, but at some times
and in some places it has been admitted only with qualifications. The
abolition of animal sacrifices by the work of Christ has been almost
universally taken for granted, but the New Testament teaching about
food restrictions and the observance of special days still meets with
some resistance. The law of exact retaliation, ‘life for life, eye for eye,
tooth for tooth.. .’ (Ex. 21:23-25), was replaced for Jesus’ disciples
by his principle of turning the other cheek and going the second mile
(Mt. 5:38-42); but many of his disciples still invoke the law of
retaliation when it seems appropriate: after all, Moses’ law and Jesus’
teaching are both in the Bible, are they not?
This is not to imply an incompatibility between Moses’ law and
Jesus’ teaching: Jesus himself affirmed that his teaching did not
abrogate but fulfilled ‘the law and the prophets’ (Mt. 5: 17). It does
imply the importance of the historical dimension in biblical interpretation. When this is borne in mind, it will be realized that even the
law of exact retaliation marked an ethical advance on the earlier
principle of vendetta or blood-feud, demanding as it did one life, and
no more, for a life; one eye, and no more, for an eye, and so forth.
Moreover, for an eye or some other part of the body monetary
compensation was acceptable; only for a life deliberately taken could
‘s For example, in the Targum on the Prophets, those passages in Is. 52:1353: 12 which speak of the Servant’s triumph are applied to the Messiah.
36 See C. R. North, The Suffering&want in Deutm-Isaiah (Oxford, *1956).
j7 According to H. Loewe, it was sensitiveness to the Christian application of Is.
52: 13- 53: 12 that was responsible for the non-inclusion of this passage in the regular
synagogue readings from the Prophets, although the passages immediately preceding
and following are included (C. G. Montefiore and H. Loewe, A Rahhznrr Anthhgy
[London, 19381, pp. 544). In general it may be said that the combination of the Old
Testament with the New (first as oral teaching and ultimately as a literary canon) made
all the difference between the church’s understanding of the Old Testament and the
synagogue’s (see pp.63-67 above).
295
CANON,
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
there be no such redemption (cfDeut. 19: 13).
It is not enough to say ‘the Bible says. . .’ without at the same time
considering to whom the Bible says it, and in what circumstances.
One sometimes meets people who, in discussing the life to come,
quote Ecclesiastes 9:5, ‘the dead know nothing’, as though that were
the Bible’s last word on the subject, as though Jesus’ death and
resurrection had not given his people a new and living hope to which
the author of Ecclesiastes was a stranger.
Canonical exegesis does not absolve the reader from the duty of
understanding the scriptures in their historical setting. Indeed, it
reinforces that duty. Each part of the canon makes its contribution to
the whole, but that contribution cannot be properly appreciated
unless attention is paid to the historical setting of each part in relation
to the whole. Historical criticism, rightly applied, is as necessary for
canonical exegesis as it is for the exegesis of the separate biblical
documents. Each separate document may take on fuller meaning in
the context of the wider canon to which it now belongs, but that fuller
meaning cannot be logically unrelated to its meaning in the original
(uncanonical) context. A study, for example, of the biblical doctrine of
election3* could not be undertaken if there were no Bible, no canon of
scripture; but it would be worthless unless it took into account the
historical sequence of the relevant subject-matter.
This is bound up with what is often called progressive revelation.
That the biblical revelation is progressive is obvious when one considers
that it was given in the course of history until, ‘when the time had
fully come, God sent forth his Son’ (Gal. 4:4). To call it progressive,
however, may be misleading if that adjective suggests that every stage
in the revelation is more ‘advanced’ than the stages which historically
preceded it. If one thinks again of the doctrine of election, the
principle of election implied in God’s call of Abraham, according to
the narrative of Genesis 12: l-3, is more ethically and religiously
‘advanced’ than many of the ideas on the subject cherished by some of
Abraham’s descendants at later stages in their history. (The principle
revealed in the call of Abraham, that some are elected in order that
others through them may be blessed, has not always been borne in
mind by those who thought of themselves as the elect of God.)
To adapt words of Paul, the reader of scripture should say, ‘I will
j8 Such a study is found in H. H. Rowley, The Bddid Doctrine ofE‘lection
1950).
296
CRITICISM
AND
INTERPRETATION
read with the Spirit and I will read with the mind also.‘39 The
inclusion of each scripture in the canon of all scripture helps one in the
understanding of each scripture, but at the same time, since each
scripture makes its contribution to all scripture, the understanding of
all scripture is impossible without the understanding of each scripture.
39 Cfl Cor. 14:15.
(London,
297
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
APPENDIX I
THE ‘SECRET’ GOSPEL
OF MARK
Ethel M. Wood Lecture, 1974
SECRET
WRITINGS
All the world loves a mystery, and there is something about the
announcement of a ‘secret’ Gospel which attracts instant attention.
In Judaism of the closing centuries BC and early centuries AD there
was a number of apocalyptic writings, bearing the names of authors
long since deceased-Enoch, Noah, the Hebrew patriarchs, Ezra and
so forth. If it was asked why there was such a time-lag between their
alleged date of composition and their publication, the answer was that
the works were ‘sealed’, kept secret by heavenly direction, until the
time to which they pointed forward had arrived; then their contents
might be divulged. A New Testament example of this is the sealed
scroll in the Apocalypse, containing a record of the divine purpose for
the world, which could not be put into effect until someone appeared
with the requisite authority to break the seals and expose the contents.
In Judaism, again, by contrast with those works which were
suitable for public reading in synagogue (the canonical books of the
Hebrew Bible) there were others which were ‘hidden’, withdrawn
frdm public circulation, and reserved for the eyes of those with sufficient
maturity to profit by them. According to one rabbinical tradition, the
canonical book of Ezekiel was at one time in danger of being ‘hidden’,
in this sense of being withdrawn from public currency, because of
298
THE ‘SECRET’ GOSPEL OF MARK
theological difficulties raised by some of its contents. ’
The Greek adjective apokvyphos, which was used for such ‘hidden’ or
‘secret’ books, is the word from which our adjective ‘apocryphal’ is
derived. We, however, have come to use this adjective of those Old
Testament books which, while they were not included in the Hebrew
Bible, came to be recognized as canonical or deutero-canonical over
wide areas of the Christian church. This usage goes back to Jerome,
who used the Latin adjective apoctyphus to denote those books which
were suitable for reading in church to inculcate ethical lessons but
were not to be used for the establishment of doctrine.’ But there was
never anything ‘hidden’ or ‘secret’ about most of those books.
In Gnosticism, however, the idea of secret writings, containing
truth for the.spiritual Pfite, enjoyed a fresh and vigorous lease of life. In
addition to his public teaching, preserved in the church’s gospel
tradition, it was maintained that Jesus had imparted private teaching
to his disciples which was not to be blazed abroad to the world at large
but communicated to a minority of favoured souls who had proved
themselves worthy to receive it. If New Testament writers like Paul
and John refuse to countenance the idea that there is any Christian
teaching which may not be imparted to Christians as a whole, this
simply proves that already in the first century the idea of an esoteric
teaching for the spiritual dite was gaining currency.
If, as Luke says, Jesus spent the interval of forty days between his
resurrection and ascension telling his disciples ‘the things concerning
the kingdom of God’ (Acts 1:3), what were those things? The New
Testament writings do not go into much detail about them, but the
second century was very willing to make good the deficiencies of the
first. The gnostic compilation Pistis Sophia, for example (known only
from a fourth-century Coptic manuscript), purports to record teaching
given by Jesus to his disciples over a period of twelve years between his
resurrection and final ascension. The Secret Book (Apocryphon) of John
tells how the exalted Christ appeared to John some time after his
ascension, in the role of the gnostic Redeemer, and promised to be
with John and his fellow-disciples always (cf Mt. 28:20). The same
literary device could be used quite early in anti-gnostic circles, as is
seen possibly in the Didachr (‘The Teaching of the Lord through the
Twelve Apostles to the Gentiles’) and certainly in the Epistle of the
’ TB Shahhat 13b. See p.35 above.
’ Prologues to Samuel and co the Solomonic books (see pp.89-92 above)
299
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Apostles, a second-century treatise extant in Coptic and Ethiopic
versions.
The gnostic library from near Nag Hammadi in Upper Egypt,
discovered about 1945, includes among its fifty-two treatises
(contained in thirteen leather-bound papyrus codices) several whose
titles proclaim their ‘secret’ character. Such are the Secret Book
(Apocryphon) of John already mentioned, the Secret Book (Apoctypholz) of
James and (best known of all) the compilation called in its colophon the
Gospel according to Thomas, which begins: ‘These are the secret words
which Jesus the Living One spoke and Didymus Judas Thomas wrote
down’. Despite the designation of the following contents as ‘secret
words’, there is nothing particularly secret about the 114 real or
alleged sayings of Jesus which this work comprises; perhaps it was
their interpretation that was secret. When the first popular English
edition of the Gospel of Thomas was published- the excellent edition
by R. M. Grant and D. N. Freedman-its public appeal was no
doubt enhanced by its title: The Secret Sayings ofJesus. 3
Irenaeus speaks of his gnostic opponents as adducing ‘an
indescribable multitude of apocryphal and spurious scriptures’4 and
elsewhere says that ‘those who separate Jesus from the Christ, holding
that the Christ remained impassible, while Jesus suffered, prefer the
Gospel according to Mark”- from which his editor W. W. Harvey
inferred that another Gospel assigned to Mark, in addition to the
well-known one, was current in Alexandria, although Harvey was
disposed to identify this other Gospel with the Gospel of the Egyptians
(to which reference will be made later).6
It is in the context of this wealth of esoteric gospel-literature that
we have to evaluate the ‘secret’ Gospel of Mark to which our attention
has been drawn in recent years by Professor Morton Smith, of the
Department of History in Columbia University, New York City.
THE CLEMENTINE LETTER AND
THE EXPANDED GOSPEL
In 1958 Professor Smith was engaged in cataloguing the contents of
the library of the ancient monastery of Mar Saba, in the wilderness of
4 Aguinst Heresies, 1.20.1.
’ London: Collins, 1960.
’ Aguimt Hereries, 3. 1 1.7.
’ W . W . H a r v e y ( e d . ) , Srrnr.ti Irrnrrrr. Idwr~~ q~zmp adrrrsm haertw , I I
(Cambridge, 1857), p.46. Seep. 189.
300
THE ‘SECRET’ GOSPEL OF MARK
Judaea, some twelve miles south of Jerusalem, when he came upon a
copy of Isaac VOSS’S edition of six letters of Ignatius, printed and
published at Amsterdam in 1646. 7 On the end-papers of this volume
was a copy, in what seemed to be a mid-eighteenth-century hand, of a
Greek letter, purporting to be the work of Clement the stromateus,
meaning the author of the Stromateis (‘Miscellanies’)-i.e. Clement of
Alexandria (who flourished between AD 180 and 200).8 The letter
launched an attack on the followers of the heretic Carpocrates and
embodied an account (unfortunately broken off short at the end) of an
expanded text of part of the tenth chapter of the Gospel of Mark.
Professor Smith reported his discovery to the Society of Biblical
Literature at its ninety-sixth meeting in December 1960. He indicated
that he was disposed to accept the ascription of the letter to Clement of
Alexandria, but he submitted the text to the judgment of a few other
scholars, specially competent in the Greek patristic field, some of
whom agreed with him while others preferred a different origin. A. D.
Neck was moved by ‘instinct’ to disagree with the ascription, although
he wished to date the letter not later than the fourth century;’ J.
Munck argued that the letter showed dependence on Eusebius and
therefore could not be earlier than the fourth century. But the majority
of the scholars consulted accepted the ascription to Clement; these
included H. Chadwick, R. M. Grant and G. W. H. Lampe.” We too
may accept it as a working hypothesis.
The text of the letter was not published until the summer of 1973;
it appeared, together with a translation and an exhaustive treatment of
its literary, historical and religious implications, in Professor Smith’s
book Clement of Alexandria and a Secret Gospel of Mark. ”
’ I. Vossius, Epistolae Genuinae S. lgnatii Martyrir (Amstelodami, 1646).
s Seep. 187 above.
9 Neck, in a letter of September 20, 1962, quoted by M. Smith (Clement o/
Alexandria anda Secret GospeLof Mark, p.88, n. I), suggested that the whole thing was
a piece of ‘mystification for the sake of mystification’. A similar conclusion was
proposed by Q. Quesnell in ‘The Mar Saba Clementine: A Question of Evidence’, CSQ
37 (1975), pp.48-67, except that he thought not of a fourth-century but of a
twentieth-century mystification-to be dated, more precisely, between 1936 and
1958. See M. Smith’s response to Quesnell in ‘On the Authenticity of the Mar Saba
Letter of Clement’, CBQ 38 (1976), pp. 196- 199.
lo To these names must be added that of R. P. C. Hanson; see his review of Churnt
ofAlexandriaanduSecretGoq?eiofMarkinJTS, n.s. 25(1974),pp.513-521.
” Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973. This was followed by his
more popular treatment of the same subject: The Secret Gmpel (London: Gollancz,
1974).
301
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
To evaluate Professor Smith’s conclusions would take us far beyond
the limits of an hour’s lecture. Suffice it here to present an English
translation of the document, based on Professor Smith’s editioprinceps
of the Greek text, and discuss some of the issues which it raises.
The letter runs as follows:
From the letters of the most holy Clement, author of the
Stromateis.
To Theodore:
You have done well in muzzling the unmentionable doctrines
of the Carpocratians. It is they who were prophetically called
‘wandering stars’ IJude 131, who stray from the narrow way of
the commandments into the fathomless abyss of fleshly sins
committed in the body. They have been inflated with the
knowledge, as they say, of ‘the deep things of Satan’ [Rev.
2:24]. They cast themselves unawares into the gloom of the
darkness of falsehood [cfJude 131. Boasting that they are free,
they have become the slaves of lusts that bring men into
bondage. These people must be totally opposed in every way.
Even if they were to say something true, not even so would the
lover of truth agree with them; everything that is true is not
necessarily truth. Nor should one prefer the apparent truth
which is according to human opinions to the real truth which is
according to faith. But of the matters under dispute concerning
the divinely-inspired Gospel of Mark, some are utterly false and
some, even if they contain certain things that are true, are not so
truly delivered; for the things that are true are corrupted by
those that are fictitious, so that, as it is said, ‘the salt has lost its
savour’ [Mt. 5:13//Lk. 14:34].
Mark, then, during Peter’s stay in Rome, recorded the acts of
the Lord,. not however reporting them all, for he did not
indicate the mystical ones, but selected those which he thought
most useful for the increase of rhe faith of those undergoing
instruction.
When Peter had borne his witness (i.e. suffered martyrdom),
Mark arrived in Alexandria, taking his own and Peter’s memoirs.
From these he copied into his first book the things appropriate
for those who were making progress in knowledge but compiled
a more spiritual Gospel for the use of those who were attaining
perfection. Yet nor even so did he divulge the unutterable
things themselves, nor did he write down the Lord’s hierophantic
teaching. But adding to the previously written acts others also,
he presented, over and above these, certain oracles whose
302
THE ‘SECRET’ GOSPEL OF MARK
interpretation he knew would provide the hearers with mystical
guidance into the inner shrine of the seven-times-hidden truth.
Thus, then, he made advance preparation-not grudgingly or
incautiously, as I think-and on his death he left his
composition to the church in Alexandria, where even until now
ic is very well guarded, being read only to those who are being
initiated into the great mysteries.
But abominable demons are always devising destruction for
the human race, and so Carpocraces, having been instructed by
them, used deceitful devices so as to enslave a certain elder of the
church in Alexandria and procured from him a copy of the
mystical Gospel, which he proceeded to interpret in accordance
with his own blasphemous and carnal opinion. Moreover, he
polluted it further by mixing shameless falsehoods with the holy
and undefiled sayings, and from this mixture the dogma of the
Carpocratians has been drawn out. To these people, then, as I
have said already, one must never yield, nor must one make any
concession to them when they pretend that their tissue of
falsehoods is the mystical Gospel of Mark, but rather deny it
with an oath. It is not necessary to speak all the truth to
everyone; that is why the wisdom of God proclaims through
Solomon: ‘Answer a fool according to his folly’ [Prov. 26:5F
meaning that from those who are spiritually blind the light of
the truth must be concealed. Scripture also says, ‘From him who
has not will be taken away’ [Mk. 4:251 and ‘Let the fool walk in
darkness’ [Eccles. 2: 141. But we are sons of light, having been
illuminated by ‘the dayspring from on high’ of the Spirit of the
Lord [cf Lk. 1:78), ‘and where the Spirit of the Lord is’,
Scripture says, ‘there is liberty’ [2 Cor. 3: 171; for ‘to the pure all
things are pure’ [Tit. 1: 151. To you, then, I will not hesitate to
give an answer to your questions, exposing those people’s
falsehoods by the very words of the Gospel.
Thus far Clement’s preamble (to some points in which we must
come back); from now on he gives an account of the expanded text of
Mark 10:32ff. in the second edition of the Gospel to which he has
referred:
Immediately after the section which begins And they were on the
road, going up to Jerusalem and continues to after three days be will
rise [Mk. 10:32-341, there follows, as the text goes: ‘And they
come to Bethany, and there was a woman there whose brother
had died. She came and prostrated herself before Jesus and says
\
303
.
THE ‘SECRET’ GOSPEL OF MARK
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
to him, “Son of David, pity me.” The disciple rebuked her, and
Jesus in anger set out with her for the garden where the tomb
was. Immediately a loud voice was heard from the tomb, and
Jesus approached and rolled the stone away from the entrance to
the tomb. And going in immediately where the young man
was, he stretched out his hand and raised him up, taking him by
the hand. The young man looked on him and loved him, and
began to beseech him that he might be with him. They came
out of the tomb and went into the young man’s house, for he was
rich. After six days Jesus laid a charge upon him, and when
evening came the young man comes to him, with a linen robe
thrown over his naked body; and he stayed with him that night,
for Jesus was teaching him the mystery of the kingdom of God.
When he departed thence, he returned to the other side of the
Jordan.’
After this there follows AndJames andJohn came forward to him
and all that section [MI<. 10:35-451. But as for ‘naked to
naked’ and the other things about which you wrote, they are not
to be found.
After the words And be comes to Jericho [Mk. 10:46a) it adds
only: ‘And there was the sister of the young man whom Jesus
loved and his mother and Salome; and Jesus did not receive
them.’ But as for the many other things which you wrote, they
are falsehoods both in appearance and in reality. Now the true
interpretation, which is in accordance with the true
philosophy. .
-and there the writing breaks off. Probably the scribe who copied
the text on to the end-papers of the Ignatius volume found that his
exemplar failed him at that point, so he could copy no more. l2
CLEMENT
AND
THE
GOSPEL
TEXT
That, then, is the text: what are we to make of it?
No letters by Clement of Alexandria have been preserved, but two
or three citations from letters ascribed to him appear in the compilation
of biblical and patristic maxims called Sacra Parallela, traditionally
attributed to John of Damascus (c 675-c 749)-who himself,
coincidentally, spent some time at Mar Saba. (Even if the Sacra
Purallela be not his, some letters ascribed to Clement were apparently
I2 About one third of the final and end-paper IS left blank.
304
known to the real author, whoever he was.)
Towards the end of the newly-published document the letter-writer
quotes the opening words of Mark IO:46 in the form ‘And he comes to
Jericho’. This is the Western reading, in place of the majority text
‘And they come to Jericho’. It is not unusual to find readings characteristic of the Western text in the Gospel citations of Clement of
Alexandria.
The letter-writer commences his account of the expanded text by
saying that it comes immediately after the section which begins, ‘And
they were on the road, going up to Jerusalem. . .’ (Mk. 10:32).
Immediately before that section comes the incident of the rich man
who asks Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk. IO: 17 3 1). This incident provides the subject-matter for Clement’s homily,
The Salvation of a Rich Man-a homily which includes a quotation in
extenso of these fifteen verses of Mark. l3 This quotation contains no
esoteric or other expansion, but presents some textual peculiarities, on
which the redoubtable J. W. Burgon animadverted in a famous
passage:
I request that the clock ofhistory be put back seventeen hundred
years. This is AD 183, if you please; and-(indulge me in the
supposition!)-you and I are walking in Alexandria. We have
reached the house of one Clemens,-a learned Athenian, who
has long been a resident here. Let us step into his library,-he is
from home. What a queer place! See, he has been reading his
Bible, which is open at S. Mark x. Is it not a well-used copy? It
must be at least 50 or 60 years old. Well, but suppose only 30 or
40. It was executed therefore within jifiy years of the death of S.
John the Evangelist. Come, let us transcribe two of the
columns. . . as faithfully as we possibly can, and be off. . . We are
back in England again, and the clock has been put right. Now
let us sit down and examine our curiosity at leisure. . . It proves
on inspection to be a transcript of the 15 verses (ver. 17 to ver.
3 1) which relate to the coming of the rich young Ruler to our
L O R D.
We make a surprising discovery. . . It is impossible to produce a
Jouler exhibition of S. Mark x. I 7-3 1 than is contained in a document
fz& two centuries older than either B or Alepb, -itself the property of
one of the most famous of the ante-Nicene Fathers. . . The foulness of a
text which must have been penned within 70 or 80 years of the
” Seep. 187 above
305
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
death of the last of the Evangelists, is a matter of fact,-which
must be loyally accepted, and made the best of. I4
Dean Burgon was concerned to make the point that the most
ancient manuscripts of the New Testament are not necessarily the
purest. The text of Mark 10: 17-3 1 as quoted by Clement in this
treatise is rather heavily contaminated by the texts of the Matthaean
and Lukan parallels. But it is not at all certain that, if we could visit
Clement’s study and look at his scroll (or, more probably, codex) of the
Gospel of Mark open at this place, we should find the text which is
reproduced in his treatise. He may have quoted it in part from
memory, and when we depend on memory for a text which appears in
all three Synoptic Gospels we are apt to produce a very mixed text, as
Clement does here. (Dean Burgon himself gives evidence of such
reliance on his memory when he speaks of ‘the rich young Ruler’; it is
Matthew, not Mark, who says that he was young, and Luke who says
that he was a ruler.) Clement gives evidence of memory quoting later
in the same treatise when he comments on the words of verse 2 1, ‘sell
what things you have’ (hosa echeis), which he has quoted above in their
Marcan form, quoting them the second time in the more familiar form
of Mt. 10: 2 1, ‘sell your property’ (ta hyparchonta) . If one Alexandrian
writer was able to produce such a contaminated Gospel text, we need
not be surprised if the author of the additional pericope quoted by our
letter-writer amplifies his Marcan phrases occasionally by means of
their Marthaean parallels.
THE E X P A N D E D T E X T
The pericope inserted between verses 34 and 35 of Mark 10 is Marcan
in diction, for the simple reason that it is largely a pastiche of phrases
from Mark (‘contaminated’ by Matthaean parallels), coupled with
some Johannine material. The story of Jesus’ raising the young man of
Bethany from the tomb at his sister’s entreaty is superficially similar to
the incident of the raising of Lazarus in John 11:17-44; but our
present story, far from presenting the features of an independent
Marcan counterpart to the Johannine incident, is thoroughly confused:
in view of the loud voice which was heard from the tomb as Jesus
approached, it is doubtful if the young man was really dead. In this
I4 The Rni.rion Rerised(London, l&%3), pp.326-329.
306
THE ‘SECRET’ GOSPEL OF MARK
story Jesus himself rolls away the stone from the entrance to the tomb,
whereas in John 11:39 he commands the bystanders to remove the
stone which covered the tomb of Lazarus.
The young man’s sister makes her plea to Jesus after the example of
the Syrophoenician woman who fell at Jesus’ feet (Mk. 7:25), saying,
‘Pity me, son of David’ (Mt. 15:22), and like her she incurs the
disciples’ disapproval (Mt. 15:23). (We may compare the similar plea
of blind Bartimaeus in Mark 10:47f., and his refusal to be silenced by
the rebuke of those around.) Jesus’ anger is matched by his reaction to
the leper’s plea in the Western text of Mark 1:41, and by his
indignation at the tomb of Lazarus (Jn. 11:33, 38). ‘The garden where
the tomb was’ is a detail borrowed from John’s account of the burial of
Jesus (Jn. 19:41).
Jesus’ action in taking the young man by the hand and raising him
up comes not from the account of the raising of Lazarus but from the
raising ofJairus’s daughter (Mk. 5:41) or, even more closely, from the
healing of Simon Peter’s mother-in-law (Mk. 1:31). The statement
that ‘the young man looked on him and loved him’ reverses that of
Mark 10:2 1, where Jesus looked on the rich man and loved him. The
young man who is here raised from the tomb was also rich. When he
began to beseech Jesus that he might be with him, he followed the
example of the cured Gerasene demoniac (Mk. 5: 18). The time-note
‘after six days’ was the interval between the Caesarea Philippi incident
and the transfiguration (Mk. 9:2). The linen robe thrown over the
young man’s naked body reminds us of the young man similarly
attired at the scene ofJesus’ arrest (Mk. 14:5 1). The statement that ‘he
stayed with him that night’ may recall John 1:39, ‘they stayed with
him that day. ’
The reference to the young man’s sister and mother in the amplified
form of Mark lo:46 is probably meant to integrate the incident of the
young man with its general context. Curiously, however, the young
man is now identified as the one ‘whom Jesus loved’; we have reverted
to the situation of Mark 10:2 1 -although, since the verb ‘loved’ is in
the imperfect tense here (Kg+), in contrast to the aorist (~gap~sen) of
Mark 10:2 1 and of the earlier statement in our pericope that the young
man ‘loved’ Jesus, we may detect the influence of the Johannine
references to ‘the disciple whom Jesus loved’ (Jn. 13:23, etc. ). It is not
clear what Salome is doing in the company, but she figures as a
somewhat self-assertive disciple of Jesus in a number of gnostic texts;
we may recall, too (if she is to be identified with the mother of the sons
307
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
of Zebedee, as a comparison of Mk. 15:40 with Mt. 27~56 might
suggest), that she figures in the Matthaean counterpart to the incident
of Mark 10: 35 -45, for in Matthew 20:2Of. it is the mother of James
and John who takes the initiative in asking for them the places of
highest honour in the coming kingdom. Jesus’ declining to grant this
request may lie behind the statement at the end of our writer’s
quotation that he ‘did not receive’ the three women who met him at
Jericho.
The fact that the expansion is such a pastiche (as it seems to me),
with its internal contradiction and confusion, indicates that it is a
thoroughly artificial composition, quite out of keeping with Mark’s
quality as a story-teller. Morton Smith indeed argues that it is no mere
pastiche or cento,15 but I find his arguments unconvincing. That the
letter-writer was disposed to acknowledge it as part of a fuller edition
of Mark’s Gospel, written by the evangelist himself, is quite in line
with evidence which we have of Clement’s credulity in face of
apocryphal material. He treats the work entitled the Preaching of Peter
as a genuine composition of the apostle Peter, and he similarly accepts
the authenticity of the Apocalypse of Peter.16 We shall see, too, how
readily he acknowledges as dominical sayings ascribed to Jesus in the
Gospel according to the Hebrews and the Gospel of the Egyptians, explaining
them in terms of his own philosophy.
MARK AND ALEXANDRIA
The information that Mark came from Rome to Alexandria is otherwise
known to us from Eusebius. Johannes Munck concluded for this
reason that our letter could not be earlier than Eusebius.” But
Eusebius did not originate the story of Mark’s coming to Alexandria;
he received it from others. After telling of Mark’s association with
Peter in Rome, he goes on: ‘They say that this man [Mark] was the
first to be sent to Egypt to preach the gospel, which he also put
together in writing, and that he was the first to establish churches in
THE ‘SECRET’ GOSPEL OF MARK
Alexandria itself. ‘I* Then he says that the success of Mark’s preaching
may be gauged by the quality of the Therapeutae described by Philo, I9
whom he takes-quite wrongly and indeed anachronistically- to
have been a Christian community.” Later he says that in Nero’s
eighth year ( AD 61/62) Mark was succeeded by one Annianus in the
ministry of the Alexandrian church. 2’
We can but guess the source from which Eusebius derived this
information- or misinformation- but some awareness of the
situation in the church of Alexandria keeps him’from using the term
episkopos of its leading minister in earlier days.
At any rate the story of Mark’s founding the church of Alexandria is
of most questionable authenticity. If it has any historical basis, that
may be found in the coming of a codex of the Gospel of Mark to
Alexandria, soon after its publication in Rome.” Even more
questionable is the whole succession-list of the Alexandrian church
leaders from Mark and his alleged successor Annianus on to the last
decade or two of the second century. The first bishop of Alexandria of
whom we can speak with confidence is Demetrius (c 190-233), first
the friend and then the enemy of Origen. Many have been persuaded
by the argument of Walter Bauer that Alexandrian Christianity in its
earliest generations was predominantly gnostic or gnosticizing, and
that not until the last quarter of the second century did the ‘orthodox’
interpretation of the gospel begin to gain the upper hand.23 (The
study of early Christian papyri has placed a question-mark against
Bauer’s case.)24 In the ‘orthodox’ interpretation of the gospel the
catechetical school founded at Alexandria by Pantaenus, Clement’s
teacher, played an important part. It may not be without significance
that Pantaenus was a Sicilian by birth, while Clement probably came
” Chmt of Ahandriu md u Secret Gospel of Mark, pp. 14 1- 144.
” For the Prerrr-bini: of Peter ~$Stmnt, 2.15.68; 6.5.39ff. (see p.191 above).
According to Eusebius, Hirt. Erl-/. 6.14.1, Clement included the Apocalypse of Peter
among the writings interpreted in his Hypot@%ei~.
” J. Munck, quoted in M. Smith, Clement offlexundrzuanda Serret GospeiofMark,
p.33.
” Eusebius, Hist. Err/. 2.16.1.
” Philo, On the Contempiatita Life, 2-90.
20 Hist. ErcI. 2.17.2-24.
” Hirt. Ecc/. 2 . 2 4
zz C/C. H. Roberts, ‘The Christian Book and the Greek Papyti’,jTS 50 (1949),
pp. 155-168; L. W. Barnard, ‘St. Mark and Alexandria’, HTR 57 (1964), pp. 145150.
23 W. Bauet, Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity, E.T. (Philadelphia,
1971), pp.44-60. Cf R. M. Grant, ‘The New Testament Canon’, CHB I
(Cambridge, 1970), p.298: ‘in the second century, as fat as out knowledge goes,
Christianity in Egypt was exclusively “heterodox”.
*4 The papyrus evidence ‘points to mote than a few scattered individuals holding
orthodox beliefs’ among second-century Christians in Egypt (C. H. Roberts,
Manxwript, Society andB&fin Early Chri.rtiurr Egypt [London, 19791, p. 5 3). Seep. I87
above.
308
309
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
from Athens. But even the orthodoxy of the catechetical school was
suspect in the eyes of some later theologians; its leaders indulged too
daringly in speculation.
The picture of Mark as the founder of Alexandrian Christianity
represents an attempt to provide the church of that city with an
orthodox pedigree, one moreover which linked it closely with the
Roman church, the pillar and ground of orthodoxy, and incidentally
gave it quasi-apostolic status. For if Mark’s association with Peter gave
apostolic authority to the gospel which he penned, it equally gave
apostolic lineage to the church which he founded.
In the New Testament, however, Alexandria figures as the home of
the associate of another apostle- Apollos, the friend and colleague of
Paul, who (according to the Western text of Acts l&25) had been
instructed in Christianity in his native city. Could Apollos not have
provided the church of Alexandria with apostolic prestige? Evidently
not-perhaps because it is made so plain in Acts l&24-26 that
Apollos’s original understanding of Christianity was defective, so that
he had to be taken in hand by Priscilla and Aquila (foundationmembers, perhaps, of the Roman church) and taught the way of God
more accurately. (Not all Alexandrian Christians were Gnostics or
gnosticizers, of course; the Letter to the Hebrews and the Letter of
Barnabas may both have been written by Alexandrian Christians, and
neither of them bears a gnostic stamp.)
Our letter, however, does not say that Mark planted the church of
Alexandria, but that he came to Alexandria after Peter’s martyrdom
(not several years before it, as Eusebius implies) and continued there
the literary activity which he had begun in Rome. This is possibly an
earlier form of the story of his connexion with Alexandria than that
reported by Eusebius, but if so it may have provided a basis for
Eusebius’s account. Eusebius probably derived his account from the
Chronicle of Sextus Julius Africanus, who visited Alexandria when
Demetrius was bishop and Heraclas, Origen’s successor, was head of
the catechetical school, and may well have learned it from them.
The kind of gospel literature that was current in Egypt in the
generation before Clement is exemplified by the Gospel according to the
Hebrews and the Gospel of the Egyptians, which Bauer supposed were
used respectively by the Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians of
Alexandria.” Clement was acquainted with both of these documents.
” W. Bauer, Ovhdoxy rind Hemy tn Earliest Christianity, p. 52,
310
THE ‘SECRET’ GOSPEL OF MARK
From the Gospel according to the Hebrews he quotes the logion, ‘He who
seeks shall not desist until he finds; when he has found he will marvel;
when he has marvelled he will attain the kingdom; when he has
attained the kingdom he will rest.‘26 Another form of this Greek
logion appears in the Oxyrhynchus Sayings,27 and, in a Coptic version,
as the second logion in the Gospelof Thomas. Clement characteristically
interprets the saying of the true (Christian) philosopher.
From the Gospel of the Egyptians Clement quotes an alleged saying of
Jesus, ‘I came to destroy the works of the female’, and illustrates it
with a conversation between Jesus and Salome. In reply to Salome’s
question, ‘How long will death prevail?’ he said, ‘As long as you
women give birth to children. ’ ‘Then’, said she, ‘I have done well in
bearing none.’ (In this tradition obviously Salome is not the mother of
James and John.) ‘Eat every herb’, said Jesus, ‘except that which has a
bitter fruit.’ When she pressed her original question again, he replied
more fully, ‘When you tread underfoot the garment of shame, when
the two become one and the male with the female neither male nor
female’. 28 This expresses a Valentinian theme, that death entered into
human life with the separation of the female from the male-death
being included, along with conception and birth and the other phases
of the biological cycle, among ‘the works of the female’-and that the
state of perfection and immortality would be attained when the female
was reabsorbed with the male into the complete human being. This
view was unacceptable to Clement but, as he did not wish to give up
Jesus’ reported words to Salome as unauthentic, he replaced their
proper gnostic sense with an ethical allegorization, in which the
‘female’ whose works are to be destroyed is concupiscence and ‘neither
male nor female’ means neither anger nor concupiscence.
When the author of the letter says that Mark, after publishing his
first book, ‘compiled a more spiritual Gospel’, it is impossible not to
be reminded of Clement’s statement that, after the first three
evangelists had published their works, ‘John last ofall, conscious that
the “bodily” facts had been set forth in those Gospels, urged by the
disciples and divinely moved by the Spirit, composed a “spiritual”
Gospel’. 2q By the ‘bodily’ facts in the synoptic record Clement appears
to mean the outward historical details, whereas John’s Gospel is
‘spiritual’ in the sense that it brings out their allegorical significance.
Lb Stmm. 2.9.45; 5.14.96.
” P. Oxy. 654.2.
‘” .Stmr,l. 3.6.45; 3.9.63ff.; 3. 11.9lff. Seep.189above
j9 In Eusebius, HN. 1:‘~I. 6.14.7; seep. 189 above.
311
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
Presumably Mark’s ‘more spiritual Gospel’ was one which brought out
the allegorical significance of his first edition, but we are not told what .
might be the allegorical significance of the extract we are given from
the amplified edition. If the letter-writer is Clement, he may well have
given it a moralizing interpretation such as he gives to the conversation
with Salome in the Gospel of the Egyptians, and he might be just as far
from the true sense.
In fact we might ask what there is of a ‘secret’ or ‘hierophantic’
character about the pericope quoted by the letter-writer from the
amplified Gospel of Mark-unless, as with the Gospel of Thomas, it
was the interpretation and not the written text that was regarded as
esoteric. And this brings us to what the letter says about Carpocrates
and his followers.
THE CARPOCRATIANS AND THE
‘SECRET’ GOSPEL
Carpocrates was an Alexandrian Platonist of the earlier part of the
second century; he flourished two generations before Clement.
According to Irenaeus, 3o he taught that the world was created by
angel-archons, not by the supreme God, and (like the Ebionites) held
that Jesus was a man, the son of Joseph by natural generation, on
whom the divine power descended. The same power might be received
by the souls of all who, like Jesus, set the archons at naught and
conquered the passions which exposed men to their penalties. He also
appears to have taught metempsychosis for all who were enslaved to
the archons; only by defying and overcoming them, as Jesus did, could
men be released from the necessity of successive reincarnations.
Pythagorean influence may be indicated here, and it is perhaps relevant
that, according to Irenaeus, the Carpocratians venerated images of
Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle along with images of Jesus.3’
‘The followers of Carpocrates are charged by Irenaeus and ClemenP’
with ethical neutralism and specifically with the practice of sexual
promiscuity at their love-feasts-with the same kind of conduct, in
fact, as was alleged in a number of pagan circles against Christians in
general (cf the ‘Oedipodean intercourse’ of which the churches of the
RhBne valley were accused, according to their letter of AD 1 7 7
” Agaimt Heresln, 1.25.6.
“’ Irenaeus, A@z~t Hrreh, 1.25. If.
‘* Irenaeus, A@nJt Hrrnra. 1.25.3-5;Clement,Stmn~. 3.2.5-11.
.3 12
THE ‘SECRET’ GOSPEL OF MARK
preserved by Eusebius).33 While we should not swallow uncritically
what is said of the Carpocratians by their orthodox opponents, it is to
be observed (i) that such charges are not levelled against all gnostic
groups indiscriminately and (ii) that a philosophical defence of
promiscuity by Epiphanes, the son of Carpocrates by a Cephallenian
woman, is quoted by Clement.34 Cardinal DaniClou, who regarded
Carpocrates himself as an exponent of what he identified as Jewish
Gnosticism, held that Epiphanes hellenized his father’s system, ‘just
as Valentinus did Samaritan Gnosticism and Justin the orthodox
gnosis of the same period’. 35
Whereas Tertullian could say, ‘we have all things in common,
except our wives’36 (probably implying that private property was a
sign of sinful covetousness), Epiphanes and the Carpocratians appear
to have gone farther and said, ‘we have all things in common,
including our wives. ’ Epiphanes justified this policy by an appeal to
the principles of divine righteousness or equity as embodied not in the
law of Moses but in the law of nature. He pointed to the example of the
animal creation, and thus incurred the rebuke ofJude: ‘by those things
that they know by instinct, as irrational animals do, they are destroyed’
Uude 10). It was evidently predecessors of the Carpocratians, if not th,e
Carpocratians themselves, whom Jude denounced so unsparingly for
following the precedent of the disobedient angels and the men of
Sodom. Indeed, Clement himself, in his account of the Carpocratians,
expresses the opinion that ‘it was of these and similar heresies that
Jude spoke prophetically in his epistle’. 37 He further links them with
the Nicolaitans of Revelation 2:6, 14f., and the author of our letter
links them with those who explore ‘the deep things of Satan’-i.e.
the adherents of ‘that Jezebel of a woman’, denounced in the letter to
the church of Thyatira, whose tenets were practically identical with
those of the Nicolaitans (Rev. 2:20-23).
For our present purpose it is particularly interesting that, on the
testimony of Irenaeus, the Carpocratians emphasized the statements of
Mark 4: 11, 34, that Jesus explained the mystery of the kingdom of
God privately to his disciples, while speaking to the general public in
parables; they claimed also that the discip!es were authorized to
deliver this private teaching ‘to those who were worthy and who
j3 Hist. Ecci. 5.1.14.
” Strom. 3.2.6.
” J. Danielou, The Theology o/Jewish Chrdanity, E.T. (London,
‘6 Tertullian, Apohgy, 39.11.
j7 Clement, Strom. 3.2.11.
313
1964),
pp.84f.
THE ‘SECRET’ GOSPEL OF MARK
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
assented to it’. 38 They themselves, in other words, were the custodians
of Jesus’ private teaching-of the ‘messianic secret’, so to speak. But
whereas the historical ‘mystery of the kingdom’ or ‘messianic secret’
was concerned with the nature of the kingdom, of the God whose
kingdom it was and of the messianic ministry by which it was being
inaugurated, it was reinterpreted-or rather misinterpreted-among
the Carpocratians and in other gnostic schools in terms of mystical
initiation. The letter-writer himself uses the language of mystical
initiation with regard to the mature Christian (as Clement does with
regard to his ‘true Gnostic’),39 but with him (as with Clement) this is
but a figure of speech.
It was evidently the Carpocratians’ claim to be the transmitters of
Jesus’ esoteric doctrine that moved Theodore to write to Clement (if
we accept the attribution of the letter). They appealed to an edition of
Mark’s Gospel which, they maintained, vindicated their assertion that
Jesus taught conventional morality in public but communicated a
more uninhibited ethic to select souls in private. Theodore evidently
asked Clement about this ‘secret’ Gospel of Mark. ‘Clement’ knows
about it, but denies that it supports Carpocratian doctrine: Carpocrates
procured a copy, he says, by underhand means, and his followers have
perverted its interpretation, putting a libertine construction, for
example, on the incident of the young man ‘with a linen robe thrown
over his naked body’, as though the impartation of the mystery of the
kingdom of God involved complete physical contiguity. When
‘Clement’ says that the phrase ‘naked to naked’, about which Theodore
had asked, is not found in the text of the ‘secret’ Gospel, we may
reasonably infer that this phrase summed up the Carpocratians’
interpretation of the incident, which they probably invoked in defence
of their own ‘sacramental’ practice.
That there was an extreme libertine tradition in early Christianity
as well as an extreme ascetic tradition is plain to readers of the New
Testament, especially of the Pauline letters. Paul himself, like Jesus
before him, taught a way of holiness which did not belong to either of
these extreme traditions. As for the libertine tradition, Professor
Smith finds it so firmly embedded in early Christianity that he
concludes it must have gone back to Jesus’ esoteric teaching, as the
more ascetic tradition went back to his public teaching. But such
tradition. We cannot be sure about the Nicolaitans of the Apocalypse,
whether or not they were called after Nicolaus the proselyte of Antioch
(Acts 6:5), as Irenaeus believed:40 perhaps they and kindred groups
simply wished to relax the terms of the apostolic decree ofActs 15:28f.
But Paul’s Corinthian correspondence gives us a clear enough line: the
libertines in the Corinthian church were the ‘spiritual’ men who had
come to regard all bodily activities as morally indifferent, and devised
a theological defence of their continued indulgence in the besetting sin
of Corinth, even after their conversion to Christianity. They probably
maintained that they were carrying to its logical conclusion Paul’s
gospel of freedom from the law. It was men of this outlook who
regarded the cohabitation of one of their number with his father’s wife
as a fine assertion of Christian liberty (1 Cor.5: l-13). Epiphanes,
whose father had taught him Platonism with a dash of Pythagoreanism,
devised a more sophisticated theological defence for this kind of
conduct.
As for the ‘secret’ Gospel of Mark, it may well have come into being
within the Carpocratian fellowship, or a similar school of thought.
That ‘Clement’ thought it went back to Mark himself is neither here
nor there, in view of the historical Clement’s uncritical acceptance of
other apocrypha. The raising of the young man of Bethany is too
evidently based-and clumsily based at that-on the Johannine
story of the raising of Lazarus for us to regard it as in any sense an
independent Marcan counterpart to the Johannine story (not to speak
of our regarding it as a source of the Johannine story). Since this
conclusion is so completely at variance with Professor Smith’s carefully
argued case, one must do him the justice of giving his case the detailed
consideration which it deserves. But this lecture presents my initial
assessment41 of the document which he has discovered and published.42
40 Against HereJies, 1.26.3.
4’ My assessment of the document remains substantially the same fifteen years
later.
4* This lecture was first published by the Athlone Press, University of London, in
1974.
evidence as we have points to a Gentile origin for the libertine
-” Irenaeus, Agamst Heresies, I .25.5.
.3’ Clement, Stm~/. 7. I- 16. Seep. 187 above.
3’4
315
PRIMARY SENSE AND PLENARY SENSE
APPENDIX II
PRIMARY SENSE
AND PLENARY SENSE
l?eake Memorial Lecture, 1976
Any biblical student might well feel honoured in being invited to
deliver a lecture in the series dedicated to the memory of Arthur
Samuel Peake, but it is with a sense of double honour that the
invitation is accepted by one who is already honoured by holding the
academic position which was first held-and with rare distinctionby Dr Peake. ’
A. S. P E A K E A N D B I B L I C A L E X E G E S I S
For the last twenty-five years of his life (1904-1929), Dr Peake
occupied the Rylands Chair of Biblical Exegesis in the University of
Manchester. For most of his incumbency that was the designation of
the Chair: only towards the end of the twenty-five years was the
wording amplified to ‘Biblical Criticism and Exegesis’. Dr Peake was,
of course, a practitioner and teacher of biblical criticism as well as
exegesis, but the original designation of the Chair perhaps implies
that criticism, whether lower or higher, is a means to an end. As Dr
Peake himself said, ‘criticism has never attracted me for its own sake.
The all-important thing for the student of the Bible is to pierce to the
core of its meaning. ‘2 When criticism has done its perfect work, the
important question remains: What does the text mean? Critical study
will help very considerably to find the answer to this question, but the
meaning of scripture-its meaning for those to whom it came in the
first instance, and its meaning for readers today-is what matters
most.
Dr Peake was well aware of this, and he taught the principles of
biblical interpretation not only to his students in the lecture-room but
to the rank and file of his fellow-Christians also. The Bible: 0s Origin, its
Significance and its Abiding Worth-a book which I found particularly
helpful in my formative years-was written for a wider public,
consisting, to begin with, of readers of The Sunday Strand. His Plain
Thoughts on Great Subjects, a collection of more popular articles and
addresses, illustrates his concern that Christians should free their
minds from time-honoured interpretations which had no basis in the
proper meaning of the biblical text. The ‘wayfaring men, yea fools’,
who ‘shall not “err”’ in the way of holiness, he pointed out, are
reprobates who may not trespass on the path reserved for ‘the ransomed
of the LORD’ (Is. 35:8, lO);3 the blood-stained figure who comes from
Edom, ‘with dyed garments from Bozrah’, having ‘trodden the winepress alone’, is as far as can well be imagined from our Lord, fresh from
the scene of his passion; the blood which reddens the apparel of the
warrior of Isaiah 63: l-6 is that of the slaughtered sons of Esau.4 (I am
bound to add that I suspect that the seer of Patmos made an early
contribution to the christological interpretation of this oracle; but he
could bend the most recalcitrant material to serve his purpose.)’
The distinction between the primary and plenary sense of scripture
is not one that I recall coming across in Dr Peake’s writings. He does
draw attention to the distinction between the primary and secondary
sense,‘j but that is not always the same distinction. The plenary sense,
I suppose, is always secondary, but the secondary sense need not be
plenary.
Dr Peake distinguished, for example, between the primary and the
’ The lecture was delivered during the lecturer’s incumbency of the Rylands Chair
of Biblical Criticism and Exegesis in the University of Manchester.
’ A. S. peake, The Bible: Its Origin, its Significance and its Abidmg Worth (London,
1913), p.455.
3 A. S. Peake, Plain Though on Great Subjem (London, 1931), pp. 175- 180.
4 Plain Thoughts, pp. 170-174.
5 Cf Rev. 19: 13, with G. B. Caird, The Rtwlution ofStJohn the Divine (London/New
York, 1966), pp.242-244.
’ The Bible, pp.452,455.
316
317
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
secondary sense of the Servant Songs of Isaiah 42- 53. He was
convinced that ‘the collective judgment of Christendom has been
right in finding the fulfilment of these prophecies in Christ’ because
‘the prophet’s language is fulfilled in Jesus as in no other’.’ In saying
this, he attaches what we should call a plenary sense---& plenary
sense- to the Songs, pointing out that ‘we often find meanings in
great works of Art which were probably not intended by the authors
themselves’ and that ‘when inspiration works at so high a level as it
often does in the Bible we may not unnaturally expect to find deeper
senses than that of which the original author was aware.‘* But such a
deeper sense, even if it be acknowledged as plenary, is chronologically
secondary; the sense of which the biblical author was aware is the
primary sense. As it happens, the primary sense of the Servant Songs is
not so readily ascertainable: the Ethiopian’s question to Philip, ‘About
whom, pray, does the prophet say this, about himself or about
someone else?’ (Acts 8:34), is still a suitable question to be set in an
examination paper. In my own view, Dr Peake’s estimate of the
primary sense of these particular scriptures was not so near the mark as
that of another great Methodist scholar, the late Christopher North.’
‘SPRINGING AND GERMINANT
ACCOMPLISHMENT’
When we speak of primary sense and plenary sense we may imagine
that primary sense is a straightforward matter by contrast with the
complexities of plenary sense. Primary sense is the sense which the
author intended by his words, the sense which he expected his readers
or hearers to understand by his words. Plenary sense is a richer thing
than that. It can best be defined and described, perhaps, in a passage
which I quote from Dorothy L. Sayers:
A phrase used by Dante not only contains and is illuminated by
the meanings it derived from Virgil or the Vulgate: it, in its
turn, illuminates Virgil and the Vulgate and gives new meaning
to them. It not only passes on those meanings, supercharged
with Dante’s own meaning, to Tennyson and Landor, to Rossetti
and Yeats, to Williams and Eliot and Pound, but it receives
7 The Bibh, p.453.
’ The Bibh, p.452.
‘) Cf C. R. North, The Sufferq Servant in Deutem-Isaiah (Oxford, 2 1956).
PRIMARY
SENSE
AND
PLENARY
SENSE
back from them the reflected spplendoove of their own imaginative
use of it. lo
Thomas Aquinas, in the thirteenth century, put it this way:
Prophecies are sometimes uttered about the things which existed
at the time in question, but are not uttered primarily with
reference to them, but in so far as these are a figure of things to
come. Therefore the Holy Spirit has provided that, when such
prophecies are uttered, some details should be inserted which go
beyond the actual thing done, so that the mind may be raised to
the thing signified. ”
St Thomas was referring to the interpretation of one particular area of
biblical literature-predictive prophecy. He used the word ‘primarily’
where we should say ‘plenarily’, when he said that the contemporary
reference of biblical prophecies was not their primary reference. l2 As
we are now using the words, their contemporary reference was their
‘primary’ reference, the ‘things’ to come’ of which the contemporary
reference was a figure belonging to the plenary sense, in so far as they
are genuinely relevant to the scripture in question. Thus the primary
sense of Isaiah’s virgin oracle related to a prince about to be born in the
near future; Matthew’s application of the oracle to the birth of Jesus
can be said to set forth the plenary sense, not least because the idiom of
the original oracle (although Matthew need not have known this) was
already a well-established form of words for the annunciation of the
birth of a coming deliverer,13 and was therefore appropriate for
heralding the nativity of the Messiah.
To the same effect Francis Bacon at a later date spoke of the
necessity of ‘allowing. . . that latitude which is agreeable and familiar
unto Divine prophecies; being of the nature of their Author with
whom a thousand years are but as one day, and therefore are not
fulfilled punctually at once, but have springing and germinant
accomplishment throughout many ages, though the height or fulness
” D. L. Sayers, The Poetry of Search and the Poetry of Statement (London, 1963),
p.272.
’ ’ Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on Psalms, preface.
” What we here call the primary sense he called the literal sense.
” See the Ugaritic poem, ‘The Wedding ofNikkal and Yarih’, lines 5, 7, in C. H.
Gordon, Ugariti~- Handbook (Rome, 1947), p. 152; Ugaritir- Litertrtnre (Rome, 1949),
pp.63f.
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
of them may refer to some one age. ‘I4 What Bacon here argues for is
sufficient scope to accommodate not only the primary reference but
further provisional fulfilments as well, until at last their ‘height or
fulness’, their plenary sense, is manifested.
A biblical scholar of the present century, the late Cuthbert Lattey,
attached high value to this interpretative approach in what he called
the principle of ‘cornpenetration’. l5 He found this principle helpful in
the exegesis of such a passage as Isaiah’s virgin oracle and of larger
literary units. l6 An adequate exegesis of the visions of Daniel, he
believed, ‘must take into account, as it were, three historical planes,
that of the persecution of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and of the first and
second comings of Christ’. ” Whether or not this three-dimensional
perspective is necessary for the exposition of Daniel, it must be
insisted that the exegete’s first responsibility is to establish the primary
historical reference of the author and his original readers, and then to
decide how far visions or oracles whose primary sense is thus ascertained
can be related, by implication or in principle, to later situations.
There is a similarity between the idea of ‘springing and germinant
accomplishment’ and the idea of Christian tradition as expounded in
our time, for example, by P&e Y. M. -J. Congar. Tradition, he says,
is another mode by which the truth embodied in scripture, the
apostolic heritage, is communicated to us. ‘Scripture has an absolute
sovereignty ’ ,‘* whereas tradition is a tbthwisation or constant accrual
of meditation on the text of scripture in one generation after another,
‘the living continuity of faith quickening God’s people’. I9 The reality of
such tradition cannot be doubted: many parts of scripture have a richer
meaning for Christians today than they had for Christians in the early
centuries AD because of what they have meant for intervening generations of Christians. (It is equally true that many parts of scripture
had a meaning for Christians in other centuries that they cannot have
for us today, but that is another story.) However, such tradition is
derivative and dependent: the interpretation of scripture, even if it
I4 F. Bacon, Adt~aanmn~nt of Lmrning, II (Ecclesidd History 2.2: ‘History of
Prophecy’) in Works, ed. B. Montagu, II (London, 1825), p. 117.
Is C. C. Lattey, S.J., Brrck to Christ (New York, 19 19), pp.64ff.
” C. C. Lattey, ‘The Emmanuel Prophecy (Is. 7: 14)‘, CBQ 8 (1946), pp.369376.
” C C Lattey, 7’hc Book c/fDanie/(Dublin, 1948, p.vii.
Ix Y. M. -J. Congar, 0. P., TrcrJitionrrnJTraJitionJ, E.T. (London, 1966), p.422.
” Trdrliti~m and Truditicinc, p.4.
320
PRIMARY SENSE AND PLENARY SENSE
accrues at compound interest from generation to generation, cannot
get more out of scripture than is there already-implicitly if not
expressly. This, I am sure, was Dr Peake’s view (it is equally mine),
but is it valid? I know some theologians who would suggest that the
Holy Spirit may bring forth from scripture today truth which bears
little relation to that conveyed by the text in its historical setting, but
I cannot think they are right. Even the devotional application of
scripture, which is specially impatient of strict exegetical controls,
must be reasonably deducible from what scripture says; otherwise,
why base a ‘blessed thought’ on one text rather than another, or why
base it on a text of scripture at ah?
One example of the way in which a new and widely accepted
interpretation can be attached to an ancient scripture is provided by
the lament of the desolate city of Jerusalem, after the siege and
devastation endured at the hands of the Babylonian army: ‘Is it
nothing to you, all you who pass by? Look and see if there is any sorrow
like my sorrow which was brought upon me, which the LORD inflicted
on the day of his fierce anger’ (Lam. 1: 12).
It is safe to say that many English-speaking Christians, perhaps the
majority of them, when thty hear these words, do not think of the sack
of Jersualem in 587 BC but of the passion of our Lord. We recognize
that Charles Wesley and Sir John Stainer between them bear considerable responsibility for this; but neither Wesley nor Stainer originated
this passion interpretation: it goes back to the traditional employment
of the language of Lamentations in the church’s Holy Week
commemoration.
Yet the application of these words to our Lord’s passion may be
acknowledged as a valid instance of the ‘plenary sense’ of scripture if (as
Norman K. Gottwald has argued) the expression of communal disaster
found in Lamentations draws on various categories of individual
lament, constituting a ‘deliberate fusion of hitherto comparatively
separate types’--a process which reached a climax in the fourth
Isaianic Servant Song (Is. 52: 13-53:12).20 If, then, the distinctively
Christian interpretation of the Servant of Yahweh is as justified as Dr
Peake held (and with good reason), the plenary sense of the fourth
Servant Song (or something very hke it) can legitimately be read out of
certain passages of Lamentations, like Lamentations 1: 12, where the
language lends itself to this extended application.
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
THE COMPLEXITY OF ‘PRIMARY SENSE’
To this matter of extended application we shall return. But, having
provided one illustration ofwhat is meant by ‘plenary sense’ in relation
to the Bible, we must look more closely at what is involved in ‘primary
sense’.
I recall some correspondence in a leading literary journal several
years ago which was started by someone’s taking a passage from a
poem by Roy Fuller and drawing certain inferences from it. Roy Fuller
in due course wrote to the editor and said that the first writer had
misunderstood the passage: that was not what he had meant at all.
This brought an indignant rejoinder: what business was it of the
author of a poem to say what his poem meant? Once the poem had
become public property, the sense in which the reader understood it
was as valid as the sense which the author claimed to have had in mind
when he composed it. The terms ‘primary sense’ and ‘plenary sense’
were not used, so far as I can remember; but from the tone in which the
reader wrote I doubt if he would have conceded that the author’s
interpretation had any greater right to be called ‘primary’ than his
own. As we are using the terms now, however, the author’s meaning
would be ‘primary’ and the reader’s interpretation, whether legitimate
or not, would be ‘secondary’-not, I think, ‘plenary’. The reader’s
protest reminded me too forcibly of the attitude of those whose main
exegetical criterion in Bible study is ‘I like to think that it means this.’
But the establishment of the primary sense of a passage of scripture
is not always such a straightforward matter as is commonly supposed.
Take, for example, a gospel parable in which the intention of Jesus
may have been one thing and the evangelist’s interpretation something
else. You may recall C. H. Dodd’s remark on Matthew’s interpretation
of the parable of the tares: ‘We shall do well to forget this interpretation
as completely as possible.‘*’ What he meant was, that we ought to
forget this interpretation if we are concerned to discover the original
point of the parable-which he took (rightly, I think) to be essentially
dominical. But if we are speaking of biblical exegesis in the strict
sense-in this instance, the exegesis of the Gospel according to
Matthew-then the Matthaean interpretation is of the first importance. If Jesus meant to teach a different lesson from that which the
evangelist inculcates, which of the two is primary? Jesus’ meaning, of
course, both in regard to historical order and in regard to our underLI C. H. Dodd, Purahirr?frheK/n~~~n,(London, 1935), p. 184 (onMt. 13:36-43).
322
PRIMARY
SENSE
AND
PLENARY
SENSE
standing of his teaching; but so far as biblical exegesis is concerned, it
is the Gospel of Matthew, not the tradition lying behind it, that is
part of holy writ, and a case could be made out in this context for
regarding Matthew’s interpretation as ‘primary’. Admittedly, important as the four evangelists’ theology and presentation may be, their
primary value resides in the witness which they bear to Jesus and his
ministry, so that, absolutely, it is the intention of Jesus that is of
primary importance. (Let it not be forgotten that our knowledge of his
intention must be derived from the witness of the evangelists.) But,
when we are dealing with the Gospels and other biblical writings as
literary documents, then the intention of the authors is of primary
importance for the interpretation of their writings.
A further complication is introduced into our study of Matthew’s
Gospel from this point of view when we have documentary evidence of
an intermediary stage between the teaching of Jesus and the literary
activity of the evangelist. There is no other version of the parable of the
tares in the New Testament, but there are some parables in the same
Matthaean context which appear in an earlier form in Mark’s Gospel.
There we may have to distinguish between the intention of Jesus, the
intention of Mark and the intention of Matthew, and to which of these
we accord ‘primary’ status will depend on the primary purpose of our
study- the exposition of the teaching of Jesus or the interpretation of
one or the other of the two gospels in question.
Even ifwe concentrate on the earliest gospel writing and study (say)
the parable of the sower (Mk. 4:3-20), we may trace three successive
stages in the growth of the tradition: (a) the parable itself, (d) the
interpretation of the parable with its explanation of the four kinds of
soil into which the good seed fell and (c) the appended statement about
the purpose of parables with its allusion to the Isaianic passage about
unresponsive hearts, deaf ears and unseeing eyes. The primary sense of
a biblical text may thus be quite a complex thing.
To take an example from the Old Testament: the primary sense of
Psalm 5 1 was the sense intended by the penitent who first made it his
prayer of confession. It is traditionally ascribed to David, as though it
were an expansion of his response to the prophet Nathan: ‘I have
sinned against Yahweh’ (2 Sam. 12:13). In any case, it belongs
originally to the period of the monarchy, as probably do most of the
individual psalms. The penitent knows that, where the soul has direct
dealings with God in the way of repentance and forgiveness, ritual
performances are irrelevant:
323
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Thou hast no delight in sacrifice;
were I to give a burnt offering,
thou wouldst not be pleased.
PRIMARY
SENSE
AND
PLENARY
SENSE
If the editor or compiler lived toward the end of the extle, this may
have been his prayer, although it was not the prayer of the original
suppliant. But in the exegesis of the psalm, do we concentrate on what
appears to have been its original text, or accept it in its fuller canonical
form? We must certainly pay attention to the canonical form, in order
to ascertain the significance of the composition for worshippers who
made it the vehicle of their devotions in the post-exilic age. But,
where the fuller form conflicts with the meaning of the earlier form,
we cannot say that the fuller form gives the plenary sense, for the
plenary sense must preserve, even when it amplifies, the primary
sense.
Similar considerations apply to almost every part of the Old
Testament. We have to ask what each part meant in its original form
and setting, what it meant when it was embodied in a larger corpzrs,
and what it meant in the completed Hebrew Bible. Then, if we are
Christians, we have to take a further step and ask what it means in the
total volume of Christian scripture, Old and New Testaments together.
An examination of the use of the Old Testament in the New, as
bearing witness to Christ, helps to answer this last question.
When we come to the use of the Old Testament in the New, we
have left the primary sense and reached the plenary sense, as has been
seen in relation to the Servant Songs and their Christian application.
But we find a halfway house between primary and plenary sense within
the Old Testament itself, when earlier texts are taken up and reapplied
in later books. Some of these reapplications are instances of transferred
rather than plenary sense, as when (say) Habakkuk applies to the
Chaldaean invaders the language which Isaiah had used of their
Assyrian predecessors. 22
In the visions of Daniel, however, we find something that does
belong more recognizably to the category of plenary interpretation.
For example, describing the rebuff which Antiochus Epiphanes
received, during his second invasion of Egypt, from the Roman
delegation under Popilius Laenas which was put ashore by the Roman
flotilla anchored in the harbour of Alexandria, the interpreting angel
tells Daniel that ‘ships of Kittim shall come against him’ (Dan.
11:30). This reference to the Roman vessels as ‘ships of Kittim’
established a precedent which was to be followed in the Qumran texts,
where Kittim is a regular code-word for ‘Romans’. But why should
‘ships of Kittim’ appear here in the book of Daniel? Almost certainly
the expression harks back to Balaam’s oracle about the latter days
which foretold how ‘ships shall come from Kittim and shall afflict
Asshur and Eber’ (Num. 24:24). The original historical reference of
this oracle is a question in its own right: few will suppose that Balaam
had Antiochus Epiphanes in mind. But the implication of Daniel
11:30 is that the incident of 168 BC was the true fulfilment ofBalaam’s
oracle. An interpretative tradition was thus set up which finds independent attestation centuries later in the Targum of Onqelos, where
Numbers 24:24 is rendered ‘ships will come from the Romans’, and in
Jerome’s Vulgate, which renders the same clause, ‘they will come in
triremes from Italy’.
Here, then, within the Hebrew Bible itself are two levels of
exegesis. Balaam’s oracle had one distinct primary sense: it is the task
of historical interpretation to determine what it was-whether the
invasions of the sea peoples at the end of the thirteenth century BC or
some later occasion, perhaps in the period of the monarchy. But when
we come to Daniel and his successors we recognize the beginning of a
new exegetical tradition which in their eyes represented the definitive
sense of the oracle. We may classify it under the heading of plenary
” Compare Hab. I:5 with Is. 29: 14.
.3*4
325
Thy sacrifice, 0 God, is a broken spirit;
a broken and contrite heart, 0 God,
thou wilt not despise.
But the time came when this psalm was included in a collection of
hymns designed for liturgical use in the Second Temple. This liturgical
use implied a sacrificial context, so something had to be added which
modified the sense of the psalmist’s words about sacrifice. The editor
who adapted the psalm to its new setting suggested that the psalmist’s
omission of sacrifice was due not so much to his conviction that
Yahweh had no pleasure in any such thing as to the conditions of exile,
when no sacrifice was possible. Hence his supplement runs:
Do good to Zion in thy good pleasure;
rebuild the walls of Jerusalem,
then wilt thou delight in right sacrifices,
in burnt offerings and whole burnt offerings;
then bulls will be offered on thy altar.
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
sense (although they themselves might have maintained that it was
the prirrzary sense, meaning that it was to this that the oracle pointed
from the outset).
Again, the sequel to Antiochus’s rebuff is described in Daniel
11:30--39 in terms which can be checked, point by point, against the
available historical evidence. But there comes a moment when the
historical outline fails; yet the remaining career of Antiochus must be
traced until his final downfall. The apocalyptist is not thrown back on
his unaided imagination: the last stages in the oppressor’s career had
been foretold by the prophets. Isaiah had told how the Assyrian,
invading the holy land from the north, would fall with a mighty crash
at the peak of his arrogance, in the very act of shaking his fist at
Jerusalem, and how he would be devoured by no human sword (Is.
10:27b-34; 3 1:8). In more explicit detail, Ezekiel had told how Gog,
the invader from the north, would be turned round in his tracks, be
forced to go back by the way that he came, and be overthrown on the
mountains of Israel (Ezek. 39: l-6). With this wealth of information
about the fate of the last Gentile invader, all that was necessary for
Daniel was that it should be reworded in accordance with the idiom of
the preceding part of the vision.
‘WRESTLING JACOB’
We come back now to the matter of extended application accruing to
the development of a plenary sense well beyond the biblical period.
This time a well-known patriarchal narrative will serve as an example.
The story of Jacob’s wrestling with the angel at the ford of Jabbok
(Gen. 32:22-32) is one that is capable of being interpreted at several
levels. We know it as an incident in the life of Jacob as recorded in
Genesis, but it may have had an earlier currency-earlier even than its
inclusion in an oral or documentary source underlying the Pentateuchal
record. Sir James Frazer suggested that ‘we may, perhaps, provisionally
suppose that Jacob’s mysterious adversary was the spirit or jinnee of
the river, and that the struggle was purposely sought by Jacob for the
sake of obtaining his blessing’; he compared Menelaus’s grappling
with the sea-god Proteus.‘” Well, perhaps; Frazer acknowledged that
any explanation of the story ‘must be to agreat extent conjectural’, and
one might equally well conjecture that the river-god was disputing
” J. G. Frazer, Folk-lure in the OIdTe~tament (London, 1923). pp.251-258.
326
PRIMARY SENSE AND PLENARY SENSE
passage with this intruder into his domain.24 But neither of these
conjectures belongs to the realm of biblical interpretation. Biblical
interpretation is concerned with the meaning of the passage in its
literary context; in this context the primary sense of the story is the
sense intended by the biblical author.
If we were examining the significance of an episode in Shakespeare’s
Macbeth, it would not be deemed sufficient to look up Raphael
Holinshed’s Chronicle, from which Shakepeare evidently derived the
plot, and conclude that the primary sense of the episode was the sense
which it bears in that compilation of historical fiction, or even in some
oral tradition antedating Holinshed. For the student of Shakespeare,
the primary sense is that which Shakespeare intended the episode to
bear. So, for the student of scripture, the primary sense of the incident
of wrestling Jacob is that intended by ‘the author of Genesis’ (to quote
a form of words from the 1962 edition of Peake’s Commentary which
one would not expect to find in the original edition.)” For our present
purpose it makes little difference whether we think of the Yahwist or
of the final author: for the one as for the other, the significance of the
incident is that which it has in the context of the story of Jacob, his
dealings with God and the development of his character. It is not, I
think, reading into the narrative something which the author did not
intend if we consider that Jacob’s experience at the ford of Jabbok
crystallizes the whole tenor of his life up to that point. Only when his
strength and his self-confidence were drained away, when he was
disabled by one stronger than himself and could do nothing but cling
for dear life and refuse to let the stranger go until he received his
blessing, was that blessing actually given. Jacob received the name
Israel there because he had ‘striven with God and man, and had
prevailed’; he left the place empowered and enriched because, as he
said, ‘I have seen God face to face, and my life is preserved’ (Gen.
32:30). There is no need to import this language into the narrative,
because it is there already, and points to the sense which the author
intended-the primary sense.
For various forms of the plenary sense of the narrative we go to later
writers. Hosea, like the author ofGenesis, uses the incident (which he
l4 C/ A S. Peake in Prake’.r Commentary on the BihLe (London, ’ 1919), p. 160, where
the exposition of the incident seems to refer to a pre-literary stage of its transmission
(like the exposition of the serpent’s rBle in Gen. 3: l- 15, ibid., p. 140).
‘s S. H. Hooke in Pukei Coruv~mtu~ on the Bihlr(London, 21962), p. 175.
327
PRIMARY
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
may have known in a slightly different form) to illustrate the progress
ofJacob’s experience ofGod (Hos. 12:3f.):
In his manhood he strove with God;
he strove with the angel and prevailed,
he wept and sought his favour.
Centuries later, the author of the book of Wisdom says that Wisdom
acted as umpire at Jacob’s wrestling-match (Wisdom 10: 12):
In his arduous contest she gave him the victory,
so that he might learn that godliness
is more powerful than anything else.
This is a pardonable moralization, not so remote from the primary
sense as the lesson drawn by Philo-that ‘to win honour in both
spheres, in our duty towards the untreated and the created, calls for no
petty mind, but for one which in very truth stands midway between
the world and God’. 26
With the coming of Christ, and the new understanding of the Old
Testament scriptures as bearing witness to him, a new dimension of
biblical interpretation was opened up. But the Christian interpretation
of the Old Testament in the New Testament is restrained and disciplined by contrast with what we find in the post-apostolic period.
There is no reference to wrestling Jacob in the New Testament nor yet
in the Apostolic Fathers. But Justin Martyr, in his Dialogue with
Tvypho the Jew, asserts confidently that the mysterious wrestler, whom
the narrator describes as ‘a man’, and of whom Jacob speaks as ‘God’,
must be the one whom Christians acknowledge as both God and man.
Trypho is increasingly bewildered as he listens to the flow of Justin’s
argument: such application of sacred scripture is quite foreign to him,
and he cannot comprehend how any one can understand it in such a
sense as Justin expounds.” But to Justin this understanding of the
incident is all of a piece with his understanding of other Old Testament
incidents in which God, or his angel, appears or speaks to human
beings in the form of a man. The christological exposition of such
incidents is hardly attested, ifat all, in the New Testament documents;
but it was a well-established tradition by Justin’s time, for Justin can
SENSE
AND
SENSE
scarcely be supposed to have initiated it. Once established, the
tradition was actively maintained.
The story of wrestling Jacob, says Dr Peake in the original edition
of his Commentary, ‘has been so filled with deep, spiritual significance
(Charles Wesley’s “Come, 0 Thou traveller unknown” is a classic
example) that it is difficult for the modern reader to think himself back
into its original meaning. “’ But in fact ‘Come, 0 Thou traveller
unknown’ is a superb example of what is meant by the plenary sense of
scripture.
It has occurred to me from time to time that it would be an
agreeable exercise to write a thesis, or at least to supervise one, on
‘Biblical Interpretation in the Hymns of Charles Wesley’. One does
not go to Wesley’s hymns for historical exegesis or the primary sense of
scripture, but time and again one finds in them the plenary sense. The
twelve stanzas of ‘Come, 0 Thou traveller unknown’ present a
thorough-going transmutation of the story of wrestling Jacob into
something akin to Paul’s mysterious experience recounted in 2
Corinthians 12:2- 10, which taught him the lesson: ‘when I am weak,
then I am strong’. But, so far as the author of Genesis is concerned,
this (in my judgment) is the lesson which he intends to be drawn from
the story of wrestling Jacob; and Charles Wesley, in drawing out and
developing this lesson, does no injustice to the primary intention;
rather, he lays bare the plenary sense in a Christian idiom:
And when my all of strength shall fail,
I shall with the God-Man prevail.
PRESENT APPLICATION
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, when new critical methods
were being applied to the biblical records, F. D. E. Schleiermacher
manifested a hermeneutical concern as well as a critical interest.
Granted that the new methods disclosed the intention of the biblical
writers in their contemporary context, what did their message mean to
readers in the different context of Schleiermacher’s day? How could
the new critical contributions enrich the present understanding and
application of that message?‘”
zn Pwkr’i C‘N/~NICI~~ on the Bit!&, p, 160.
” F. D. E. Schleiermacher, 7’br Chn.r&u/ F&h. E.T. (Edinburgh, 192X), pp.Wlft’.
et passim.
328
PLENARY
329
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Similar questions are asked today and fresh attempts are made to
answer them by interpreting scripture as an integral and controlling
element in the continuing life of the people of God, or as the locus of
that life-giving and active word which awakens the hearers’ faith,
helps them to understand their existence and thus transforms it and
imparts ‘authenticity’ to it, liberating them from their bondage to the
past and enabling them to be ‘open’ toward the future. This is the
idiom of the ‘new hermeneutic’. 3o
An example on the grand scale of what is involved in interpreting an
Old Testament book as ‘scripture of the church’, as an integrating
element in the Christian canon, is provided by Brevard Childs’
magisterial commentary on Exodus which has replaced the earlier
commentary by Martin Noth in the Old Testament Library of the
SCM Press.3’ Here is a work which takes fullest account of all that
historical-critical exegesis can say about the text, but goes on to
maintain that the church’s canon, and indeed the church’s life,
constitute the context within which the text is most fully to be
understood. The theme which gives the book of Exodus its Greek
name, Israel’s departure from Egypt, is of course a Leitmotiv in Old
Testament thought about God and reflection on Israel’s history from
that time forth, and supplies a pattern for the unfolding of that later
redemptive act in which Christians find supreme significance. But
does the New Testament treatment of the Exodus theme or the New
Testament application of the story of Moses make a contribution to
our understanding of the book of Exodus? Yes, if we are thinking of
the plenary sense. The primary sense of Exodus is to be sought within
the context of that Old Testament book itself, or at least within the
context of the Pantateuch; but the later Christian interpretation
brings out a deeper sense in so far as it uncovers layers of meaning
implicit in the primary sense. One obvious criticism is forestalled by
Professor Childs: to those who point out that Jewish tradition as well
as Christian tradition has its ‘plenary’ interpretation of the Exodus
story he replies that he is well aware of this, and that the Jewish
tradition also must have its place in the full exposition of the text.32
Professor Childs has shown a measure of courage remarkable in an
academic theologian, because he knows how vigorously he must be
‘” CfJ. M. Robinson and J. B. Cobb, ~beNru,Hr~t~enr/~rir(New York, 1964).
‘I B. S. Childs, Exod~o; A Comtwntuvy (London, 1974). p.ix.
‘* Cfhis inclusion of ‘Calvin and Drusius, Rashi and Ibn Ezra’ among the ‘giants’
who ‘need to be heard in concert with Wellhausen and Gunkel’ (p.x).
330
PRIMARY SENSE AND PLENARY SENSE
critited by fellow-exegetes and theologians for importing ‘irrelevant’
considerations into the interpretation of an ancient Hebrew text.
Some of the criticisms already voiced must be recognized to have some
substance.33 But Professor Childs’ Exodus is a pioneer work, so far as
the production of a full-scale scholarly commentary along these lines is
concerned. It is not to be compared with the undisciplined puerilities
of Wilhelm Vischer a generation ago.34 In a day when it is proclaimed
that ‘historical biblical criticism is bankrupt’35-a proposition with
which I disagree, while I can understand the mood which lies behind
it - Professor Childs’ ‘canonical’ exegesis might point a way forward.
But if it does, the way forward will be in essence the way of plenary
interpretation- that is to say, a way which does not break loose from
the primary sense, but expounds the text so as to reveal its relevance to
human life today, just as the successive generations intervening
between the original readers and ourselves have heard it speak to their
varying conditions.
THE HERMENEUTICAL CIRCLE
Frequent reference is made nowadays to the ‘hermeneutical circle’, an
expression which bears more than one meaning. It may denote the
circular movement from exegesis to theology and back from theology
to exegesis; or it may denote the interpretative process flowing from
subject to object (i.e. from the reader to the text), or indeed from
object to subject, and then back again, as the one interacts with the
other. 36 Any such circular motion must be treated circumspectly.
Naturally, the more one studies (say) Paul, the more one’s understanding of Paul’s thought grows, so that it becomes easier to determine
what Paul means in any one passage of his correspondence. Yet we
should remember that Paul was accused of vacillation by some of his
critics, and that he himself speaks of being ‘all things to all’ (1 Cor.
33 The review by a Christian scholar, J. A. Wharton (‘Splendid Failure or Flawed
Success?‘) in Interprefurinn 29 (1975), pp.266-276, is more critical than that by a
Jewish scholar, J. Neusner, in Journal ofJewish Studies 27 (1976), p.91.
14 C/W. Vischer, The Witness ofthr Old Testment to Christ, I, E.T. (London, 1949);
see also p. 101, n.9.
‘s W. Wink, The Bible m Humn Trms-form&n (Philadelphia, 1973), p. 1.
36 CfH. Diem, Doquzriu, E.T. (Edqnburgh, 1959), pp.236ff.;M. Heidegger, A u
Introdur-tion to Metaphyslrs, E.T. (Oxford, 1959), pp. 146ff.; E. Fuchs, Marl,qrv
Hrmmwtrk (Tiibingen, 1968), pp.79ff.
331
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
PRIMARY SENSE AND PLENARY SENSE
While, then, there is a reasonable presumption that he will not
be wildly or radically inconsistent with himself, we must be prepared
to find some places where he expresses himself atypically, and these
cannot simply be interpreted in terms of our reconstruction of
‘Paulinism’. The need for caution is all the greater when the attempt is
made to construct a system of biblical theology on the exegesis of
several biblical authors and then to use that system as an exegetical
tool.
Such attempts were commonplace in the generations before Peake,
but in more recent times we have to deal with a tendency which lays
itself open to the same objection. Rudolf Bultmann insisted that
exegesis without presuppositions is impossible, and his own work
illustrates that proposition. 37 He set out on the exegetical enterprise
with the presuppositions of Heideggerian existentialism and found
those presuppositions confirmed in the biblical text. It must be
conceded that, when one attempts in this way to simplify or summarize
Professor Bultmann’s hermeneutical procedure, it is all too easy to do
him injustice: this I should be very sorry to do. His name is one that
ought never to be mentioned without profound respect. But he
himself affirmed as explicitly as possible that Martin Heidegger and
other existential philosophers ‘are saying the same thing as the New
Testament and saying it quite independently’.38
But whether the hermeneutical circle moves in the realm of the
older scholasticism or in that of the newer existentialism, it can very
readily become what logicians call a vicious circle, in which, by
virtually assuming what requires to be proved, one arrives at the point
from which one set out.
I think we can tell where Dr Peake would have stood on this issue,
and I am sure I should gladly take my place beside him. Inevitably we
come to the Bible with our presuppositions. But the wise course is to
recognize those presuppositions, to make allowance for them, to
ensure that they do not exercise an undue influence on our understanding of what we read. It is the unconscious and unsuspected
presuppositions that are harmful. There are, indeed, some people who
say, ‘Yes, I have my presuppositions, but then, you have yours; if you
read the Bible in the light of your inadequate presuppositions, I am
entitled to read it in the light of my much more adequate ones.’ But if
I suspect that someone’s false conclusions are due to the false presuppositions with which he started, that does not justify me in letting
my own assumptions, true though I may believe them to be, play a
part in my exegetical work which they have no right to play.
Dr Peake was widely criticized in his day by people who believed
that his conclusions were incompatible with biblical inspiration.
What they often meant was that his conclusions were incompatible
with what they understood biblical inspiration to involve. Let biblical
inspiration or any other aspect of biblical authority be stated in the
most emphatic and all-embracing fashion: any such statement is
devoid of real content unless one discovers, by critical and exegetical
study, what the biblical text says and means. Our biblical theology
must depend on our exegesis, not vice versa. It we allow our exegesis to
be controlled by tbeologoumena, we shall quickly find ourselves involved
in circular reasoning. I have friends who say, ‘Well, yes; but then all
theological reasoning is circular; let us simply make sure that we get
into the right circle. ’ I have no wish to accompany them on this magic
roundabout.
To approach the exegetical task with unchecked theological
assumptions is to find those assumptions reflected back to us from the
text. There was a time when Paul and John and the writer to the
Hebrews could not be allowed to express their independent insights:
they had to say virtually the same thing and be fitted into a comprehensive theological system. 39 Today indeed there has been a tendency
to go to the opposite extreme: to emphasize the differences among the
New Testament writers to a point where their common and fundamental witness to Jesus as Lord has been overlooked. But this unity of
witness is a unity in diversity, and it is the province of exegesis t o
bring out the diversity within the comprehensive unity.40 Even in the
works of one writer some diversity may be discerned: there is a danger,
for example, of missing the distinctive emphases of Galatians and 1
Corinthians if both documents are accommodated to a single corpus of
teaching called Paulinism.4’
It is not given to mortals to attain complete objectivity-not even
9:Z).
” R.
Bultmann, ‘Is Exegesis without Presuppositions Possible?’ E.T. in Existem
~ru/Furth. ed. S. M. Ogden(London, 1964), pp.342-351.
.3X R. Bultmann, ‘New Testament and Mythology’ in K~J~VU anJ Myth, ed. H.
W. Bartsch, E.T., I (London, 1953), p.25.
” C/A. S. Peake, The Bib/e, p.440.
“’ C/J. D. G. Dunn, Unity and Dizwrzty in the New Tcrtmmt (London, 1977).
” Cf J. W. Drane, Prod; Lihrvtine OY Lqdisti (London, 1974), which discerns a
dialectic process in Paul’s capital epistles; also H. Hiibner, Lrrc’ *YI Prr//l’~ Thw/,~ht.
E.T. (Edinburgh, 1984), for differences in emphasis between Galatians and Remans.
THE
CANON
OF
SCRIPTURE
mathematicians. But one can at least acknowledge objectivity as an
ideal and endeavour to approach it as nearly as possible, instead of
decrying it as a misleading will o’ the wisp. Theology is more than the
application of grammar to the text, but it cannot dispense with the
application of grammar to the text as a basic procedure.
I have known classical teachers and colleagues to engage occasionally
in biblical exegesis. They may have been Christians; they may have
been agnostics. But when, without theologicalpartipris, they applied
to the New Testament documents the interpretative skills acquired in
their classical studies, their contributions, in my experience, have
always been illuminating. And why? Because they helped to uncover
the primary sense of the documents.
The conclusion of the whole matter, as I see it, is this: the way to
ensure that the extended interpretation or existential application of
the text does not get out of hand is to determine the primary sense
(even when it is complex) and keep it constantly in view. The plenary
sense, to be valid, must be the plenary sense of the biblical text: it will
remain that if its relationship and consistency with the primary sense
be maintained. Hermeneutic must never be divorced from exegesis.
This was something on which Dr Peake insisted in his own time and in
his own way: we shall do well if we follow his example.42
to
42 This lecture was first published in Epworth Review4 (1977), pp.94-109.
BIBLIOGRAPHY *
ACHTEMEIER, P., The Inspiration of Scriptwe: Problems and Proposals
(Philadelphia, 1980).
ALAND, K., The Problem of the New Testament Canon (London, 1962).
ANDERSON,G. W. (ed.), Tradition and Interpretation (Oxford, 1979).
APPEL, N., Kanon and Kircbe (Paderborn, 1964).
BARCLAY, W., The Making of the Bible (London/New York, 1961).
BARR,J., Holy Scripture: Canon, Authority, Criticism (Oxford, 1983).
BARTON, J . , Oracles of God: Perceptions of Ancient Prophecy in Israel after the
Exile (London, 1986).
BECKWITH, R. T., The Old Testament Canon of the New Testament Church
(London, 1985).
BLACKMAN, E. C., Marcion and his I&ence (London, 1948).
BLENKINSOPP, J., Propbery and Canon (South Bend, Indiana, 1986).
BUHL, F. P. W., Canon and Text of the Old Testament, E.T. (Edinburgh,
1892).
CAMPENHAUSEN, H. von, The Formation of the Christian Bible, E.T.
(London, 1972).
CARSON,D.A., and WOODBRIDGE, J. D. (ed.), Hermeneutics, Authority
and Canon (Leicester, 1986).
CHARTERIS, A. H., Canonicity: Early Testimonies to the Canonical Books oftbe
New Testament (Edinburgh, 1880).
CHILD& B. S., Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (London, 1979).
CHILD& B. S., The New Testament as Canon: An Introduction (London, 1984).
* This bibliography lists books only. Many important articles ate cited above in the
footnotes.
334
335
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
CORNILL, C. H., Introdrztion to the Canonical Books ofthe Old Testament, E.T.
(London, 1907).
CROSS, F.M., The Anhent Library of Qumran and Modern Bibhcal Studies
(Grand Rapids, “1980).
DAVIDSON, S., The Canon of the Bible (London, ’ 1880).
DIEM, H., Das Problem des Scbrifkanons (Zollikon-Zurich, 1952).
EISSFELDT, 0.) The Old Testament: An Introduction, E.T. (Oxford, 1965).
EVANS, C.F., Is ‘Holy Scripture’ Christian? and Other Questions (London,
197 1).
FARMER, W. R., Jesus and the Gospel: Tradition, Scripture and Canon
(Philadelphia, 1982).
FARMER, W. R., and FARKASFALVY, D. M., The Formation of the New
Testament: An Ecumenical Approach (New York, 1983).
FILSON, F. V., Which Books Belong in the Bible? (Philadelphia, 1957).
FLESSEMAN-VAN LEER, E., Tradition and Scripture in the Early Cburcb
(Assen, 1955).
GAMBLE, H. Y., The Neuv Testament Canon: Its Making and Meaning
(Philadelphia, 1985).
GAUSSEN, L., The Canon of the Holy Scriptures, E. T. (London,3 1863).
GOODSPEED, E.J., The Formation of the New Testament (Chicago, 1926).
GRANT, R. M., The Earhest Lives ofJesus (London, 1961).
GRANT, R. M., The Formation of the New Testament (London, 1965).
GREGORY, C. R., Canon and Text of the Neul Testament (Edinburgh, 1907).
HALDANE, R , The Books of the Old and New Testament Proved to be Canonical
(Edinburgh, ‘1877).
HANSON, R. P. C., Origen’s Doctrine of Tradition (London, 1954).
HANSON, R P. C. , Allego y and Event: A Study of the Sources and Significance
of Or&en’s Interpretation of Scripture (London, 1959).
HANSON, R. P. C., Tradition in the Early Cburcb (London, 1962).
HARNACK, A. von, The Origin oftbe New Testament, E. T. (London, 1925).
HARNACK, A. von, Marcion: Das Evangelium vom fremden Gott (Leipzig,
1921, 21924).
HARRIS, R. L., Inspiration andcanonicity of the Bible(Grand Rapids, 1957).
HAWTHORNE, G. F., and BETZ, 0. (ed.), Tradition and Znterpretation in
the Neuf Testament (Grand Rapids, 1987).
HENNECKE, E., and SCHNEEMELCHER, W., New Testament Apocvypha,
E. T. edited by R. McL. Wilson, I, II (London, 1963, 1965).
KASEMANN, E. (ed), Das Nene Testament ah Kanon (Gottingen, 1970).
KATZ, P., Pbilo’r Bible (Cambridge, 1950).
KELLY, J. F., Why i.1 there a New Testament? (London, 1986).
KLINE, M. G., The Str//ct//re ofBibli& A//thority (Grand Rapids, 1972).
KNOX, J., Alar&z and the Neu, Testament (Chicago, 1942).
L E I M A N , S . Z . The Canonrzation 14. Hebreu’ Shptnre: The Tahudic a n d
Michbir- El’idenxe (Hamden, CT, 1976).
336
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LEIPOLDT, J., Gescbirbte des neutestamenthcben Canons, I, II (Leipzig, 1907,
1908; reprinted 1974).
LIGHTFOOT, J. B., Essays on the Work Entitled ‘Supernatural Religion
(London, 1889).
LONNING, I., Kanon im Kanon: Zum dogmatischen Grundlagenproblem rlrs
neutestamentlicben Kanons (Oslo, 1972).
MARCH, W. E. (ed.), Texts and Testaments: Critical Essays on the Bible and the
Early Christian Fathers (San Antonio, TX, 1980).
MARSHALL, I. H. (ed.), New Testament Interpretation (Leicester, 1977).
MARXSEN, W., The New Testament as the Cburcbi Book, E. T. (Philadelphia,
1972).
MEADE, D. G., Pseudonymity and Canon (Tiibingen/Grand Rapids, 19861 _
7).
METZGER, B. M., The Canon of the New Testament (Oxford, 1987).
MITTON, C. L., The Formation of the Pauline Corptl~ of Letters (London,
1955).
MOULE, C. F. D., The Birth oftbe New Testavnent(London, ‘1981).
NEUSNER, J., Christian Faith and the Bible ofJudaism: The Judaic Encounter
with Scripture (Grand Rapids, 1988).
OHLER, A., Studying the Old Testament from Tradition to Canon (Edinburgh,
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OHLIG, K. -H. , Die tbeologiscbe Begriindung des nezltestamenthcben Kanons in der
alten Kircbe (Dusseldorf, 1972).
OPPEL, H. , KANOAJ: Zur Bedeutungsgesrhicbte ah Wortes und seiner lateiniscben
Entsprecbtrngen (Regular-Nonwa) = Pbilolog~~s. S u p p . - B a n d 3 0 . 4
(Leipzig, 1937).
OVERBECK, F., Zur Gescbicbte des Kanons (Chemnitz, 1880, reprinted
1965).
REGUL, J., Die antimarcionitiscben Evangelienprologe = Aus der Geschichte
der lateinischen Bibel, 6 (Freiburg, 1969).
REUSS, R. E., The History of the Canon of the Holy Scriptures in the Christian
Church, E. T. (Edinburgh, 1891).
ROBINSON, D. W. B., Faith’s Framework: The Structure of New TeStatwnt
Theology (Exeter, 1985).
ROWLEY, H. H., The Growth of the Old Testament (London, 1950).
RYLE, H. E., The Canon of the Old Testament (London, 21904).
SANDAY, W. , The Gospels in the Second Century (London, 1876).
SANDERS, J. A., Torah and Canon (Philadelphia, 1972).
SANDERS, J. A., Canon and Community (Philadelphia, 1984).
SANDERS, J. A., From Sacred Story to Sawed Text: Canon as Paradigm
(Philadelphia, 1987).
SMITH, W. R., The 01d Testament in theJewish Church (London, ’ 1895).
SOUTER, A., The Text and Canon of the NKU~ Testament (London, 19 13,
revised by C. S. C. Williams, 1954).
337
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
SPARKS, H. F. D., The Growth of the New Testament (London, 1952).
STONEHOUSE, N. B., The Apocalypse in the Ancient Church (Goes, 1929).
SUNDBERG. A. C., Jr., The Old Z’estament in the Early Church = Harvard
Theological Studies, 20 (Cambridge, MA, 1964).
THERON, D. J., The Evidence of Tradition (London, 1957).
WEINGREEN, J., From Bible to Misbna (Manchester, 1976).
WESTCOTT, B. F., The Bible in the Church (London, 1864, 91885)
WESTCOTT, B. F., A General Swvey of the History of the Canon of the NW
Testament (London, “1874).
WILDEBOER, G., The Origin of the Canon of the Old Testament, E. T.
(London, 1895).
ZAHN, Th. van., Gescbicbte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, I, II (Erlangen,
1888-92).
ZAHN, Th. von., Grundriss der Gescbicbte des netltestamentlicben Kanons
(Leipzig, *1904).
INDEX
Abbot, G. (archbishop of
Canterbury) 108
Abel 31
Abgat (king of Edessa) 24 1
A b r a h a m 20,66
Abravanel, I. 100
Achtemeier, P. 268, 335
132f., 151, 152,
Actsofthe Apostles
160, 162f., 176, 190,294
Adulterous woman 207, 289
Aelfric (abbot of Cerne) 239
A&us 2 1 4
Africa (Roman province) 183
Africanus, Sextus Julius 76,91, 92,
310
Agrapba 19 1
Aland, K. 27Of., 286, 335
Alcuin (of York) 222
Alexander (the Great) 43
Alexandria 31,43-47, 72, 75, 77,
130, 145, 186-196, 219, 302f.
195, 269, 293, 311
Allegorization
Aiogoi 169, 175, 178
Ambrose (bishop ofMilan) 87, 222,
223f.
Ambrosiaster 184, 222, 223f.
American Bibles 111
Amphilochius (bishop of Iconium) 8 1,
212f.
Analogy of faith 272
Anderson, C. P. 130
Anderson, G. W. 335
Andrew, Acts of 163,200, 202,234
A n g e l ofYahweh 62,65,66
Annianus (of Alexandria) 309
Anonymous documents 256f.
Anselm of Iaon 225
Antioch (on theorontes) 81, 121, 12,
129
Antioch (Pisidian) 49
Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) 38,48,
216, 291, 320,325f.
Antiquity (criterion) 259f.
Antitheses (Marcion’s) 136, 139
Antoninus Pius (emperor) 127, 135,
166
Apocalypse of John (see Revelation)
Apocalyptic writings 298
Apocrypha(0.T.) 48,75-77,79,80,
90, 91, 93, 96, 97, 102, 103, 106114,209,210,211,235,260,269,
275,299
339
INDEX
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Apollonius (anti-Montanist) 190
Apollos (of Alexandria) 243, 3 10
Apostles 119, 120
Apostolic Constitutions 250, 263
Apostolic faith 260
Apostolicity (criterion) 164, 256,
257, 258, 259,263, 264,265,
276f., 287
Appel, H. 335
Aqiba (rabbi) 6 7
Aquila (translator) 50, 53, 73, 8 8
Aquinas, Thomas 18, 237, 3 19
A r a m a i c 87,92
Aratus (poet) 188
Aristeas, Letter of 23, 44, 70
Aristion 119
Aristotle 3 12
Artaxerxes I (king) 33
Articles, Thirty-Nine 105f., 248f.
‘As originally given’ 287-289
Ascension of Isaiah 5 1
Assumption of Moses 5 1, 77
Athanasius 17, 77-80,92,93, 206,
208-210,211,213,215,220,221,
223,249, 259,268
Athens 49
Aucher, J.-B. 128
Audet, J.-P. 72
Augustine (bishop of Hippo) 9 4 - 9 6 ,
97, 184, 222, 227,230-232,233,
237, 249, 258, 266, 293
Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus
(emperor) 170
Authorized (King James) Version 108
Autographa 255f.
Avircius (Aberkios) Marcellinus 22,
167, 281
Az’azel 8 6
Bacon, F. 319f.
Bainton, R. H. 102, 244
Balaam 325
B a r Anina 8 9
Barclay, W. 62, 274, 282, 335
Barnabas 49, 183, 187, 191
Barnahus. Letterof 122, 178, 190,
191, 194, 199, 206, 218f.. 225,
227, 228, 3 10
Barnard, L. W. 201, 309
Barnes, T. D. 180, 181
Barr, J. 60, 94, 272, 335
BarSalibi 1 6 8 , 1 7 7
Barthelemy, D . 4 5
Barton, J. 9, 31.41, 335
Basilides 122, 128, 161, 167
Basilides, Gospel according to 194
Bauer, W. 187,241,309, 3 1 0
Baur, F. C. 143
Becke, E . 1 0 3
Beckwith, R. T. 9, 34, 39, 72, 81,
82,91,335
Bellarmine, R. (cardinal) 2 4 2
Ben Sira, Jeshua 31, 33, 35,45,48,
91,95, 102, 214
Bentzen, A . 3 4
Best, E. 274, 278
Bethlehem 88
Beza, T. 107
Bible Societies 11 If.
Bishops’ Bible 107, 108, 249
Blackman, E. C. 135, 335
Blahoslav, J. 240
Blenkinsopp, J. 335
Bonar, A. A. 272
Boniface I (pope) 233
Bonnardiere, A.-M. le 97
Bornkamm, G. 203
Brooke, G. J. 58
Brown, P. R. L. 97
Bruce, F. F. 52, 58, 125, 140, 172,
189, 201, 228, 288, 289, 294
Bruggen, J. van 286
Bruyne, D. de 144, 154
Bryennios, Ph. 72
Buchanan, E. S. 161
Buhl, F. P. W. 82, 335
Bultmann, R. 274, 332
Bunyan, J. 100, 282
Burgon, J. W. 286, 289, 305f.
Burkitt, F. C.
136, 143, 203
Byzantium 203
Caesarea 72f., 75, 194, 197
Caird, G. B. 317
Cajetan, J. T. de Vio (cardinal)
242f.
340
100,
Calvin, J. 102, 107, 246f., 249, 273
Campenhausen, H. von 144, 147,
149, 173, 177, 195,275, 278, 335
Canon 77 et passim
Canon, Alexandrian 44f.
Canonical criticism 284-287, 324
Canonical exegesis 291-294, 324,
33Of.
Carpocrates, Carpocratians 301, 312,
313, 314,315
Carroll, K. L. 205
Carson, D. A. 335
Carthage 83, 168, 184
Carthage, Councils of 97, 223, 269
Cassiodorus 1 9 0
Castellio, S. 102
Cataphrygians 161, 167, 168
Catholic epistles 173, 190, 214f.,
226,235,242
Catholicity 150-154, 188, 26lf.,
272f., 275-277,279,289
Cerinthus 168, 257
Chadwick, H. 301
Chapman, J. 97, 169, 174
Charteris, A. H. 335
Charlesworth, J. H. 75, 85, 86
Cheltenham canon 2 19f.
C h e r u b i m l75,225f., 2 6 7
Childs, B. S. 286,288, 33Of., 335
Chronicles 30, 3 1, 69, 90
Chrysostom, John (bishop of
Constantinople) 2 14
Cirta 217
Clement ofAlexandria 22, 162, 173,
186- 192, 194,276,292,301-315
ClementofRome 121, 132, 165, 179,
191, 193,207, 227,247,266
Clement of Rome, Letters of 12 If., 19 1,
207,268
Clementine literature 152
Clements, R. E. 37
Clermont list 218f
Clines, D. J. A. 30, 287
Closed canon 22f., 177, 250f.
Cobb, J. B. 330
Codex, codices 30,47, 68, 129, 130,
203f.
Codex Alexandrinw 69, 206f., 2 10
Codex Bezae 2 8 6
Codex Boernerianus 237
Codex Claromontanus 2 18f.
Codex Sinaiticus
69, 204, 205f., 2 10
Codex Vaticanus 69, 204, 2 0 6
Coleridge, S. T. 63
Collins, J. J. 86
Common Bible 113
Comphtensian Polyglat 2 4 2
Congar, Y. M.-J. 320
Constantine I (emperor) 197, 203f.,
205
Constantinople 203, 2 14
Constantinople, Council of 88
C o r i n t h I29
Corinthian correspondence 293
Corinthians, Third Epistle to 2 15, 239
Cornill, C. H. 335
Corssen, P. 144
Costello, C. J. 233
Couchoud, P.-L. 137
Covenant
19, 20, 21, 22, ISOf.
Covenant, Book of the 20, 36f.
Covenants, Old and New 20-22, 173
Coverdale, M. 103, 246
Creed, baptismal 172
Crehan, F. J. 104, 105
Criteria of canonicity 255-269, 276283, 287
Cross, F. M. 38, 41, 336
Cullmann, 0. 280, 282
Cyprian (bishop ofcarthage) 58,87,
164, 184f., 233
Cyril (bishop of Jerusalem) 80, 2 lOf.,
212f.
Dahl, N. A. 143, 163,262
Damasus (pope) 88,97,225
Daniel, bookof 27, 32, 37, 50, 291,
325
Danielou, J. (cardinal) 3 13
Dardanus 226
David (king) 32, 49, 87, 323
Davids, P. H. 52
Davidson, S. 336
Davies, H. 157
Deanesly, M. 100
Deissmann, G. A. 50
341
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
309,
Demettius (bishop ofAlexandria)
310
Destruction of scriptures 38, 2 16f.
‘Deutetocanonical’ 105
Deuteronomy 37
Diatessaron 127f., 215, 236f.
Dice-Players, Against 185
Didarh7 23,72,79,90, 1 2 4 , 1 7 8 ,
185, 188, 191, 194,209,211,225,
299
Diem, H. 33 1,336
Dionysius (bishop of Alexandria) 168,
195f.,200,228,259,260
Dionysius (bishop of Corinth) 122,
153, 154,268
Disputed and undisputed books 193,
198-203,231,243,244,276
Dobschiitz, E. von 97, 235
Docetism 260f.
Dodd, C. H. 57,322
Donfried, K. P. 121, 131
Douay Bible 105
Douglas, M. 34
Drane, J. W. 293, 333
Dunn, J. D. G. 274f., 333
Duta-Eutopos 1 2 8
Ebionites 50, 176
Ecclesiastes 35, 50
Eck, J. M. von 101
Edward VI (king) 249
Edward VII (king) 113
Egyptians, Gospel according to the 189,
191, 194, 300, 308, 31Of., 312
Ehthatdt, A. A. T. 159, 161, 162,
187, 197,242
Eissfeldt, 0. 336
Election 296
Eleuthetus (bishop of Rome) 170
Eliezet ben Hytkanos 118
Elijah, Apocalypse of 52, 93
Eliot, J. 111
Elizabeth I (queen) 105, 107, 249
Ellet, V . 2 4 4
Ellison, H. L. 282
Emergent Catholicism 270, 272
Enctatites 127
Enoch, booksof 39, 51, 84, 85,86,
182, 191,243,292,298
Ephesians, Epistle to 13 1
Ephesus 65, 129, 200,227
Ephesus, Council of 28 1
Ephtem Sytus 128,215
Epimenides (of Crete) 188
Epiphanes (son of Catpoctates) 3 13,
315
Epiphanius (bishop ofSalamis) 72,76,
81, 149, 169, 186,213f.
Epistle of the Aposths 149, 299f.
Erasmus, D. 102,222,240,242,245
Etdt, W. 221
E&as books 47,85,98,99
Essenes 40,46
Esther, bookof 35, 39,47f., 50, 71,
79,80, 101,287
Eusebius 22, 70, 7 1, 73, 74, 119,
124, 125, 126, 154,156, 167, 168,
170-174, 186, 187,189, 190,191,
192, 193, 196, 197-205,219,229,
241,259,261, 289,292,293,308,
309,310,311
Evans, C. F. 123,336
Exodus, bookof 330
Exsupetius (bishop of Toulouse) 97,
234
Ezekiel, bookof 35, 175, 291, 298
Ezra (scribe) 85
Ezra, Apocalypseof 36,47,85,91,298
Fahey, M. A. 184
Farmer, W. R. 205, 217,289, 336
Fatter, A. M. 60
Fenn, E . 1 1 1
Fenton, F. 289
Fetguson, E. 158
Fetguson, J. 222
Filastet (bishop ofBtescia) 223, 238
F&on, F. V. 336
Flesseman-vanLeer
63,264,275,337
Flora, Letter to 149
Florence, Council of 104, 240
Foster, K. 237
Ftazet, J. G. 326
Freedman, D. N. 300
Fuchs, E. 331
342
INDEX
Gaius (Roman presbyter) 168, 175,
178, 287
Gamaliel I (rabbi) 39
Gamble, H. Y. 131, 143, 336
Gardner, H. 59
Gaussen, L . 3 3 6
Geiger, G. 222
Gelasian decree 97, 202, 234f.
Geneva Bible 107f., 249
Gibson, M. D. 215
Gnostics, Gnosticism 136, 167, 171,
187, 260,277f., 299f., 311-313
Gobatus, S. 176
Gog 291, 326
Good News Bible 114
Goodspeed, E. J.
130, 131, 177, 336
Gordon. C. H. 319
GospeI,‘foutfold 124-129, 175, 189,
292, 311
Gospel of Truth 146- 148
Gottwald, N. K. 321
Grant, R. M. 76, 127, 149, 194,300,
301,336
Great Bible 103f., 246, 249
Gregory the Great (pope) 239
Gregory (bishop of Nazianzus) 8 1,
211, 213
Gregory (bishop of Nyssa) 138
Gregory, C. R. 231,336
Gtobel, K. 146, 148
Guilding, A. E.
117
Gundty, R. H. 53, 290
Gutjaht, F. S. 175
Habakkuk 325
Haldane, R . 1 1 2 , 3 3 6
Hall, B. 102,243
Hananiah b-en Hezekiah 35
Hanson, A. T. 52,61
Hanson, R. P. C. 17,73,76,77,
143, 150, 192, 195,267, 268, 301,
336
Harmonization 292f.
Hatnack, A. von 130, 133, 134, 140,
144, 146, 152,153, 154, 159, 162,
165, 166, 168, 177, 181,219, 275,
290, 336
Harris, J. R. 57, 62
Harris, R. L. 336
Harvey, W. W. 171,300
Hatch, W. H. P. 130
Hawthorne, G. F. 336
Heard, R. G. 127
Hebrew Bible 19, 27, 28, 29, 31, 36,
53, 54,74,77,80, 89,275, 324,
325
‘Hebrew verity’ 89,93,94, 104
Hebrews (cultural community) 45
Hebrews, Epistle to 117, 130, 131,
132, 165, 176, 177, 182f., 185,
190, 193, 198,204-206,219,220,
221, 223,225, 226f., 231,232,
233, 237, 242, 243,244,245, 247,
258, 261,277, 294, 310
Hebrews, Gospel according to 128, 19 1,
194, 199,308, 310
Hedibia 227
Hegesippus 71, 123, 172
Heidegget, M. 332
Heliand 2 3 6
Hellenists 45, 49
Hennecke, E. 238, 336
Henry, Patrick 278
Henry, Paul 222
Heretics 269
Hera&s
195, 3 10
Hetacleon 128
Hetmas, Shepherdof 77, 79,90, 166,
174, 178, 183, 185, 191, 194, 199,
206, 209,210, 217,218,224, 229,
259
Hetmeneutical circle 33 l-333
Hetveus Butgidolensis (Hetvey of
Dole) 229
HexapLa 73, 75, 88
Hietapolis 157
Hilaty (bishop of Poitiets) 87,90, 22 1
Hills, E. F. 286
Hippo, Council of 97, 232f.
Hippolytus 122, 128, 162, 168, 176,
177f., 201,211
Historical criticism 295f.
Hooke, S. H. 327
Hooker, M. D. 294
Hott, F. J. A. 286
Hosea 3 2 7 f .
343
THE
CANON
OF
Howard, W. F. 232
Howe, E. M. 202
Hiibner, H . 3 3 3
Hugh of St. Victor 99
Ignatius (bishopofAntioch) 121, 131,
174, 266f., 301
India 187, 203
Inge, W. R. 251
Inner canon 196,244,25 1,270-272,
273
Innocent I (pope) 97,234
Inspiration 18, 109, 164, 188, 192,
263-268,280-283,287
Interpretative tradition 60, 63, bbf.,
330
Irenaeus (bishop of Lyon) 23,7 1, 126,
135, 147, 154, 156, 170-177,267,
300, 312, 314, 315
Isaac 66
Isaiah (prophet) 5 1, 29 1, 320, 326
Isho ‘dad ofMerv 215
Jabneh, Jamnia 3 4 - 3 6
Jackson, H. L. 291
Jacob 66, 326-329
James (the Just) 53, 152, 172, 223,
227, 258
Janzu, Apocyphon of 2 3 4
James, Epistle of 243, 247
James, M. R. 235,241
Jason of Cyrene 46
Jeremiah 20, 37,291
Jerome 41,48, 76, 83, 87-94,98,
99, 104-106, 127, 177, 182, 183,
194, 198,222,225-229,232,238,
240, 245, 249, 258,266, 269, 299.
325
Jerusalem Bible 113
J o b 32,33
John (Baptist) 137
John (disciple) 119
John, Acts of 163, 200, 202
John, Apocy~hon of 2 9 9
John, Epistlesof 165, 193, 220, 223,
227f.. 235,245,259
John, Gospel of 125-129, 155, 159,
162, 168f., 174, 175, 179, 189,
SCRIPTURE
195, 196, 291,292f., 306f.
John of Damascus 168, 304
John of Sahsbury
239
Jones, Mary 111
Jongeling, B. 39
Josephus 23,32,33,38,4Of.,41,44,
46,250,280
J o s h u a 62,66
Jubilees, BOOR of 3 9
Judaizers 135, 143
Judas Iscariot 58
Judas Maccabaeus 38, 39,46,74
Jude, Epistle of 5 1,85, 182, 193,
235, 243,258f., 292, 313
Judith 84f.
Jugie, M. 82
Jukes, A. 272
Julius I (pope) 22 1
Justification by faith 243, 271, 272
Justin Martyr 45, 58,62, 63,65, 66,
70,86, 126, 127, 129, 174, 186,
200,263,328
Kahle, P. 41, 53
Karlstadt, A. R. Bodenstein van 101,
240, 245
Kasemann, E. 152,272f., 3 3 6
Katz, P. 47, 165, 336
Kelly, J. F. 336
Kelly, J. N. D. 94
King, M. L. 282
Kline, M. G. 336
Knopf, R. 238
Knox, J. 130, 131, 135, 137,336
Kraeling, E. G. L28
Kralice Bible 240
Kruger, G. 238
Kung, H . 2 7 3
344
Lachmann, K. 286
Lactantius 2 16
Lake, K. 204
Lamentations 32 1
Lampe 361
Ianfranc (archbishop of
Canterbury) 287
Lange, N. R. M. de 75
Laodicea, Council of 80, 97, 2 10
INDEX
Laodicvans Epistle to
139, 160, lbbf.,
237-240
Latin Bible 83-99, 183f., 225-235
Lattey, C. C. 320
Laud, W. (archbishop of
Canterbury) 108
Law, H. 272
Lawson, J. 177
Lafevre d’Etaples, J. 240
Leiman, S. Z. 336
Leipoldt, J. 336
Leloir, L . 1 2 8
Leontius of Byzantium 8 1, 2 15
Leucian Acts 202, 234
Lewis, J. P. 34
Libertinism 3 13-3 15
Lietzmann, H. 158, 187, 278
Lieu, J. 1 6 5
Lightfoot, J. B. 119, 156, 159, 174,
197, 238,239, 337
Lightfoot, R. H. 123
Lockwood, W. B. 236
Loewe, H . 2 9 5
Loisy, A . 1 3 7
Lonning, I . 3 3 7
Lucian of Antioch 204
Lucifer (bishop ofcagliari) 223
Luke (physician) 28, 129, 161-163,
190, 197, 237,247,256
Luke, Gospelof 129, 137, 154f., 174,
257,265,274,276
L u t h e r , M . lOIf., 240,243-245,
274
Lutheran tradition 270, 27 1
Lystra 49
Maccabees, books of 48, 5 1, 74, 84f.,
90, 101
Mackintosh, C. H. 272
Macleod, J. 61, 112
MacRae, G. W. 146
Manichaeans 162, 202,2 11
Manson, T. W. 126, 131, 165, 193,
266, 288
Marcan appendix 288f.
March, W. E. 337
Marcion, Marcionites 131, 132, 134m
144, 145, 149, 150-157, 161, 162,
166f., 173, 176, 181, 257, 275
Mark (evangelist) 2 1, 302f., 308f.
Mark, Gospel of 124f., 174, 189,
257, 266, 309, 323
Mark, Secret GoJpeI of 298- 3 15
Mar Saba 3OOf., 304
Marshall, I. H.
138, 277, 337
Marx, A. 100
Marxsen, W. 337
Mary I (queen) 107
Masoretic text 54, 284, 287
Matthew, Gospel of 122, 124, 125,
126, 153, 174,257, 288, 290, 319,
322f.
Matthew, Thomas (Bible
version) 115, 246
Matthias, Gospel of 200, 201
Mat&n, Traditions of 19 1, 201, 234
Maximus of Turin 138
Meade, D. G. 337
Melito (bishop of Sardis) 6 1, 68, 7Of..
180
Memoirs of apostles 70, 263
Menander(poet) 8 4 , 1 8 8
Messiah, messianic prophecy 3 19
Metzger,B. M. 9,62, 113, 121,204,
215, 220,225,228,236,237, 245,
282, 284,289, 337
Meyer, E. 197
Miltiades (Montanist) 161, 167
Mishnah 34, 38, 118
Mitton, C. L. 130, 337
Mommsen, T. 2 19
Monophysites 2 15
Montanus, Montanists 22, 167, 168,
180, 183
M o s e s 20,32,33,41,51,64,65,66,
188, 264,292
Moule, C. F. D. 129, 152, 165, 337
Mowry, L. 130
Miiller, F. Max 18
Munck, J. 301, 308
Muratori, L. A. 158
Muratorian list 81, 153, 158-169,
257,259,261,267
Mystery 59, 277
345
THE CANON
OF
Nachmanides, M. 100
Nag Hammadi documents 145 - 147,
25 1, 277,300
Nehemiah 38
Neill, S. 250, 270
Nepos 195
Nestle, E. 286
Nestorius, Nestorians 215, 281
Neusner, J. 331, 337
New American Bible 113
New English Bible 113
New International Version 114
New Jerusalem Bible 113
New Testament 180
Newton, I. 250
Nicaea, Councils of 77, 239
Nicanor 46
Nicholas V (pope) 242
Nicolaitans 3 13
Neck, A. D. 301
North, C. R. 295, 318
Noth, M. 330
Novatian 79, 83, 179
Nyberg, H. S. 1 2 3
Nygren, A. 5 1
Odahl, C. 205
Odeberg, H . 5 2
Oesterley, W. 0. E. 165
Ohler, A . 3 3 7
Ohlig, K.-H. 337
Old Testament 28, 151, 255, 275
Old Testament in New
Testament 285, 325
Olivetan, P.-R. 103
Onesimus 130
Oppel, H . 3 3 7
Origen 41,72-77, 8 1 , 88,90,91,
93, 177, 190, 191-195, 197,201,
219, 224,264, 268,293,309,310
Orthodox Church 23, 82, 113, 2 1 5
Orthodoxy (criterion) 26Of., 279f.
Overbeck, F. 337
Paisley, I. R. K. 114
Pamphilus 198
Pantaenus 186, 187, 309
Papias (bishop OfHierapolis)
119,
346
INDEX
SCRIPTURE
123, 124-126, 135, 156, 157, 174,
198, 227,257, 288
Papyri, Christian 187, 309
Papyri, Septuagint fragments 45
Papyri, Chester Beatty 68, 129, 130,
139
Papyri, Rylands 1 2 9
Parables of Jesus 322f.
Paraclete 168, 265
Pastoralepistles 130, 131, 132, 138,
163, 176, 190, 274,294
Paul 21,49, 50, 51, 56, 59,61,64,
117, 118,119,120,134f.,137,
147, 151, 160, 161, 172, 180, 184,
188, 189,226, 255,256,257,258,
266,267;271,276,277,291,292,
310, 314,329, 331f.
Paul, Acts of 163, 194, 199, 202,
218f., 239, 261
Pauline corpus 120, 124, 129- 132,
262, 292, 293
Paulinus (bishop of Nola) 225
Peake, A. S. 3 16-334
Pelagius 222
Penry, J . 1 0 9
Pepys, S. 2 3 7
Peshitta 55, 128
Peter 56, 124f., 152, 153, 172, 189,
256, 259,266, 267, 302, 310
Peter, Acts of 162, 163, 202, 261
Peter, Apocalypseof 161, 190, 191,
l99,218f., 261, 308
Peter, Epistlesof 165, 176, 177, 193,
220, 227,247, 251,259,263,292
Peter, Gospel of 164, 2OOf., 260
Peter, Judgment of 224f.
Peter, Prebing of 191, 194, 308
Peter, writings ascribed to 259, 308
Pharisees 34,4 1
Philip (evangelist) 56
Philo (of Alexandria) 44,46,61, 166,
267, 268, 309, 328
Photius 176,202
Pickering, F. P. 59
Pickering, W. N. 286
Pistis Sop&a 162, 299
PiusI(pope) 145, 161, 166
Pius XII (pope) 288
Plato, Platonism 65, 188, 3 12, 3 14
Plenary sense 3 17-334
Ploeg, J. P. L. van der 39
Pole, R. (cardinal) 248
Polybius (historian) 197
Polycarp(bishopofSmyma) 122, 135,
171, 186, 187
Pothinus (bishop of Lyon) 17 I
Prayer of Manasseb
98, 102, 103
Priestly legislation 27 1
Primasius 100
Pro&s (Montanist) 1 6 8
Progressive revalation 296
Prologues, ‘Anti-Marcionite’ 154- 157
Prologues, ‘Marcionite’ 141- 144
Prophecy, Prophets (New
Testament) 120, 255,269f.
Prophecy, Prophets (Old
Testament) 29, 33, 37, 264f.,
271, 280,319f.
Psalms, Psalter (OT) 88, 323f.
Psalms, Prayer Book version 89
Ptolemy dynasty 43
Ptolemy II 50
Ptolemy IV 48
Ptolemy (Valentinian) 148f.
Purvey, J. 100
Pythagoras, Pythagoreanism 3 12,3 14
‘Q’ (Gospel source) 288, 290
Quentel, P. 245
Quesnell, Q . 3 0 1
Quispel, G. 128, 146, 147
$uyr l;“, 38-40,48,57, 58,59
Rabanus Maurus 237
Reading in church 268
‘Received text’ 288
Reformation 101-108, 241-249
Regul, J. 141, 154, 337
Retaliation, law of 295
Reuss, R. E. 337
Revelation (Apocalypse) ofJohn 161,
164, 173, 177, 185, 191, 192,
195f., 198-200, 204f., 210, 213,
214, 215, 226, 227,235, 242,243,
244, 259, 264, 298
Revised Standard Version 113
Revised Version (British, 1881-85;
American, 1901) 113
Rheginus, Epistle to 147f.
RhBne valley 17Of., 3 12
Rhossus 20 1, 260
Riggenbach, E. 222
Roberts, C. H. 68, 129, 187, 309
Robinson, D. W. B. 337
Robinson, J. A. 171, 184
Robinson, J. M. 146, 330
Robinson, T. H. 168
Romans, Epistle to 131, 160
Rome 83, 88, 135f., 145, 151, 177,
189
Rosenthal, E. I. J. 100
Rost, L. 82
Rottmanner, 0. 232
Rowley, H. H. 296,337
Rufinus ofAquileia 77, 89,90,92,
93, 193,224f.
Rule of faith 150, 172,260, 272, 279
Rule of truth 179
Ruwet, J. 80, 191, 194
Ryle, H. E. 36,337
Sadducees 40,41
Salome (disciple) 304,307,3 11, 3 12
Salvation history 280
Samaritan Bible 40,41, 54, 285
Sanday, W. 219, 337
Sanders, J. A. 337
Sayers, D. L. 318
Schafer, K. T. 144
Schleiermacher, F. D. E. 329
Schmithals, W. 130
Schneemelcher, W. 238, 336
Schoeffler, P. 245
Schultz, S. J. 97
Schwartz, E. 97,281
Scillitan martyrs 83, 183
Scroll(s) 30, 47
Semple, W. H. 94
Seneca 240
Septuagint 39,43-67,68-70,88,
92,94,96, 173, 188,285,287
‘Septuagintalplus’ 48,5 1,75,76,80,
83,84,89,90
347
THE CANON OF SCRIPTURE
Serapion (bishop of Antioch) 2OOf.,
260
Servant of Yahweh 56, 294f., 3 18,
321,325
Shakespeare, W. 327
Shepherd, G. 99
Sibylline Oracles 86f. , 19 1
Siker, J. S. 215
Sixtus of Siena 105
Skeat, T. C. 68, 129, 203,206
Skehan, P. W. 93
Smalley, B. 100
Smith, G. A. 276
Smith, M. 300-3 15
Smith, W. R. 273, 337
Snaith, N. H. 271, 273
So/omen, P8aim.r of 70, 207
Son ofMan 57, 86
SongofSongs 35,50,81,84, 1 0 2 ,
276
Souter, A.
10, 94, 161, 220, 221,
223, 232, 337
Sozomen (church historian) 261
Spalatin, G. 102
Sparks, H. F. D. 94, 337
Spicq, C . 2 3 7
Spirit ofGod (Holy Spirit) 264-267,
278, 280-283,290, 321
Spirit, inner witness of 249, 281
Stainer, J. 3 2 1
Stendahl, K. 164, 267, 268
Stephen (protomartyr) 49
Stevenson, J. 217
‘Stone’ texts 57
Stonehouse, N. B. 266,274, 337
Streeter, B. H.
137, 165
Sundberg, A. C. 41,76,81, 158,
166, 205, 268, 338
Sll.r&nna, Hntov of 76, 91, 92, 172
Sutcliffe, E. F. 93, 248
Swete, H. B. 81
Symmachus 50
Synagogue 23, 28, 43, 48f.
Syriac Bible 82, 2 I5
Talmud 30, 118
Targum 44, 53, 54, 285, 295, 325
Tatian 63, 127f., 1 6 5 , 2 9 2
Taverner, R. 103
Taylor, V. 137
Teacher, Rightful (Qumran) 57f.
Temple, F. (archbishop of
Canterbury) 113
Tertullian 22, 58.84-87, 135, 137,
138, 145, 146, 151, 156, 164, 173,
180- 183, 186,257, 269, 3 13
‘Testament’ 19, 18Of., 192
Testimonies 57, 58
Textual criticism 284-286, 287
Thecla 202
Themiso 190
Theodore (bishop of Mopsuestia) 8 1,
2 14f.
Theodotion 50, 92
Theophilus (bishop of An&h) 63,
129
Therapeutae 46, 309
Theron, D. J. 338
Thessalonians, Epistles to 49
Thomas, Acts of 162, 202f., 234
Thonras, Gospelof 162, 188, 191, 200,
201,211,234,251,300,311,312
Three Heavenly Witnesses 245, 288
Tischendorf, C. von 286
Titus (emperor) 38
Tobit 90,92, 1 0 0
Trade&a 2 6 8
Tradition 118f., 123, 172,247, 256,
257,262f., 276,278,279,283,320
Tregelles, S. P. 158, 159, 286
Trent, Council of 104f., 247f
Trigg, J. W. 192
Trypho (Jew) 65f.
Turner, C. H. 97, 219, 266
Tu’elta, Gospel of the 194
Tyndale, W. 102f., 240, 245f.
Unity in diversity 333
Universities and Colleges Christian
Fellowship 287, 288
Unnik, W. C. van 22, 147, 164
Ussher, J. 54, 250
Valens and Valentinian
(emperors) 220
INDEX
Valentinus, Valentinians 145- 148,
15Of., 161, 167, 175, 182,311
Valla, L. 241
Vatican Council I 105
Vespasian (emperor) 38
Victor (bishop ofCapua) 236
Victor I (pope) 83
Victorinus Afer 221-223
Victorinus (bishop of Pettau) 164
Vincentian canon 262
Vischer, W. 101, 331
voss, I. 301
Vulgate 72, 88, 98- 100, 104f., 183,
225-228, 236,243, 247f.
Wallace-Hadrill, D. S. 197
Walton, B. 69
Ware, T. 82
Weingreen, J . 3 3 8
Wesley, C. 321, 329
Westcott, B. F. 100, 192, 214, 286,
338
Western text 285, 305, 307
Westminster Confession of Faith 18,
109-111, 248-250, 273
Wharton, J. A. 331
Whiston, W. 25Of., 263, 285f., 286
Whitgift, J. (archbishop of
Canterbury) 109
Widengren, G. 123
Wildeboer, G . 3 3 8
Wilderness wanderings 60-62
Wiles, M. F. 73, 81, 129
Williamson, H. G. M. 30
Wilson, R. McL. 238, 336
Wilson, R. S. 135
Wink, W. 331
Wintermute, 0. S. 75
Wisdom, Bookof 51, 100, 107, 161,
165, 174, 176
Witness to Christ
323, 324
274f., 278, 290,
Woodbridge, J. D. 421
Woude, A. S. van der 39
Wycliffite versions 100, 239f.
Xenophon (historian) 127
Xerxes (king) 33
Yadin, Y. 40
Yohanan ben Zakkai
34
Zahn, T. 144, 165, 219, 338
Zechariah (prophet) 37
Zechariah (son of Jehoiada) 3 1
Zephaniah, Apocalypse of 75, 191
Zuntz, G. 130, 131
Zwingli, U. 102
HOW DID THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE COME
TO BE RECOGNIZED AS HOLY SCRIPTURE?
WHO DECIDED WHAT THE SHAPE OF
THE CANON SHOULD BE?
WHAT WERE THE CRITERIA THAT
INFLUENCED THESE DECISIONS?
i
After nearly nineteen centuries the canon of Scripture still remains an
issue of debate for Christians and scholars. Protestant Bibles exclude the
Apocrypha while Catholic Bibles include them. On the other hand, Martin
Luther, a father of the Reformation, expressed his reservations about
James being in the canon. And many Christians today, while confessing
the authority of all !kripture, tend to rely on only a few books and
particular themes, essentially ignoring the rest.
Critical issues have been raised by scholarship. Today tbe discovery of
Gnostic-Christian gospels and tractates has caused some to argue that
ecclesiastical parties and politics played a significant role in the formation
of the Christian canon. Biblical criticism asks which form of any given
biblical text is canonical. And proponents of canonical criticism call
interpreters to a new commitment to the unifying principle of the canon.
These are crucial issues for both the church and scholarship. Once
raised, they cannot be ignored. In this new and significant study F. F.
Bruce brings the wisdom of a lifetime of reflection and biblical
interpretation. He was for many years the Rylands Professor of Biblical
Criticism and Exegesis at the University of Manchester in England. He is
the author of numerous books and biblical commentaries including New
_ Testament History, Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free and The Hard Sayings
of Jesus.
ISBN Cl-8308-3258-X
90000
9 780830 812585